Lecture on biotechnology No. 1

Introduction to biotechnology. Environmental, agricultural, industrial biotechnology.

Biotechnological production of proteins, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, interferon.

Question No. 1

Since ancient times, humans have used biotechnology in winemaking, brewing or baking. But the processes underlying these industries remained mysterious for a long time. Their nature became clear only in late XIX- the beginning of the twentieth century, when methods for cultivating microorganisms and pasteurization were developed, and pure lines of bacteria and enzymes were isolated. To designate the various technologies most closely related to biology, such names as “applied microbiology”, “applied biochemistry”, “enzyme technology”, “bioengineering”, “applied genetics”, “applied biology” were previously used. This led to the emergence of a new industry - biotechnology.

French chemist Louis Pasteur proved in 1867 that fermentation is the result of the activity of microorganisms. German biochemist Eduard Buchner clarified that it is also caused by a cell-free extract containing enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions. The use of pure enzymes for processing raw materials gave impetus to the development of zymology. For example, alpha-amylase is required to break down starch.

Made at the same time important discoveries in the field of emerging genetics, without which modern biotechnology would be unthinkable. In 1865, the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel introduced the Brunn Society of Naturalists to his “Experiments on Plant Hybrids,” in which he described the laws of heredity. In 1902, biologists Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri suggested that the transmission of heredity is associated with material carriers - chromosomes. Even then it was known that a living organism consists of cells. The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow complements the cell theory with the principle “every cell is from a cell.” And the experiments of the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt demonstrated that a cell can exist in an artificial environment and separately from the body. The latter's experiments led to the discovery of the role of vitamins, mineral supplements and hormones.

Then there was a word

The year of birth of the term “biotechnology” is considered to be 1919, when the manifesto “Biotechnology of processing meat, fats and milk on large agricultural farms” was published. Its author is the Hungarian agricultural economist, then Minister of Food Karl Ereky. The manifesto described the processing of agricultural raw materials into other food products using biological organisms. Ereki predicted a new era in human history, comparing the discovery of this method with the greatest technological revolutions of the past: the emergence of the productive economy in the Neolithic era and metallurgy in the Bronze Age. But until the late 1920s, biotechnology simply meant the use of microorganisms for fermentation. In the 1930s, medical biotechnology developed. Discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, penicillin, produced from the fungus Penicillium notatum, began to be produced in the 1940s. industrial scale. And in the late 1960s and early 1970s, an attempt was made to combine the food industry with the oil refining industry. British Petroleum has developed a technology for bacterial synthesis of feed protein from oil industry waste.

In 1953, a discovery was made that subsequently caused a revolution in biotechnology: James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered the structure of DNA. And in the 1970s, manipulation of hereditary material was added to biotechnological techniques. In just two decades, all the necessary tools for this were discovered: reverse transcriptase was isolated - an enzyme that allows you to “rewrite” the genetic code from RNA back into DNA, enzymes were discovered for cutting DNA, as well as a polymerase chain reaction for repeated reproduction of individual DNA fragments.

In 1973, the first genetically recombinant organism was created: a genetic element from a frog was transferred to a bacterium. The era of genetic engineering began, which almost immediately ended: in 1975 in the city of Asilomar (USA), at the International Congress dedicated to the study of recombinant DNA molecules, concerns about the use of new technologies were first expressed.

“It was not politicians, religious groups or journalists who sounded the alarm, as one might expect. It was the scientists themselves,” recalled Paul Berg, one of the organizers of the conference and a pioneer in the creation of recombinant DNA molecules. “Many scientists feared that public debate would lead to undue restrictions on molecular biology, but they encouraged responsible debate that led to consensus.” Congress participants called for a moratorium on a number of potentially dangerous studies.

Meanwhile, synthetic biology has evolved from biotechnology and genetic engineering, which deals with the design of new biological components and systems and the redesign of existing ones. The first sign of synthetic biology was the artificial synthesis of transfer RNA in 1970, and today it is already possible to synthesize entire genomes from elementary structures. In 1978, Genentech constructed in the laboratory the E. coli bacterium that synthesizes human insulin. From this moment on, genetic recombination finally entered the arsenal of biotechnology and is considered almost synonymous with it. At the same time, the first transfer of new genes into the genomes of animal and plant cells was carried out. 1980 Nobel laureate Walter Gilbert stated: “We can obtain for medical purposes or commercial use virtually any human protein capable of influencing important functions of the human body.”

In 1985, the first field trials of transgenic plants resistant to herbicides, insects, viruses and bacteria took place. Plant patents appear. Molecular genetics is beginning to flourish, and analytical methods such as sequencing, that is, determining the primary sequence of proteins and nucleic acids, are rapidly developing.

In 1995, the first transgenic plant (the Flavr Savr tomato) was released onto the market, and by 2010 transgenic crops were grown in 29 countries on 148 million hectares (10% of total cultivated land). In 1996, the first cloned animal was born - Dolly the sheep. By 2010, more than 20 species of animals had been cloned: cats, dogs, wolves, horses, pigs, mouflons.

Areas of biotechnology and products obtained with its help

Technology and biotechnology

Technology- these are methods and techniques used to obtain a certain product from the source material (raw materials). Very often, to obtain one product, not one, but several sources of raw materials are required, not one method or technique, but a sequence of several. All the variety of technologies can be divided into three main classes:

Physical and mechanical technologies;

Chemical technologies;

Biotechnology.

In physical and mechanical technologies the source material (raw materials) in the process of obtaining the product changes shape or state of aggregation without changing its chemical composition(for example, wood processing technology for the production of wooden furniture, various methods for producing metal products: nails, machine parts, etc.).

In chemical technologies in the process of obtaining a product, raw materials undergo changes in chemical composition (for example, the production of polyethylene from natural gas, alcohol from natural gas or wood, synthetic rubber from natural gas).

Biotechnology as a science can be considered in two temporal and essential dimensions: modern and traditional, classical.

The latest biotechnology (bioengineering) is the science of genetic engineering and cellular methods and technologies for the creation and use of genetically transformed (modified) plants, animals and microorganisms in order to intensify production and obtain new types of products for various purposes.

In traditional, classic In a sense, biotechnology can be defined as the science of methods and technologies for production, transportation, storage and processing of agricultural and other products using conventional, non-transgenic (natural and breeding) plants, animals and microorganisms, under natural and artificial conditions.

The highest achievement of the latest biotechnology is genetic transformation, transfer of foreign (natural or artificially created) donor genes into recipient cells of plants, animals and microorganisms, production of transgenic organisms with new or enhanced properties and characteristics.

Purpose of biotechnology research- increasing production efficiency and searching for biological systems that can be used to obtain the target product.

Biotechnology makes it possible to reproduce the desired products in unlimited quantities, using new technologies that make it possible to transfer genes into producer cells or into the whole organism (transgenic animals and plants), synthesize peptides, and create artificial vaccines.

Main directions of biotechnology development

The expansion of the areas of application of biotechnology significantly affects the improvement of human living standards (Fig. 1.2). The introduction of biotechnological processes produces results most quickly in medicine, but, according to many experts, the main economic effect will be obtained in agriculture and the chemical industry.

Microarrays, cell cultures, monoclonal antibodies and protein engineering are just a few of the modern biotechnological techniques used at various stages of development of many types of products. Understanding the molecular basis biological processes makes it possible to significantly reduce the costs of development and preparation of production of a certain product, as well as improve its quality. For example, agricultural biotech companies developing insect-resistant plant varieties can measure the amount of protective protein in a cell culture without wasting resources on growing the plants themselves; Pharmaceutical companies can use cell cultures and microarrays to test the safety and effectiveness of drugs, as well as to identify possible side effects in the early stages of drug development.

Genetically modified animals, in whose bodies processes occur that reflect the physiology of various human diseases, provide scientists with completely adequate models for testing the effect of a particular substance on the body. It also allows companies to identify the safest and most effective drugs earlier in development.

All this indicates the importance of biotechnology and the wide possibilities of its application in various sectors of the national economy. What areas are the highest priority in this area? Let's look at them.

1. Improving the safety of biotechnological production for humans and the environment. It is necessary to create working systems that will function only under strictly controlled conditions. For example, E. coli strains used in biotechnology lack supra-membrane structures (envelopes); such bacteria simply cannot exist outside laboratories or outside special technological installations. Multicomponent systems, each of which is not capable of independent existence, also have increased safety.

2. Reducing the share of human industrial waste. Industrial waste is its by-products that cannot be used by humans or other components of the biosphere and the use of which is unprofitable or involves some kind of risk. Such waste accumulates within production premises (territories) or is released into the environment. One should strive to change the “useful product/waste” ratio in favor of a useful product. This is achieved in various ways. First, the waste needs to be found useful application. Secondly, they can be sent for recycling, creating a closed technological cycle. And finally, you can change the working system so as to reduce the amount of waste.

3. Reducing energy costs for product production, i.e. the introduction of energy-saving technologies. A fundamental solution to this problem is possible primarily through the use of renewable energy sources. For example, the annual energy consumption of fossil fuels is comparable to the net gross production of all photosynthetic organisms on Earth. To transform solar energy into forms available for modern power plants, energy plantations of fast-growing plants are created (including using cellular engineering methods). The resulting biomass is used to produce cellulose, biofuel, and vermicompost. The comprehensive benefits of such technologies are obvious. The use of cell engineering methods for constant renewal of planting material ensures the production in the shortest possible time of a large number of plants free from viruses and mycoplasmas; At the same time, there is no need to create mother plantations. The load on natural plantings of woody plants is reduced (they are largely cut down to obtain cellulose and fuel), and the need for fossil fuels is reduced (in general, it is environmentally unfavorable, since its combustion produces under-oxidized substances). When biofuels are used, carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced, which enter the atmosphere and are then recombined by plants on energy plantations.

4. Creation of multicomponent plant systems. The quality of agricultural products significantly deteriorates when mineral fertilizers and pesticides are used, which cause enormous damage to natural ecosystems. There are various ways to overcome the negative consequences of chemicalization of agricultural production. First of all, it is necessary to abandon monocultures, i.e., the use of a limited set of biotypes (varieties, breeds, strains). The disadvantages of monoculture were identified at the end of the 19th century; they are obvious. Firstly, in a monoculture, competitive relations between the cultivated organisms increase; at the same time, monoculture has only a one-sided effect on competing organisms (weeds). Secondly, there is a selective removal of mineral nutrition elements, which leads to soil degradation. Finally, monoculture is not resistant to pathogens and pests. Therefore, during the 20th century. it was maintained through exceptionally high production intensity. Of course, the use of monocultures of intensive varieties (breeds, strains) simplifies the development of production technology. For example, with the help of high technologies, plant varieties have been created that are resistant to a certain pesticide, which can be used in high doses when cultivating these particular varieties. However, in this case, the question arises of the safety of such a working system for humans and the environment. In addition, sooner or later races of pathogens (pests) resistant to this pesticide will appear.

Therefore, a systematic transition from monoculture to multicomponent (polyclonal) compositions, including different biotypes of cultivated organisms, is necessary. Multicomponent compositions should include organisms with different developmental rhythms, with different attitudes to the dynamics of physicochemical environmental factors, competitors, pathogens and pests. In genetically heterogeneous systems, compensatory interactions of individuals with different genotypes arise, reducing the level of intraspecific competition and automatically increasing the pressure of cultivated organisms on competing organisms of other species (weeds). In relation to pathogens and pests, such a heterogeneous ecosystem is characterized by collective group immunity, which is determined by the interaction of many structural and functional features of individual biotypes.

5. Development of new drugs for medicine. Currently, active research is underway in the field of medicine: various types of new drugs are being created - targeted and individual.

Targeted drugs. The main causes of cancer are uncontrolled cell division and disruption of apoptosis. The action of drugs designed to eliminate them can be directed at any of the molecules or cellular structures involved in these processes. Research conducted in the field of functional genomics has already provided us with information about the molecular changes occurring in precancerous cells. Based on the data obtained, it is possible to create diagnostic tests to identify molecular markers that signal the onset of the oncological process before the first visible cell abnormalities appear or symptoms of the disease appear.

Most chemotherapy drugs target proteins involved in cell division. Unfortunately, in this case not only malignant cells die, but often normal dividing cells of the body, such as cells of the hematopoietic system and hair follicles. To prevent this from occurring side effect, some companies have begun developing drugs that would arrest the cell cycles of healthy cells immediately before administering a dose of a chemotherapy agent.

Individual preparations. At the current stage of scientific development, the era of individualized medicine begins, in which the genetic differences of patients will be taken into account for the most effective use of drugs. Using functional genomics data, it is possible to identify genetic variants that make specific patients susceptible to the negative side effects of some drugs and susceptible to others. This individual therapeutic approach, based on knowledge of the patient’s genome, is called pharmacogenomics.

Autonomous non-profit organization

KALININGRAD BUSINESS COLLEGE

Department of part-time education

Essay

On the topic of: Problems and achievements of modern biotechnology

By discipline: Natural science

Completed by a student

groups 14-ZG-1

Gerner E.A.

Checked:

Vasilenko N.A.

Kaliningrad 2015

Introduction

Main part

1.1 Practical achievements of biotechnology

2 Biologization and greening

1.3 Prospects for the development of biotechnology

1.4 Application of biotechnology

1.5 The importance of biotechnology for medicine

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

In my work I explore the topic of biotechnology achievements. The opportunities it opens up for humanity, both in the field of fundamental science and in many other areas, are very great and often even revolutionary.

Biotechnology is a field human activity, which is characterized by the widespread use of biological systems at all levels in a wide variety of branches of science, industrial production, medicine, agriculture and other fields.

Biotechnology differs from agricultural technologies, first of all, by the widespread use of microorganisms: prokaryotes (bacteria, actinomycetes), fungi and algae. This is due to the fact that microorganisms are capable of carrying out a wide variety of biochemical reactions.

Traditional biotechnologies have developed on the basis of the empirical experience of many generations of people; they are characterized by conservatism and relatively low efficiency. However, during the 19th-20th centuries, on the basis of traditional biotechnologies, higher-level technologies began to emerge: technologies for increasing soil fertility, technologies for biological wastewater treatment, technologies for the production of biofuels.

The relevance of the chosen topic lies in the fact that biotechnology as a field of knowledge and a dynamically developing industrial sector is called upon to solve many key problems of our time, while ensuring the preservation of balance in the system of relationships “man - nature - society”, because biological technologies (biotechnologies) based on the use The potential of living things, by definition, is aimed at the friendliness and harmony of a person with the world around him.

The novelty of the work lies in the fact that it talks about the fact that biotechnology is one of the main directions of scientific and technological progress, actively contributing to the acceleration of the solution of many problems, such as food, agriculture, energy, and environmental issues.

The practical significance of the work is that it will allow us to trace the evolution of biotechnology.

The purpose of the work is to prove that advanced biotechnologies can play a significant role in improving the quality of human life and health.

Reveal the practical significance of biotechnology.

Identify prospects for the development of biotechnology.

Research methods:

1.Analysis of literary sources.

2.Generalization of information.

1. Main part

1.1 Practical achievements of biotechnology

Biotechnology has produced many products for the healthcare, agricultural, food and chemical industries.

Moreover, it is important that many of them could not be obtained without the use of biotechnological methods.

Particularly high hopes are associated with attempts to use microorganisms and cell cultures to reduce environmental pollution and produce energy.

IN molecular biology the use of biotechnological methods makes it possible to determine the structure of the genome, understand the mechanism of gene expression, model cell membranes in order to study their functions, etc.

The construction of the necessary genes using genetic and cellular engineering methods makes it possible to control the heredity and vital activity of animals, plants and microorganisms and create organisms with new properties useful to humans that have not previously been observed in nature.

The microbiology industry currently uses thousands of strains of different microorganisms. In most cases, they are improved by induced mutagenesis and subsequent selection. This allows large-scale synthesis of various substances.

Some proteins and secondary metabolites can only be produced by culturing eukaryotic cells. Plant cells can serve as a source of a number of compounds - atropine, nicotine, alkaloids, saponins, etc.

In biochemistry, microbiology, and cytology, methods for the immobilization of both enzymes and whole cells of microorganisms, plants and animals are of undoubted interest.

In veterinary medicine, biotechnological methods such as cell and embryo culture, in vitro oogenesis, and artificial insemination are widely used.

All this indicates that biotechnology will become a source not only of new food products and medicines, but also of energy and new chemical substances, as well as organisms with specified properties.

.2 Biologization and greening

Currently, the ideas of greening and, in a broader sense, biologization of all economic and production activities are becoming increasingly popular.

By greening, as the initial stage of biologization, we can understand the reduction of harmful production emissions into the environment, the creation of low-waste and waste-free industrial complexes with a closed cycle, etc.

Biologization should be understood more broadly, as a radical transformation of production activities based on biological laws biotic cycle of the biosphere.

The goal of such a transformation should be to integrate all economic and production activities into the biotic cycle.

This need is especially clearly visible in the phenomenon of strategic helplessness of chemical plant protection:

The fact is that currently there is not a single pesticide in the world to which plant pests have not adapted.

Moreover, the pattern of such an adaptation has now clearly emerged: if in 1917. one species of insects appeared that adapted to DDT, then in 1980. there are 432 such species.

The pesticides and herbicides used are extremely harmful not only to the entire animal world, but also to humans.

In the same way, the strategic futility of using chemical fertilizers is now becoming clear. Under these conditions, the transition to biological plant protection and bioorganic technology with a minimum of chemical fertilizers is completely natural.

Biotechnology can play a decisive role in the process of biologization of agriculture.

We can and should talk about the biologization of technology, industrial production and energy.

The rapidly developing bioenergy industry promises revolutionary changes as it focuses on renewable energy sources and raw materials.

.3 Prospects for the development of biotechnology

The central problem of biotechnology is the intensification of bioprocesses both by increasing the potential of biological agents and their systems, and by improving equipment and the use of biocatalysts (immobilized enzymes and cells) in industry, analytical chemistry, and medicine.

The industrial use of biological achievements is based on the technique of creating recombinant DNA molecules.

Designing the necessary genes makes it possible to control the heredity and vital activity of animals, plants and microorganisms and create organisms with new properties.

In particular, it is possible to control the process of fixation of atmospheric nitrogen and transfer the corresponding genes from microbial cells to the genome of the plant cell.

As sources of raw materials for biotechnology, renewable resources of non-edible plant materials and agricultural waste, which serve as an additional source of both feed substances and secondary fuel (biogas) and organic fertilizers, will become increasingly important.

One of the rapidly developing branches of biotechnology is the technology of microbial synthesis of substances valuable to humans. According to forecasts, the further development of this industry will entail a redistribution of roles in the formation of the food base of mankind: crop and livestock farming, on the one hand, and microbial synthesis, on the other.

An equally important aspect of modern microbiological technology is the study of the participation of microorganisms in biosphere processes and the targeted regulation of their vital activity in order to solve the problem of protecting the environment from technogenic, agricultural and household pollution.

Closely related to this problem are studies to identify the role of microorganisms in soil fertility (humus formation and replenishment of biological nitrogen), control of pests and diseases of agricultural crops, disposal of pesticides and other chemical compounds in the soil.

The knowledge available in this area indicates that changing the strategy of human economic activity from chemicalization to biologization of agriculture is justified from both economic and environmental points of view.

In this direction, biotechnology can set the goal of landscape regeneration.

Work is underway to create biopolymers that will be able to replace modern plastics. These biopolymers have a significant advantage over traditional materials, since they are non-toxic and biodegradable, that is, they easily decompose after use without polluting the environment.

Biotechnologies based on the achievements of microbiology are most cost-effective when applied and created in an integrated manner waste-free production that do not disturb the ecological balance.

Their development will make it possible to replace many huge chemical plants with environmentally friendly compact production facilities.

An important and promising area of ​​biotechnology is the development of methods for producing environmentally friendly energy.

The production of biogas and ethanol was discussed above, but there are also fundamentally new experimental approaches in this direction.

One of them is the production of photohydrogen:

“If membranes containing photosystem 2 are isolated from chloroplasts, then photolysis of water occurs in the light - its decomposition into oxygen and hydrogen. Modeling the processes of photosynthesis occurring in chloroplasts would make it possible to store the energy of the Sun in valuable fuel - hydrogen."

The advantages of this method of generating energy are obvious:

the presence of excess substrate, water;

unlimited source of energy - the Sun;

the product (hydrogen) can be stored without polluting the atmosphere;

hydrogen has a high calorific value (29 kcal/g) compared to hydrocarbons (3.5 kcal/g);

the process occurs at normal temperature without the formation of toxic intermediate products;

the process is cyclical, since when hydrogen is consumed, the substrate - water - is regenerated.

.4 Application of biotechnology

People have always thought about how they can learn to control nature, and looked for ways to obtain, for example, plants with improved qualities: with high yields, larger and tastier fruits, or with increased cold resistance. Since ancient times, the main method used for these purposes has been selection. It is widely used to this day and is aimed at creating new and improving existing varieties of cultivated plants, breeds of domestic animals and strains of microorganisms with traits and properties valuable to humans.

Selection is based on the selection of plants (animals) with pronounced favorable traits and further crossing of such organisms, while genetic engineering allows direct intervention in the genetic apparatus of the cell. It is important to note that during traditional breeding it is very difficult to obtain hybrids with the desired combination of useful traits, since very large fragments of the genomes of each parent are transmitted to the offspring, while genetic engineering methods most often make it possible to work with one or several genes, and their modifications do not affect the functioning of other genes. As a result, without losing others beneficial properties plants, it is possible to add one or more useful traits, which is very valuable for creating new varieties and new forms of plants. It has become possible to change, for example, plants' resistance to climate and stress, or their sensitivity to insects or diseases common in certain regions, to drought, etc. Scientists even hope to obtain tree species that would be resistant to fire. Extensive research is underway to improve nutritional value various agricultural crops, such as corn, soybeans, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, etc.

Historically, there are “three waves” in the creation of genetically modified plants:

The second wave - the beginning of the 2000s - the creation of plants with new consumer properties: oilseeds with a higher content and modified composition of oils, fruits and vegetables with a high content of vitamins, more nutritious grains, etc.

Nowadays, scientists are creating “third wave” plants that will appear on the market in the next 10 years: vaccine plants, bioreactor plants for the production of industrial products (components for various types of plastics, dyes, technical oils, etc.), plants - drug factories, etc.

Genetic engineering work in animal husbandry has a different task. A completely achievable goal with the current level of technology is the creation of transgenic animals with a specific target gene. For example, the gene for some valuable animal hormone (for example, growth hormone) is artificially introduced into a bacterium, which begins to produce it in large quantities. Another example: transgenic goats, as a result of the introduction of the corresponding gene, can produce a specific protein, factor VIII, which prevents bleeding in patients suffering from hemophilia, or an enzyme, thrombokinase, which promotes the resorption of blood clots in blood vessels, which is important for the prevention and treatment of thrombophlebitis in of people. Transgenic animals produce these proteins much faster, and the method itself is much cheaper than the traditional one.

At the end of the 90s of the XX century. US scientists have come close to producing farm animals by cloning embryonic cells, although this direction still requires further serious research. But in xenotransplantation - the transplantation of organs from one type of living organism to another - undoubted results have been achieved. Greatest successes obtained by using pigs with transferred human genes in their genotype as donors of various organs. In this case, there is a minimal risk of organ rejection.

Scientists also suggest that gene transfer will help reduce human allergies to cow's milk. Targeted changes in the DNA of cows should also lead to a decrease in the content of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol in milk, making it even more healthy. The potential danger of using genetically modified organisms is expressed in two aspects: food safety for human health and environmental consequences. That's why the most important stage When creating a genetically modified product, there must be a comprehensive examination of it to avoid the risk that the product contains proteins that cause allergies, toxic substances or some new dangerous components.

.5 The importance of biotechnology for medicine

biotechnology bioprocess pharmaceutical

In addition to widespread use in agriculture, based on genetic engineering a whole branch of the pharmaceutical industry arose, called DNA industry and representing one of the modern branches of biotechnology. More than a quarter of all medicines currently used in the world contain ingredients from plants. Genetically modified plants are a cheap and safe source for obtaining fully functional medicinal proteins (antibodies, vaccines, enzymes, etc.) for both humans and animals. Examples of the use of genetic engineering in medicine are also the production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, the production of erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow. The physiological role of this hormone is to regulate the production of red blood cells depending on the body's need for oxygen) in cell culture (i.e. outside the human body) or new breeds of experimental mice for scientific research.

The development of genetic engineering methods based on the creation of recombinant DNA led to the “biotechnological boom” that we are witnessing. Thanks to the achievements of science in this area, it has become possible not only to create “biological reactors”, transgenic animals, genetically modified plants, but also to carry out genetic certification (a complete study and analysis of a person’s genotype, usually carried out immediately after birth, to determine the predisposition to various diseases, a possible inadequate (allergic) reaction to certain medications, as well as a tendency to certain types of activities). Genetic certification allows you to predict and reduce the risks of cardiovascular and oncological diseases, study and prevent neurodegenerative diseases and aging processes, analyze the neuro-physiological characteristics of the individual at the molecular level), diagnose genetic diseases, create DNA vaccines, gene therapy for various diseases, etc. .

In the 20th century, in most countries of the world, the main efforts of medicine were aimed at combating infectious diseases, a decrease in infant mortality and an increase average duration life. Countries with more developed health care systems have succeeded so much in this way that they have found it possible to shift the emphasis to the treatment of chronic diseases, diseases of cardio-vascular system and oncological diseases, since it was these groups of diseases that gave the largest percentage increase in mortality.

At the same time, there was a search for new methods and approaches. It was significant that science has proven the significant role of hereditary predisposition in the occurrence of such widespread diseases as coronary heart disease, hypertension, peptic ulcer stomach and duodenum, psoriasis, bronchial asthma, etc. It has become obvious that for effective treatment and prevention of these diseases, which are encountered in the practice of doctors of all specialties, it is necessary to know the mechanisms of interaction of environmental and hereditary factors in their occurrence and development, and, consequently, further Progress in healthcare is impossible without the development of biotechnological methods in medicine. In recent years, these areas are considered priorities and are rapidly developing.

The relevance of conducting reliable genetic research based on biotechnological approaches is also obvious because more than 4,000 hereditary diseases are currently known. About 5-5.5% of children are born with hereditary or congenital diseases. At least 30% of child mortality during pregnancy and the postpartum period is due to congenital malformations and hereditary diseases. After 20-30 years, many diseases to which a person had only a hereditary predisposition begin to appear. This occurs under the influence of various environmental factors: living conditions, bad habits, complications after illnesses, etc.

Currently, practical opportunities have already emerged to significantly reduce or correct the negative impact of hereditary factors. Medical genetics explained that the cause of many gene mutations is interaction with unfavorable environmental conditions, and, therefore, by solving environmental problems, it is possible to reduce the incidence of cancer, allergies, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, mental illness and even some infectious diseases. At the same time, scientists were able to identify genes responsible for the manifestation of various pathologies and contributing to an increase in life expectancy. When using medical genetics methods, good results were obtained in the treatment of 15% of diseases, and significant improvement was observed in almost 50% of diseases.

Thus, significant achievements in genetics have made it possible not only to reach the molecular level of studying the genetic structures of the body, but also to reveal the essence of many serious human diseases and to come close to gene therapy.

In addition, based on medical genetic knowledge, opportunities have emerged for early diagnosis of hereditary diseases and timely prevention of hereditary pathology.

The most important area of ​​medical genetics at present is the development of new methods for diagnosing hereditary diseases, including diseases with a hereditary predisposition. Today, preimplantation diagnosis no longer surprises anyone - a method for diagnosing an embryo at an early stage of intrauterine development, when a geneticist, removing only one cell of the unborn child with minimal threat to his life, makes an accurate diagnosis or warns about a hereditary predisposition to a particular disease.

As a theoretical and clinical discipline, medical genetics continues to develop intensively in different directions: the study of the human genome, cytogenetics, molecular and biochemical genetics, immunogenetics, developmental genetics, population genetics, clinical genetics.

Thanks to the increasingly widespread use of biotechnological methods in pharmaceuticals and medicine, a new concept of “personalized medicine” has emerged, when a patient is treated based on his individual, including genetic characteristics, and even the drugs used in the treatment process are manufactured individually for each specific patient with taking into account his condition. The emergence of such drugs became possible, in particular, thanks to the use of such a biotechnological method as hybridization (artificial fusion) of cells. The processes of cell hybridization and production of hybrids have not yet been fully studied and developed, but it is important that with their help it has become possible to produce monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are special “protective” proteins that are produced by cells of the human immune system in response to the appearance in the blood of any foreign agents (called antigens): bacteria, viruses, poisons, etc. Monoclonal antibodies have extraordinary, unique specificity, and each antibody recognizes only its own antigen, binds to it and makes it safe for humans. In modern medicine, monoclonal antibodies are widely used for diagnostic purposes. Currently, they are also used as highly effective drugs for individual treatment of patients suffering from such serious diseases as cancer, AIDS, etc.

Conclusion

Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that advanced biotechnologies can play a significant role in improving the quality of life and human health, ensuring the economic and social growth of states (especially in developing countries).

With the help of biotechnology, new diagnostics, vaccines and drugs can be obtained. Biotechnology can help increase the yield of major cereal crops, which is especially important in connection with the growing world population. In many countries where large volumes of biomass are unused or underutilized, biotechnology could offer ways to convert them into valuable products, as well as process them using biotechnological methods to produce various types of biofuels. In addition, when proper planning and management, biotechnology can find application in small regions as a tool for the industrialization of rural areas for the creation of small industries, which will ensure more active development of empty territories and will solve the problem of employment.

A feature of the development of biotechnology in the 21st century is not only its rapid growth as an applied science, it is increasingly becoming part of everyday human life, and, what is even more significant, providing exceptional opportunities for the effective (intensive, not extensive) development of almost all sectors of the economy, becomes a necessary condition for the sustainable development of society, and thereby has a transformative impact on the paradigm of development of society as a whole.

The widespread penetration of biotechnology into the world economy is reflected in the fact that even new terms have been formed to denote the global nature of this process. Thus, the use of biotechnological methods in industrial production began to be called “white biotechnology”, in pharmaceutical production and medicine - “red biotechnology”, in agricultural production and livestock farming - “green biotechnology”, and for artificial cultivation and further processing of aquatic organisms (aquaculture or mariculture) - “blue biotechnology”. And the economy that integrates all these innovative areas is called “bio-economy”. The task of transition from a traditional economy to a new type of economy - a bioeconomy based on innovation and widely using the capabilities of biotechnology in various industries, as well as in everyday human life, has already been declared a strategic goal in many countries of the world.

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6.Lukyanchikov, N.N. Economics and organization of environmental management: textbook for universities / N.N. Lukyanchikov, I.M. Potravny. - 2nd edition, revised. and additional - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2002. - 454 p.

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8. Rychkov R.S., Popov V.G. Biotechnology development prospects // Biotechnology. M.: Nauka, 1984.

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INTRODUCTION

1.1. General provisions

by law Russian Federation“On Veterinary Medicine” defines the main tasks of veterinary medicine “in the field of scientific knowledge and practical activities aimed at preventing animal diseases and their treatment, producing complete and veterinarily safe animal products and protecting the population from diseases common to humans and animals.”

A number of these problems are solved using biotechnology methods.

The definition of biotechnology is given quite fully by the European Biotechnology Federation, founded in 1978. According to this definition biotechnology is a science that, based on the application of knowledge in the field of microbiology, biochemistry, genetics, genetic engineering, immunology, chemical technology, instrument and mechanical engineering, uses biological objects (microorganisms, animal and plant tissue cells) or molecules (nucleic acids, proteins, enzymes) , carbohydrates, etc.) for the industrial production of substances and products useful for humans and animals.

Until the all-encompassing term "biotechnology" became generally accepted, names such as applied microbiology, applied biochemistry, enzyme technology, bioengineering, applied genetics, and applied biology were used to refer to the variety of technologies most closely related to biology.

The use of scientific achievements in biotechnology is carried out in the most high level modern science. Only biotechnology makes it possible to obtain a variety of substances and compounds from relatively cheap, accessible and renewable materials.

Unlike natural substances and compounds that are artificially synthesized require large investments, are poorly absorbed by animal and human organisms, and have a high cost.

Biotechnology uses microorganisms and viruses, which in the course of their life processes naturally produce the substances we need - vitamins, enzymes, amino acids, organic acids, alcohols, antibiotics and other biologically active compounds.

A living cell is superior to any plant in its organizational structure, coherence of processes, accuracy of results, efficiency and rationality.

Currently, microorganisms are used mainly in three types of biotechnological processes:

For biomass production;

To obtain metabolic products (for example, ethanol, antibiotics, organic acids, etc.);

For processing organic and inorganic compounds of both natural and anthropogenic origin.

The main task of the first type of process, which biotechnological production is called upon to solve today, is the elimination of protein deficiency in the feed of farm animals and birds, because In proteins of plant origin there is a deficiency of amino acids and, above all, especially valuable ones, the so-called essential ones.

The main direction of the second group of biotechnological processes is currently the production of microbial synthesis products using waste from various industries, including the food, oil and wood processing industries, etc.

Biotechnological processing of various chemical compounds is aimed mainly at ensuring ecological balance in nature, processing waste from human activities and maximizing the reduction of negative anthropogenic impact on nature.

On an industrial scale, biotechnology represents an industry in which the following sectors can be distinguished:

Production of polymers and raw materials for the textile industry;

Production of methanol, ethanol, biogas, hydrogen and their use in the energy and chemical industries;

Production of protein, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, etc. through large-scale cultivation of yeast, algae, bacteria;

Increasing the productivity of agricultural plants and animals;

Obtaining herbicides and bioinsecticides;

Widespread introduction of genetic engineering methods in obtaining new animal breeds, plant varieties and growing tissue cell cultures of plant and animal origin;

Recycling of industrial and household waste, wastewater, production of composts using microorganisms;

Recycling of harmful emissions of oil, chemicals that pollute soil and water;

Production of therapeutic, preventive and diagnostic drugs (vaccines, serums, antigens, allergens, interferons, antibiotics, etc.).

Almost all biotechnological processes are closely related to the life activity of various groups of microorganisms - bacteria, viruses, yeast, microscopic fungi, etc., and have a number of characteristic features:

1. The process of microbial synthesis, as a rule, is part of a multi-stage production, and the target product of the biosynthesis stage is often not marketable and is subject to further processing.

2. When cultivating microorganisms, it is usually necessary to maintain aseptic conditions, which requires sterilization of equipment, communications, raw materials, etc.

3. Cultivation of microorganisms is carried out in heterogeneous systems, the physicochemical properties of which can change significantly during the process.

4. The technological process is characterized by high variability due to the presence of a biological object in the system, i.e. populations of microorganisms.

5. Complexity and multifactorial mechanisms of regulation of microbial growth and biosynthesis of metabolic products.

6. Complexity and, in most cases, lack of information about the qualitative and quantitative composition of production nutrient media.

7. Relatively low concentrations of target products.

8. The ability of the process to self-regulate.

9. Conditions optimal for the growth of microorganisms and for the biosynthesis of target products do not always coincide.

Microorganisms consume substances from the environment, grow, multiply, release liquid and gaseous metabolic products, thereby realizing those changes in the system (accumulation of biomass or metabolic products, consumption of pollutants) for the sake of which the cultivation process is carried out. Consequently, a microorganism can be considered as a central element of a biotechnological system, determining the efficiency of its functioning.

1.2. History of biotechnology development

Over the past 20 years, biotechnology, thanks to its specific advantages over other sciences, has made a decisive breakthrough to the industrial level, which is largely due to the development of new research methods and intensification of processes that have opened up previously unknown opportunities in the production of biological products, methods of isolation, identification and purification biologically. active substances.

Biotechnology was formed and evolved as human society formed and developed. Its emergence, formation and development can be conditionally divided into 4 periods.

1. The empirical period or prehistoric is the longest, covering approximately 8000 years, of which more than 6000 BC. and about 2000 AD. The ancient peoples of that time intuitively used techniques and methods for making bread, beer and some other products that we now classify as biotechnological.

It is known that the Sumerians, the first inhabitants of Mesopotamia (in the territory of modern Iraq), created a civilization that flourished in those days. They baked bread from sour dough and mastered the art of brewing beer. The acquired experience was passed on from generation to generation, spreading among neighboring peoples (Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians and ancient Hindus). Vinegar has been known for several thousand years and has been prepared at home since ancient times. The first distillation in winemaking was carried out in the 12th century; vodka from cereals was first produced in the 16th century; champagne has been known since the 18th century.

The empirical period includes the production of fermented milk products, sauerkraut, honey alcoholic drinks, fodder silage.

Thus, peoples from ancient times used biotechnological processes in practice without knowing anything about microorganisms. Empiricism was also characteristic of the practice of using useful plants and animals.

In 1796 it happened most important event in biology - E. Jenner carried out the first cowpox vaccinations in history for humans.

2. The etiological period in the development of biotechnology covers the second half of the 19th century. and the first third of the 20th century. (1856 - 1933). It is associated with the outstanding research of the great French scientist L. Pasteur (1822 - 95) - the founder of scientific microbiology.

Pasteur established the microbial nature of fermentation, proved the possibility of life in oxygen-free conditions, created the scientific basis for vaccine prevention, etc.

During the same period, his outstanding students, collaborators and colleagues worked: E. Duclos, E. Roux, Sh.E. Chamberlan, I.I. Mechnikov; R. Koch, D. Lister, G. Ricketts, D. Ivanovsky and others.

In 1859, L. Pasteur prepared a liquid nutrient medium, and R. Koch in 1881 proposed a method for cultivating bacteria on sterile potato slices and on agar nutrient media. And, as a consequence of this, it was possible to prove the individuality of microbes and obtain them in pure cultures. Moreover, each species could be propagated on nutrient media and used to reproduce the corresponding processes (fermentation, oxidation, etc.).

Among the achievements of the 2nd period, the following are especially worth noting:

1856 - Czech monk G. Mendel discovered the laws of dominance of traits and introduced the concept of a unit of heredity in the form of a discrete factor that is transmitted from parents to descendants;

1869 - F. Miler isolated “nuclein” (DNA) from leukocytes;

1883 - I. Mechnikov developed the theory of cellular immunity;

1984 - F. Leffler isolated and cultivated the causative agent of diphtheria;

1892 - D. Ivanovsky discovered viruses;

1893 - W. Ostwald established the catalytic function of enzymes;

1902 - G. Haberland showed the possibility of cultivating plant cells in nutrient solutions;

1912 - C. Neuberg discovered the mechanism of fermentation processes;

1913 - L. Michaelis and M. Menten developed the kinetics of enzymatic reactions;

1926 - H. Morgan formulated the chromosomal theory of heredity;

1928 - F. Griffith described the phenomenon of “transformation” in bacteria;

1932 - M. Knoll and E. Ruska invented the electron microscope.
During this period, the production of pressed food products began.

yeast, as well as products of their metabolism - acetone, butanol, citric and lactic acids, France began to create bio-installations for microbiological wastewater treatment.

However, the accumulation of a large mass of cells of the same age remained an extremely labor-intensive process. That is why a fundamentally different approach was required to solve many problems in the field of biotechnology.

3. Biotechnical period - began in 1933 and lasted until 1972.

In 1933 A. Kluyver and A.H. Perkin published the work “Methods for studying metabolism in molds,” in which they outlined the basic technical techniques, as well as approaches to assessing the results obtained during deep cultivation of fungi. The introduction of large-scale sealed equipment into biotechnology has begun, ensuring processes are carried out under sterile conditions.

A particularly powerful impetus in the development of industrial biotechnological equipment was noted during the period of formation and development of the production of antibiotics (during the Second World War, 1939-1945, when there was an urgent need for antimicrobial drugs for the treatment of patients with infected wounds).

Everything progressive in the field of biotechnological and technical disciplines achieved by that time was reflected in biotechnology:

1936 - the main tasks of designing, creating and putting into practice the necessary equipment were solved, including the main one - the bioreactor (fermenter, cultivator);

1942 - M. Delbrück and T. Anderson first saw viruses using an electron microscope;

1943 - penicillin was produced on an industrial scale;

1949 - J. Lederberg discovered the process of conjugation in E.colly;

1950 - J. Monod developed theoretical basis continuous controlled cultivation of microbes, which were developed in their research by M. Stephenson, I. Molek, M. Ierusalimsky,
I. Rabotnova, I. Pomozova, I. Basnakyan, V. Biryukov;

1951 - M. Theiler developed a vaccine against yellow fever;

1952 - W. Hayes described the plasmid as an extrachromosomal factor of heredity;

1953 - F. Crick and J. Watson deciphered the structure of DNA. This has been the impetus for developing methods for large-scale cultivation of cells of various origins to obtain cellular products and cells themselves;

1959 - Japanese scientists discovered antibiotic resistance plasmids (K-factor) in dysentery bacteria;

1960 - S. Ochoa and A. Kornberg isolated proteins that can “cross-link” or “glue” nucleotides into polymer chains, thereby synthesizing DNA macromolecules. One such enzyme was isolated from Escherichia coli and named DNA polymerase;

1961 - M. Nirenberg read the first three letters of genetic
code for the amino acid phenylalanine;

1962 - X. Korana chemically synthesized a functional gene;

1969 - M. Beckwith and S. Shapiro isolated the 1ac operon gene in E.colly;

- 1970 - restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) was isolated.

4. The genetic engineering period began in 1972, when P. Berg created the first recombination of a DNA molecule, thereby demonstrating the possibility of targeted manipulation of the genetic material of bacteria.

Naturally, without the fundamental work of F. Crick and J. Watson to establish the structure of DNA, it would have been impossible to achieve modern results in the field of biotechnology. Elucidation of the mechanisms of functioning and DNA replication, isolation and study of specific enzymes led to the formation of a strictly scientific approach to the development of biotechnical processes based on genetic engineering manipulations.

The creation of new research methods was a necessary prerequisite for the development of biotechnology in the 4th period:

1977 - M. Maxam and W. Gilbert developed a method for analyzing the primary structure of DNA by chemical degradation, and J. Sanger
- by polymerase copying using terminating nucleotide analogues;

1981 - the first diagnostic kit of monoclonal antibodies is approved for use in the USA;

1982 - human insulin produced by Escherichia coli cells went on sale; a vaccine for animals obtained using technology has been approved for use in European countries
recombinant DNA; genetically engineered interferons, tumor necrotizing factor, interleukin-2, human somatotropic hormone, etc. have been developed;

1986 - K. Mullis developed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method;

1988 - large-scale production of equipment and diagnostic kits for PCR began;

1997 - The first mammal (Dolly the sheep) was cloned from a differentiated somatic cell.

Such outstanding domestic scientists as L.S. Tsenkovsky, S.N. Vyshelessky, M.V. Likhachev, N.N. Ginzburg, S.G. Kolesov, Ya.R. Kolyakov, R.V. Petrov, V.V. Kafarov and others made an invaluable contribution to the development of biotechnology.

The most important achievements of biotechnology in the 4th period:

1. Development of intensive processes (instead of extensive ones) based on targeted, fundamental research (with producers of antibiotics, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins).

2. Obtaining superproducers.

3.Creation of various products, necessary for a person, based on genetic engineering technologies.

4. Creation of unusual organisms that did not previously exist in nature.

5. Development and implementation of special equipment for biotechnological systems.

6. Automation and computerization of biotechnological production processes with maximum use of raw materials and minimal energy consumption.

The above achievements of biotechnology are currently being implemented in National economy and will be put into practice over the next 10-15 years. In the foreseeable future, new cornerstones of biotechnology will be defined and new discoveries and advances await us.

1.3. Biosystems, objects and methods in biotechnology

One of the terms in biotechnology is the concept of “biosystem”. The generalized characteristics of a biological (living) system can be reduced to three main features inherent in them:

1. Living systems are heterogeneous open systems that exchange substances and energy with the environment.

2. These systems are self-governing, self-regulating, interactive, i.e. capable of exchanging information with the environment to maintain their structure and control metabolic processes.

3. Living systems are self-reproducing (cells, organisms).

According to their structure, biosystems are divided into elements (subsystems) interconnected and characterized by a complex organization (atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, organisms, populations, communities).

Control in a cell is a combination of the processes of synthesis of protein-enzyme molecules necessary to carry out a particular function, and continuous processes of changes in activity during the interaction of triplet DNA codes in the nucleus and macromolecules in ribosomes. Strengthening and inhibition of enzymatic activity occurs depending on the amount of initial and final products of the corresponding biochemical reactions. Thanks to this complex organization, biosystems differ from all nonliving objects.

The behavior of a biosystem is the totality of its reactions in response to external influences, i.e. The most common task of the control systems of living organisms is to preserve its energy basis under changing environmental conditions.

N.M. Amosov divides all biosystems into five hierarchical levels of complexity: unicellular organisms, multicellular organisms, populations, biogeocenosis and biosphere.

Single-celled organisms include viruses, bacteria and protozoa. The functions of unicellular organisms are the exchange of matter and energy with the environment, growth and division, reactions to external stimuli in the form of changes in metabolism and form of movement. All functions of unicellular organisms are supported through biochemical processes of an enzymatic nature and through energy metabolism - from the method of obtaining energy to the synthesis of new structures or the breakdown of existing ones. The only mechanism of unicellular organisms that ensures their adaptation to the environment is the mechanism of changes in individual DNA genes and, as a consequence, changes in enzyme proteins and changes in biochemical reactions.

The basis of a systematic approach to the analysis of the structure of biosystems is its representation in the form of two components - energy and control.

In Fig. 1. shows a generalized schematic diagram of energy and information flows in any biosystem. The main element is the energy component, designated through MS (metabolic system), and the control component, designated through P (genetic and physiological control) and transmitting control signals to effectors (E). One of the main functions of the metabolic system is to supply biosystems with energy.

Rice. 1. Flows of energy and information in the biosystem.

The structure of biosystems is maintained by genetic control mechanisms. Receiving energy and information from other systems in the form of metabolic products (matabolites), and during the formation period - in the form of hormones, the genetic system controls the process of synthesis of necessary substances and supports the vital activity of other body systems, and the processes in this system proceed rather slowly.

Despite the diversity of biosystems, the relationships between their biological properties remain invariant for all organisms. IN complex system the possibilities for adaptation are much greater than in simple situations. In a simple system, these functions are provided by a small number of mechanisms, and they are more sensitive to changes in the external environment.

Biosystems are characterized by qualitative heterogeneity, which manifests itself in the fact that within the same functional biosystem, subsystems with qualitatively different adequate control signals (chemical, physical, informational) work together and harmoniously.

The hierarchy of biosystems is manifested in the gradual complication of a function at one level of the hierarchy and an abrupt transition to a qualitatively different function at the next level of the hierarchy, as well as in the specific construction of various biosystems, their analysis and control in such a sequence that the final output function of the underlying hierarchy level is included as an element to the higher level.

Constant adaptation to the environment and evolution are impossible without the unity of two opposing properties: structural-functional organization and structural-functional probability, stochasticity and variability.

Structural and functional organization manifests itself at all levels of biosystems and is characterized by high stability of the biological species and its form. At the level of macromolecules, this property is ensured by the replication of macromolecules, at the cell level - by division, at the level of the individual and population - by the reproduction of individuals through reproduction.

As biological objects or systems that biotechnology uses, it is first necessary to name single-celled microorganisms, as well as animal and plant cells. The choice of these objects is determined by the following points:

1. Cells are a kind of “biofactories” that produce various valuable products during their life: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, nucleic acids, amino acids, antibiotics, hormones, antibodies, antigens, enzymes, alcohols, etc. Many of these products extremely necessary in human life, are not yet available for production by “non-biotechnological” methods due to the scarcity or high cost of raw materials
or the complexity of technological processes;

2. Cells reproduce extremely quickly. Thus, a bacterial cell divides every 20 - 60 minutes, a yeast cell divides every 1.5 - 2 hours, an animal cell divides every 24 hours, which makes it possible to artificially increase huge amounts of biomass on an industrial scale in a relatively short time on relatively cheap and non-deficient nutrient media microbial, animal or plant cells. For example, in a bioreactor with a capacity of 100 m 3, 10" 6 - 10 18 microbial cells can be grown in 2 - 3 days. During the life of the cells, when they are grown, a large amount of valuable products enters the environment, and the cells themselves are storehouses of these products;

3. Biosynthesis of complex substances such as proteins, antibiotics, antigens, antibodies, etc. is much more economical and technologically accessible than chemical synthesis. At the same time, the initial raw materials for biosynthesis are, as a rule, simpler and more accessible than raw materials for other
types of synthesis. For biosynthesis, waste from agricultural, fishery, food industry, plant raw materials (whey, yeast, wood, molasses, etc.) is used.

4. The possibility of carrying out the biotechnological process on an industrial scale, i.e. availability of appropriate technological equipment, availability of raw materials, processing technologies, etc.

Thus, nature has given researchers a living system that contains and synthesizes unique components, and, first of all, nucleic acids, with the discovery of which biotechnology and world science as a whole began to rapidly develop.

Objects of biotechnology are viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoal organisms, cells (tissues) of plants, animals and humans, substances of biological origin (for example, enzymes, prostaglandins, lectins, nucleic acids), molecules.

In this regard, we can say that biotechnology objects relate either to microorganisms or to plant and animal cells. In turn, the body can be characterized as a system of economical, complex, compact, targeted synthesis, steadily and actively proceeding with optimal maintenance of all necessary parameters.

The methods used in biotechnology are determined at two levels: cellular and molecular. Both are determined by bi-objects.

In the first case, they deal with bacterial cells (for obtaining vaccine preparations), actinomycetes (for obtaining antibiotics), micromycetes (for obtaining citric acid), animal cells (in the production of antiviral vaccines), human cells (in the production of interferon), etc.

In the second case, they deal with molecules, for example, nucleic acids. However, in the final stage, the molecular level is transformed into the cellular level. Animal and plant cells, microbial cells in the process of life activity (assimilation and dissimilation) form new products and secrete metabolites of various physical and chemical composition and biological effects.

As a cell grows, a huge number of enzyme-catalyzed reactions occur in it, resulting in the formation of intermediate compounds, which in turn are converted into cell structures. The intermediate compounds, the building blocks, include 20 amino acids, 4 ribonucleotides, 4 deoxyribonucleotides, 10 vitamins, monosaccharides, fatty acids, and hexosamines. From these “bricks” “blocks” are built: approximately 2000 proteins, DNA, three types of RNA, polysaccharides, lipids, enzymes. The resulting “blocks” are used for the construction of cellular structures: nucleus, ribosomes, membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, flagella, etc., which make up the cell.

At each stage of the “biological synthesis” of a cell, it is possible to identify those products that can be used in biotechnology.

Typically, unicellular products are divided into 4 categories:

a) the cells themselves as a source of the target product. For example, grown bacteria or viruses are used to produce live or killed corpuscular vaccines; yeast, as feed protein or a basis for obtaining hydrolysates of nutrient media, etc.;

b) large molecules that are synthesized by cells during the growing process: enzymes, toxins, antigens, antibodies, peptidoglycans, etc.;

c) primary metabolites - low molecular weight substances (less than 1500 daltons) necessary for cell growth, such as amino acids, vitamins, nucleotides, organic acids;

d) secondary metabolites (idiolites) - low molecular weight compounds that are not required for cell growth: antibiotics, alkaloids, toxins, hormones.

All microobjects used in biotechnology are classified as akaryotes, pro- or eukaryotes. From the group of eukaryotes, for example, it operates as biological objects with the cells of protozoa, algae and fungi, from the group of prokaryotes - with the cells of blue-green algae and bacteria, and akaryotes - with viruses.

Biological objects from the microcosm vary in size from nanometers (viruses, bacteriophages) to millimeters and centimeters (giant algae) and are characterized relatively fast pace reproduction. In the modern pharmaceutical industry, a gigantic range of biological objects is used, the grouping of which is very complex and can best be done on the basis of the principle of their proportionality.

A huge set of bio-objects does not exhaust the entire elemental base with which biotechnology operates. Recent advances in biology and genetic engineering have led to the emergence of completely new biological objects - transgenic (genetically modified) bacteria, viruses, fungi, plant, animal, human cells and chimeras.

Although members of all superkingdoms contain genetic material, different akaryotes lack any one type of nucleic acid (RNA or DNA). They are not able to function (including replicate) outside a living cell, and, therefore, it is legitimate to call them nuclear-free. Virus parasitism develops at the genetic level.

With a targeted examination of various ecological niches, new groups of producing microorganisms are identified useful substances, which can be used in biotechnology. The number of microorganism species used in biotechnology is constantly growing.

When choosing a biological object, in all cases the principle of manufacturability must be observed. Thus, if during numerous cultivation cycles the properties of a biological object are not preserved or undergo significant changes, then this biological object should be considered low-tech, i.e. unacceptable for technological developments following the stage of laboratory research.

With the development of biotechnology, specialized banks of biological objects become of great importance, in particular collections of microorganisms with studied properties, as well as cryobanks of animal and plant cells, which can already now, using special methods, be successfully used to construct new organisms useful for biotechnology. In fact, such specialized crop banks are responsible for preserving an extremely valuable gene pool.

Culture collections play an important role in the legal protection of new crops and in the standardization of biotechnological processes. The collections carry out the preservation, maintenance and provision of microorganisms with strains, plasmids, phages, cell lines for both scientific and applied research, and for relevant production. Culture collections, in addition to their main task - ensuring the viability and preservation of the genetic properties of strains - contribute to the development of scientific research (in the field of taxonomy, cytology, physiology), and also serve educational purposes. They perform an indispensable function as depositories of patented strains. According to international rules, not only effective producers, but also crops used in genetic engineering can be patented and deposited.

Scientists pay great attention to the purposeful creation of new biological objects that do not exist in nature. First of all, it should be noted the creation of new cells of microorganisms, plants, animals using genetic engineering methods. The creation of new biological objects, of course, is facilitated by the improvement of legal protection of inventions in the field of genetic engineering and biotechnology in general. A direction has been formed that deals with the construction of artificial cells. Currently, there are methods that make it possible to obtain artificial cells using various synthetic and biological materials, for example, an artificial cell membrane with a given permeability and surface properties. Some materials can be contained inside such cells: enzyme systems, cell extracts, biological cells, magnetic materials, isotopes, antibodies, antigens, hormones, etc. The use of artificial cells has yielded positive results in the production of interferons and monoclonal antibodies, in the creation of immunosorbents, etc.

Approaches to the creation of artificial enzymes and enzyme analogues with increased stability and activity are being developed. For example, the synthesis of polypeptides of the desired stereoconfiguration is carried out, and methods of targeted mutagenesis are being searched for in order to replace one amino acid with another in the enzyme molecule. Attempts are being made to construct nonenzymatic catalytic models.

The following groups of biological objects should be identified as the most promising:

Recombinants, i.e. organisms obtained by genetic engineering;

Plant and animal tissue cells;

Thermophilic microorganisms and enzymes;

Anaerobic organisms;

Associations for the transformation of complex substrates;

Immobilized biological objects.

The process of artificially creating a biological object (microorganism, or tissue cell) consists of changing its genetic information in order to eliminate undesirable and enhance the desired properties or give it completely new qualities. The most targeted changes can be made through recombination - redistributing genes or parts of genes and combining genetic information from two or more organisms in one organism. The production of recombinant organisms, in particular, can be achieved by protoplast fusion, by transfer of natural plasmids and by genetic engineering methods.

At this stage of biotechnology development, non-traditional biological agents include plant and animal tissue cells, including hybridomas and transplants. Mammalian cell cultures are already producing interferon and viral vaccines; in the near future, large-scale production of monoclonal antibodies, surface antigens of human cells, and angiogenic factors will be realized.

With the development of biotechnology methods, increasing attention will be paid to the use of thermophilic microorganisms and their enzymes.

Enzymes produced by thermophilic microorganisms are characterized by thermal stability and higher resistance to denaturation compared to enzymes from mesophiles. Carrying out biotechnological processes at elevated temperatures using enzymes from thermophilic microorganisms has a number of advantages:

1) the reaction speed increases;

2) the solubility of reagents increases and, due to this, the productivity of the process;

3) the possibility of microbial contamination of the reaction medium is reduced.

There is a resurgence in biotechnological processes using anaerobic microorganisms, which are often also thermophilic. Anaerobic processes attract the attention of researchers due to the lack of energy and the possibility of producing biogas. Since anaerobic cultivation does not require aeration of the environment and biochemical processes are less intense, the heat removal system is simplified, anaerobic processes can be considered energy-saving.

Anaerobic microorganisms are successfully used to process waste (plant biomass, food industry waste, household waste, etc.) and wastewater (domestic and industrial wastewater, manure) into biogas.

In recent years, the use of mixed cultures of microorganisms and their natural associations has been expanding. In a real biological situation in nature, microorganisms exist in the form of communities of different populations, closely connected with each other and carrying out the circulation of substances in nature.

The main advantages of mixed crops compared to monocultures are as follows:

The ability to utilize complex, heterogeneous substrates, often unsuitable for monocultures;

Ability to mineralize complex organic compounds;

Increased ability for biotransformation of organic substances;

Increased resistance to toxic substances, including heavy metals;

Increased resistance to environmental influences;

Increased productivity;

Possible exchange of genetic information between individual species of the community.

Particular attention should be paid to such a group of biological objects as enzyme-catalysts of biological origin, the study of which in the applied aspect is carried out by engineering enzymology. Its main task is the development of biotechnological processes that use the catalytic action of enzymes, usually isolated from biological systems or located inside cells artificially deprived of the ability to grow. Thanks to enzymes, the rate of reactions compared to reactions occurring in the absence of these catalysts increases by 10 b - 10 12 times.

Immobilized biological objects should be distinguished as a separate branch of the creation and use of biological objects. An immobilized object is a harmonious system, the action of which is generally determined by the correct selection of three main components: a biological object, a carrier, and a method of binding the object to the carrier.

The following groups of methods for mobilizing biological objects are mainly used:

Inclusion in gels, microcapsules;

Adsorption on insoluble carriers;

Covalent binding to the carrier;

Cross-linking with bifunctional reagents without using a carrier;

- “self-aggregation” in the case of intact cells.

The main advantages of using immobilized biological objects are:

High activity;

Ability to control the agent’s microenvironment;

the possibility of complete and rapid separation of target products;

Possibility of organizing continuous processes with repeated use of an object.

As follows from the above, in biotechnological processes it is possible to use a number of biological objects characterized by different levels of complexity of biological regulation, for example, cellular, subcellular, molecular. The approach to creating the entire biotechnological system as a whole directly depends on the characteristics of a particular biological object.

As a result of fundamental biological research, knowledge about nature and, thereby, about the possibilities of applied use of a particular biological system as an active principle of a biotechnological process is deepened and expanded. The set of biological objects is constantly updated.

1.4. Main directions of development of methodsbiotechnology in veterinary medicine

Over the past 40 - 50 years, most sciences have developed in leaps and bounds, which has led to a complete revolution in the production of veterinary and medical biological products, the creation of transgenic plants and animals with specified unique properties. Such research is a priority area of ​​scientific and technological progress in the 21st century. will take a leading place among all sciences.

Even a simple listing of the commercial forms of biological products indicates the unlimited possibilities of biotechnology. However, this important issue deserves some detail.

In our view, the capabilities of biotechnology are particularly impressive in three main areas.

The first is large-scale production of microbial protein for feed purposes (initially based on wood hydrolysates, and then based on petroleum hydrocarbons).

An important role is played by the production of essential amino acids necessary for a balanced amino acid composition of feed additives.

In addition to feed protein, amino acids, vitamins and other feed additives that increase the nutritional value of feed, the possibilities for mass production and use of viral and bacterial preparations for the prevention of diseases in birds and farm animals are rapidly expanding, effective fight with pests of agricultural plants. Microbiological preparations, unlike many chemical ones, have a highly specific effect on harmful insects and phytopathogenic microorganisms; they are harmless to humans and animals, birds and beneficial insects. Along with the direct destruction of pests during the treatment period, they act on the offspring, reducing their fertility, and do not cause the formation of resistant forms of harmful organisms.

The potential of biotechnology in the production of enzyme preparations for the processing of agricultural raw materials and the creation of new feed for livestock is enormous.

The second direction is developments in the interests of the development of biological science, healthcare and veterinary medicine. Based on the achievements of genetic engineering and molecular biology, biotechnology can provide healthcare with highly effective vaccines and antibiotics, monoclonal antibodies, interferon, vitamins, amino acids, as well as enzymes and other biological products for research and therapeutic purposes. Some of these drugs are already successfully used not only in scientific experiments, but also in practical medicine and veterinary medicine.

Finally, the third direction is developments for industry. Already today, the products of biotechnological production are consumed or used by the food and light industries (enzymes), metallurgy (the use of certain substances in the processes of flotation, precision casting, precision rolling), the oil and gas industry (the use of a number of drugs complex processing plant and microbial biomass during well drilling, selective cleaning, etc.), rubber and paint and varnish industry (improving the quality of synthetic rubber through certain protein additives), as well as a number of other industries.

Actively developing areas of biotechnology include bioelectronics and bioelectrochemistry, bionics, and nanotechnology, which use either biological systems or the operating principles of such systems.

Enzyme-containing sensors are widely used in scientific research. Based on them, a number of devices have been developed, for example, cheap, accurate and reliable instruments for analysis. Bioelectronic immunosensors are also appearing, and some of them use the field effect of transistors. Based on them, it is planned to create relatively cheap devices capable of determining and maintaining at a given level the concentration of a wide range of substances in body fluids, which could cause a revolution in biological diagnostics.

Achievements of veterinary biotechnology. In Russia, biotechnology as a science began to develop in 1896. The impetus was the need to create preventive and therapeutic agents against diseases such as anthrax, rinderpest, rabies, foot-and-mouth disease, and trichinosis. At the end of the 19th century. Every year more than 50 thousand animals and 20 thousand people died from anthrax. For 1881 - 1906 3.5 million cows died from the plague. Significant damage was caused by glanders, which killed horses and people.

The successes of domestic veterinary science and practice in carrying out specific prevention of infectious diseases are associated with major scientific discoveries made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This concerned the development and introduction into veterinary practice of preventive and diagnostic drugs for quarantine and especially dangerous animal diseases (vaccines against anthrax, plague, rabies, allergens for the diagnosis of tuberculosis, glanders, etc.). The possibility of preparing therapeutic and diagnostic hyperimmune serums has been scientifically proven.

This period marks the actual organization of an independent biological industry in Russia.

Since 1930, the existing veterinary bacteriological laboratories and institutes in Russia began to expand significantly, and on their basis, the construction of large biological factories and bioprocessing plants for the production of vaccines, serums, and diagnostics for veterinary purposes began. During this period, technological processes, scientific and technological documentation, as well as uniform methods (standards) for the production, control and use of drugs in animal husbandry and veterinary medicine are developed.

In the 30s, the first factories were built to produce feed yeast from wood hydrolysates, agricultural waste and sulfite liquors under the leadership of V.N. Shaposhnikov. The technology for microbiological production of acetone and butanol has been successfully introduced (Fig. 2).

His teaching on the two-phase nature of fermentation played a major role in creating the foundations of domestic biotechnology. In 1926, the bioenergetic patterns of hydrocarbon oxidation by microorganisms were studied in the USSR. In subsequent years, biotechnological developments were widely used in our country to expand the “range” of antibiotics for medicine and animal husbandry, enzymes, vitamins, growth substances, and pesticides.

Since the creation of the All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Biosynthesis of Protein Substances in 1963, large-scale production has been established in our country rich in proteins biomass of microorganisms as feed.

In 1966, the microbiological industry was separated into a separate industry and the Main Directorate of the Microbiological Industry under the Council of Ministers of the USSR - Glavmicrobioprom - was created.

Since 1970, intensive research has been carried out in our country on the selection of microorganism cultures for continuous cultivation for industrial purposes.

Soviet researchers became involved in the development of genetic engineering methods in 1972. It should be noted that the “Revertase” project was successfully implemented in the USSR - the production of the “reverse transcriptase” enzyme on an industrial scale.

The development of methods for studying the structure of proteins, elucidation of the mechanisms of functioning and regulation of enzyme activity opened the way to targeted modification of proteins and led to the birth of engineering enzymology. Highly stable immobilized enzymes are becoming a powerful tool for catalytic reactions in various industries.

All these achievements have brought biotechnology to a new level, qualitatively different from the previous one with the ability to consciously control cellular biosynthesis processes.

During the years of formation of the industrial production of biological drugs in our country, significant qualitative changes have occurred in biotechnological methods for their production:

Research has been carried out to obtain persistent, hereditarily fixed, avirulent strains of microorganisms from which live vaccines are prepared;

New nutrient media have been developed for the cultivation of microorganisms, including those based on hydrolysates and extracts from non-food raw materials;

High-quality whey nutrient media for Leptospira and other difficult-to-cultivate microorganisms have been obtained;

A deep reactor method has been developed for cultivating many types of bacteria, fungi and some viruses;

New strains and cell lines sensitive to many viruses have been obtained, which has enabled the preparation and production of standard and more active antiviral vaccines;

All production processes are mechanized and automated;

Modern methods for concentrating microbial cultures and freeze-drying biological products have been developed and introduced into production;

Energy costs per unit of production have been reduced, the quality of biological products has been standardized and improved;

The culture of production of biological products has been improved.

Paying great attention to the development of veterinary biological products for the prevention, diagnosis of infectious diseases and treatment of sick animals, our country is constantly working to improve industrial technology and master the production of more effective, cheaper and standard drugs. The main requirements are:

Using global experience;

Saving resources;

Preservation of production areas;

Purchase and installation of modern equipment and technological lines;

Conducting scientific research on the development and discovery of new types of bioproducts, new and cheap recipes for the preparation of nutrient media;

Finding more active strains of microorganisms in relation to their antigenic, immunogenic and productive properties.

Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Moscow state academy veterinary medicine and biotechnology named after. K.I. Skryabian"

Abstract on biotechnology

"Lecture No. 1"

Work completed

FVM student

4 courses, 11 groups

Gordon Maria

The discipline that studies how organisms are used to solve technological problems is what biotechnology is. Simply put, it is a science that studies living organisms in search of new ways to meet human needs. For example, genetic engineering or cloning are new disciplines that use both organisms and the latest computer technologies with equal activity.

Biotechnology: in brief

Very often the concept of “biotechnology” is confused with genetic engineering, which arose in the 20th–21st centuries, but biotechnology refers to a broader specificity of work. Biotechnology specializes in modifying plants and animals through hybridization and artificial selection for human needs.

This discipline has given humanity the opportunity to improve the quality of food products, increase life expectancy and productivity of living organisms - that is what biotechnology is.

Until the 70s of the last century, this term was used exclusively in the food industry and agriculture. It wasn't until the 1970s that scientists began using the term "biotechnology" in laboratory research, such as growing living organisms in test tubes or creating recombinant DNA. This discipline is based on sciences such as genetics, biology, biochemistry, embryology, as well as robotics, chemical and information technologies.

Based on new scientific and technological approaches, biotechnology methods have been developed, which consist of two main positions:

• Large-scale and deep cultivation of biological objects in a periodic continuous mode.
• Growing cells and tissues under special conditions.

New biotechnology methods make it possible to manipulate genes, create new organisms, or change the properties of existing living cells. This makes it possible to more extensively use the potential of organisms and facilitates human economic activity.

History of biotechnology

No matter how strange it may sound, biotechnology takes its origins from the distant past, when people were just beginning to engage in winemaking, baking and other methods of cooking. For example, the biotechnological process of fermentation, in which microorganisms actively participated, was known back in ancient Babylon, where it was widely used.

Biotechnology began to be considered as a science only at the beginning of the 20th century. Its founder was the French scientist, microbiologist Louis Pasteur, and the term itself was first introduced into use by the Hungarian engineer Karl Ereki (1917). The 20th century was marked by the rapid development of molecular biology and genetics, where the achievements of chemistry and physics were actively used. One of the key stages of the research was the development of methods for culturing living cells. Initially, only fungi and bacteria were grown for industrial purposes, but after several decades, scientists can create any cells, completely controlling their development.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the fermentation and microbiological industries actively developed. At this time, the first attempts were made to establish the production of antibiotics. The first food concentrates are being developed, the level of enzymes in animal products is being monitored and plant origin. In 1940, scientists managed to obtain the first antibiotic - penicillin. This became the impetus for the development of industrial production of drugs; an entire branch of the pharmaceutical industry emerged, which represents one of the cells of modern biotechnology.

Today, biotechnologies are used in the food industry, medicine, agriculture and many other areas of human activity. Accordingly, many new scientific directions with the prefix "bio".

Bioengineering

When asked what biotechnology is, the majority of the population will no doubt answer that it is nothing more than genetic engineering. This is partly true, but engineering is only part of the broad discipline of biotechnology.

Bioengineering is a discipline whose main activity is aimed at improving human health by combining knowledge from the fields of engineering, medicine, biology and applying them in practice. The full name of this discipline is biomedical engineering. Her main specialization is solutions medical problems. The use of biotechnology in medicine makes it possible to model, develop and study new substances, develop pharmaceuticals, and even save a person from congenital diseases that are transmitted through DNA. Specialists in this field can create devices and equipment to carry out new procedures. Thanks to the use of biotechnology in medicine, artificial joints, pacemakers, skin prostheses, and heart-lung machines have been developed. With the help of new computer technologies, bioengineers can create proteins with new properties using computer simulations.

Biomedicine and pharmacology

The development of biotechnology has made it possible to look at medicine in a new way. By developing a theoretical basis about the human body, specialists in this field have the opportunity to use nanotechnology to change biological systems. The development of biomedicine has given impetus to the emergence of nanomedicine, the main activity of which is to monitor, correct and design living systems at the molecular level. For example, targeted delivery of medicines. Is not Express delivery from the pharmacy to the home, and the transfer of the drug directly to the diseased cell of the body.

Biopharmacology is also developing. It studies the effects that substances of biological or biotechnological origin have on the body. Research in this area of ​​knowledge focuses on the study of biopharmaceuticals and the development of methods for their creation. In biopharmacology medicinal products obtained from living biological systems or body tissues.

Bioinformatics and bionics

But biotechnology is not only the study of molecules of tissues and cells of living organisms, it is also the application of computer technology. Thus, bioinformatics takes place. It includes a set of approaches such as:

• Genomic bioinformatics. That is, computer analysis methods that are used in comparative genomics.
• Structural bioinformatics. Development of computer programs that predict the spatial structure of proteins.
• Calculation. Creating computational methodologies that can control biological systems.

In this discipline, methods of mathematics, statistical computing and computer science are used together with biological methods. Just as in biology the techniques of computer science and mathematics are used, so in exact sciences today they can use the doctrine of the organization of living organisms. Like in bionics. This is an applied science where technical devices principles and structures of living nature are applied. We can say that this is a kind of symbiosis of biology and technology. Disciplinary approaches in bionics are considered from new point vision of both biology and technology. Bionics considered similar and distinctive features these disciplines. This discipline has three subtypes - biological, theoretical and technical. Biological bionics studies the processes that occur in biological systems. Theoretical bionics builds mathematical models biosystems And technical bionics applies the developments of theoretical bionics to solve various problems.

As you can see, the achievements of biotechnology are widespread in modern medicine and healthcare, but this is just the tip of the iceberg. As already mentioned, biotechnology began to develop from the moment a person began to prepare his own food, and after that it was widely used in agriculture for growing new breeding crops and breeding new breeds of domestic animals.

Cell engineering

One of the most important techniques in biotechnology is genetic and cell engineering, which focus on creating new cells. With the help of these tools, humanity has been able to create viable cells from completely different elements belonging to different species. Thus, a new set of genes that does not exist in nature is created. Genetic engineering makes it possible for a person to obtain the desired qualities from modified plant or animal cells.

The achievements of genetic engineering in agriculture are especially valued. This makes it possible to grow plants (or animals) with improved qualities, so-called selective species. Breeding activity is based on the selection of animals or plants with pronounced favorable traits. These organisms are then crossed and a hybrid is obtained with the required combination of useful traits. Of course, everything sounds simple in words, but getting the desired hybrid is quite difficult. In reality, it is possible to obtain an organism with only one or a few beneficial genes. That is, only a few additional qualities are added to the source material, but even this made it possible to make a huge step in the development of agriculture.

Selection and biotechnology have enabled farmers to increase yields, make fruits larger, tastier, and most importantly, resistant to frost. Selection does not bypass the livestock sector. Every year new breeds of domestic animals appear, which can provide more livestock and food.

Achievements

Scientists distinguish three waves in the creation of breeding plants:

1. Late 80s. That's when scientists first began to breed plants that were resistant to viruses. To do this, they took one gene from species that could resist diseases, “transplanted” it into the DNA structure of other plants and made it “work.”
2. Early 2000s. During this period, plants with new consumer properties began to be created. For example, with a high content of oils, vitamins, etc.
3. Our days. In the next 10 years, scientists plan to bring to market vaccine plants, drug plants and biorecovery plants that will produce components for plastics, dyes, etc.

Even in animal husbandry, the promise of biotechnology is exciting. Animals have long been created that have a transgenic gene, that is, they possess some kind of functional hormone, for example growth hormone. But these were only initial experiments. Research has resulted in transgenic goats that can produce a protein that stops bleeding in patients suffering from poor blood clotting.

At the end of the 90s of the last century, American scientists began to work closely on cloning animal embryo cells. This would make it possible to grow livestock in test tubes, but for now this method still needs to be improved. But in xenotransplantation (transplantation of organs from one species to another), scientists in the field of applied biotechnology have achieved significant progress. For example, pigs with the human genome can be used as donors, then there is a minimal risk of rejection.

Food biotechnology

As already mentioned, biotechnological research methods were initially used in food production. Yoghurts, sourdoughs, beer, wine, bakery products- These are products obtained using food biotechnology. This segment of research involves processes aimed at changing, improving, or creating specific characteristics of living organisms, particularly bacteria. Specialists in this field of knowledge are developing new techniques for the production of various food products. They are looking for and improving mechanisms and methods for their preparation.

The food a person eats every day should be rich in vitamins, minerals and amino acids. However, as of today, according to the UN, there is a problem of providing people with food. Almost half the population does not have enough food, 500 million are hungry, and a quarter of the world's population eats insufficient quality food.

Today there are 7.5 billion people on the planet, and if action is not taken to improve the quality and quantity of food, if this is not done, people in developing countries will suffer devastating consequences. And if it is possible to replace lipids, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants with food biotechnology products, then it is almost impossible to replace protein. More than 14 million tons of protein each year are not enough to meet the needs of humanity. But this is where biotechnology comes to the rescue. Modern protein production is based on the artificial formation of protein fibers. They are impregnated with the necessary substances, given shape, the appropriate color and smell. This approach makes it possible to replace almost any protein. And the taste and appearance are no different from the natural product.

Cloning

An important area of ​​knowledge in modern biotechnology is cloning. For several decades now, scientists have been trying to create identical offspring without resorting to sexual reproduction. The cloning process should result in an organism that is similar to the parent not only in appearance, but also in genetic information.

In nature, the cloning process is common among some living organisms. If a person gives birth to identical twins, they can be considered natural clones.

Cloning was first carried out in 1997, when Dolly the sheep was artificially created. And already at the end of the twentieth century, scientists began to talk about the possibility of human cloning. In addition, the concept of partial cloning was explored. That is, it is possible to recreate not the whole organism, but its individual parts or tissues. If you improve this method, you can get an “ideal donor.” In addition, cloning will help preserve rare animal species or restore extinct populations.

Moral aspect

Although the fundamentals of biotechnology can have a decisive impact on the development of all humanity, this scientific approach is poorly received by the public. The overwhelming majority of modern religious leaders (and some scientists) are trying to warn biotechnologists against getting too carried away with their research. This is especially acute when it comes to issues of genetic engineering, cloning and artificial reproduction.

On the one hand, biotechnology seems to be a bright star, a dream and hope that will become reality in the new world. In the future, this science will give humanity many new opportunities. It will become possible to overcome fatal diseases, physical problems will be eliminated, and a person, sooner or later, will be able to achieve earthly immortality. Although, on the other hand, the gene pool may be affected by the constant consumption of genetically modified products or the appearance of people who were created artificially. There will be a change problem social structures, and it is likely that we will have to face the tragedy of medical fascism.

That's what biotechnology is. Science that can bring brilliant prospects to humanity by creating, changing or improving cells, living organisms and systems. She will be able to give a person a new body, and the dream of eternal life will become a reality. But you will have to pay a considerable price for this.

Although drugs and products derived from industrial (“white”) biotechnology processes currently dominate the biotechnology product market, the most impressive successes and breakthroughs in this area are associated with the use of cellular and genetic engineering.

Genomics is a branch of biotechnology concerned with the study of genomes and the roles that different genes play, individually and collectively, in determining structure, directing growth and development, and regulating biological functions. There are structural and functional genomics.

The subject of structural genomics is the creation and comparison of different types of genomic maps and large-scale DNA sequencing. The Human Genome Project and the lesser-known Plant Genome Research Program are the largest studies of structural genomics. Structural genomics also includes the identification, localization, and characterization of genes.

As a result of private and public projects on structural genomics, genome maps have been created and DNA sequences have been deciphered large quantity organisms, including crop plants, disease-causing bacteria and viruses, yeasts needed in some foods and beer production, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Plasmodium falciparum and the mosquitoes that carry it, and microorganisms used by humans in a wide variety of industrial processes. In 2003, the Human Genome Project was completed.

The subject and area of ​​functional genomics is genome sequencing, identification and mapping of genes, identification of gene functions and regulatory mechanisms. To understand the differences between species, the main role is not knowledge of the number of genes, but an understanding of how they differ in composition and function, knowledge of the chemical and structural differences in genes, which underlie the differences between organisms. Evolutionary analysis is gradually becoming the main method for elucidating the functions and interactions of genes within the genome.

Due to the fact that the genetic code is universal and all living organisms are able to decipher the genetic information of other organisms and carry out the biological functions inherent in it, any gene identified during a particular genomic project can be used in wide range practical applications:
- for purposefully changing the properties of plants and giving them the desired characteristics;
- isolation of specific recombinant molecules or microorganisms;
- identification of genes involved in complex processes controlled by many genes, and also dependent on environmental influences;
- detection of microbial contamination of cell cultures, etc.

Proteomics is the science that studies the structure, function, localization, and interactions of proteins within and between cells. The collection of proteins in a cell is called its proteome. Compared to genomics, proteomics poses much more numerous and difficult challenges for researchers. The structure of protein molecules is much more complex than the structure of DNA molecules, which are linear molecules consisting of four irregularly repeating elements (nucleotides).

The shape that a protein molecule takes depends on the sequence of amino acids, but all the mechanisms of twisting and folding of the amino acid chain are not fully understood. The task of the researchers working on the Human Genome Project was to develop methods that would achieve their goals.

Scientists involved in proteomics are now in a similar position: they need to develop a sufficient number of methods and techniques that could provide effective work on a huge number of questions:
- cataloging of all proteins synthesized various types cells;
- elucidation of the nature of the influence of age, environmental conditions and diseases on proteins synthesized by the cell;
- elucidation of the functions of identified proteins;
- study of the interactions of various proteins with other proteins inside the cell and in the extracellular space.

The potential of protein engineering makes it possible to improve the properties of proteins used in biotechnology (enzymes, antibodies, cellular receptors) and create fundamentally new proteins suitable as medicines for processing and improving the nutritional and taste qualities of food products. The most significant advances in protein engineering are in biocatalysis. New types of catalysts have been developed, including those using enzyme immobilization techniques, capable of functioning in a non-aqueous medium, with significant shifts in pH and temperature, as well as those that are soluble in water and catalyze biological reactions at neutral pH and at relatively low temperatures.

Protein engineering technologies make it possible to obtain new types of proteins for biomedical purposes, for example, those capable of binding to viruses and mutant oncogenes and neutralizing them; create highly effective vaccines and cell surface receptor proteins that serve as targets for pharmaceuticals, as well as substance binding agents, and biological agents that can be used for chemical and biological attacks. Thus, hydrolase enzymes are capable of neutralizing both nerve gases and pesticides used in agriculture, and their production, storage and use are not dangerous to the environment and human health.

The latest biotechnological methods make it possible to diagnose many diseases and pathological conditions quickly and with high accuracy. Thus, to perform a standard test for determining the presence of low-density lipoproteins (“bad” cholesterol) in the blood, three separate expensive tests are required: identifying the content of total cholesterol, triglycerides and high-density lipoproteins. In addition, the patient is advised to refrain from eating for 12 hours before the test.

The new biotechnological test consists of one step and does not require prior fasting. These tests, in addition to being fast, significantly reduce the cost of diagnostics. To date, biotechnological tests have been developed and used for the diagnosis of certain types of tumor processes that require a small amount of blood, which excludes a total biopsy at the initial stages of diagnosis.

In addition to reducing costs and increasing the accuracy and speed of diagnosis, biotechnology makes it possible to diagnose diseases at much earlier stages than was previously possible. This, in turn, provides patients with a much higher chance of cure. The latest biotechnological methods of proteomics make it possible to identify molecular markers that signal an approaching disease, even before the appearance of recorded cellular changes and symptoms of the disease.

The enormous amount of information made available by the successful completion of the Human Genome Project should play a special role in the development of diagnostic methods for inherited diseases such as type 1 diabetes, cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Previously, diseases of this class were diagnosed only after the appearance of clinical symptoms; latest methods allow, before the appearance of clinical signs, to identify risk groups predisposed to diseases of this kind.

Diagnostic tests developed using biotechnology not only improve the diagnosis of diseases, but also improve the quality of health care. Most biotechnology tests are portable, allowing physicians to conduct testing, interpret results, and prescribe appropriate treatment at the patient's bedside. Biotechnological methods for identifying pathogens are important not only for diagnosing diseases.

One of the most illustrative examples their use - screening of donor blood for the presence of HIV infection and hepatitis B and C viruses. Perhaps, over time, biotechnological approaches will enable doctors to determine the nature of the infectious agent and, in each specific case, select the most effective antibacterial drugs not in a week, as is done with modern methods , and in a matter of hours.

The introduction of biotechnological approaches over time will allow doctors not only to improve existing methods of therapy, but also to develop fundamentally new ones, completely based on new technologies. To date, a number of biotechnological treatments have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The list of diseases subject to such methods of therapy includes: anemia, cystic fibrosis, growth retardation, rheumatoid arthritis, hemophilia, hepatitis, genital warts, transplant rejection, as well as leukemia and a number of other malignant diseases.

The use of biotechnological methods makes it possible to create so-called “edible vaccines” synthesized by genetically modified plants and animals. Thus, genetically modified goats have been created whose milk contains a vaccine against malaria. Encouraging results have been obtained in clinical trials of bananas containing a vaccine against hepatitis, and potatoes containing vaccines against cholera and pathogenic strains of E. coli. Such vaccines (for example, in the form of freeze-dried powder for making drinks), which do not require refrigeration, sterilization of equipment or the purchase of disposable syringes, are particularly promising for use in developing countries.

Patch vaccines against tetanus, anthrax, influenza and E. coli are also in development. Transgenic plants have already been obtained that synthesize therapeutic proteins (antibodies, antigens, growth factors, hormones, enzymes, blood proteins and collagen). These proteins, produced from a variety of plants including alfalfa, corn, duckweed, potatoes, rice, sunflowers, soybeans and tobacco, are the main components of innovative therapies for a number of cancers, AIDS, heart and kidney disease, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease , Crohn's disease, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, hepatitis C, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, obesity, cancer, etc.

Cellular technologies are increasingly wide application for selection, propagation and increasing the productivity of useful plants, as well as obtaining biologically active substances and medicines.

ON THE. Voinov, T.G. Volova