Southern Europe. Southern European countries

The article contains geographical characteristics region. Describes the economic characteristics of the countries of Southern Europe. Contains interesting historical facts.

Briefly about the countries of Southern Europe

Southern Europe is the cradle of the greatest ancient civilizations, as well as the birthplace of the champion of Christianity throughout Europe. This region has produced the world's greatest explorers and conquerors. Southern Europe has a grandiose history. Architectural structures and art monuments can serve as evidence of this.

The region's economy is based on:

mining industry;
livestock farming;
agriculture;
manufacturing of machines and instruments;
skin;
textiles;
growing agricultural and horticultural crops.

The main branch of specialization is agriculture. In addition, tourism infrastructure is actively developed in Southern Europe.

Rice. 1. San Marino.

The largest industrial centers are located in the northern regions of the region.

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Rice. 2. Italy on the map.

The region also belongs to public education-The Order of Malta, whose current territory consists of only one mansion in Rome and a residence in Malta.

As a rule, the region is dominated by a subtropical Mediterranean climate.

List of Southern European countries and their capitals

Southern Europe - region globe, which is localized in southern European latitudes.

Rice. 3. Maltese representative office in Rome.

The states that make up the region are located for the most part in the Mediterranean sea coast.

Belgrade received city status in the 2nd century. This happened during the period of the Roman Empire. Around 520, Slavs began to inhabit the city.

The total population is close to 160 million people.

Southern European countries and their capitals:

Albania - Tirana;
Greece - Athens;
Bosnia and Herzegovina - Sarajevo;
Vatican - Vatican;
Italy Rome;
Spain Madrid;
Macedonia - Skopje;
Malta - Valletta;
San Marino – San Marino;
Portugal - Lisbon;
Slovenia - Ljubljana;
Serbia - Belgrade;
Croatia - Zagreb;
Montenegro - Podgorica.

The geographical specificity of the countries of Southern Europe, which are located on the peninsular and island areas of the Mediterranean, is that they are located on the main sea routes from Europe to Asia, Africa, and Australia. All states in the region are both historically and economically closely connected with the sea.

Southern Europe includes 8 countries and one dependent territory- Gibraltar (possession of Great Britain) (table). Feature region is the location of the smallest state-city of the Vatican, whose territory is 44 hectares, and the oldest republic in the world - San Marino

Table 5 – Southern European countries

A country	Capital	Area, thousand km	Population, million people/km2	Population density, persons/km2
Andorra	Andorra la Vella	0,467	0,07
Vatican	Vatican	0,00044	0,001	-
Greece	Athens	132,0	10,4
Gibraltar (British)	Gibraltar	0,006	0,03
Spain	Madrid	504,7	39,2
Italy	Rome	301,3	57,2
Malta	Valletta	0,3	0,37
Portugal	Lisbon	92,3	10,8
San Marino	San Marino	0,061	0,027
Total	1031,1	118,1	Average – 115	Average – 175000

Important peculiarity of the economic and geographical position of the countries of Southern Europe, located on the peninsulas and islands of the Mediterranean Sea, is that they are all on the main sea routes from Europe to Asia, Africa and Australia, and Spain and Portugal also to Central and South America. All this since the times of the great geographical discoveries affected the development of the region, the life of the countries of which is closely connected with the sea. No less significant is the fact that the region is located between Central Europe and the Arab countries North Africa, which have multilateral ties with Europe. The former metropolises of Portugal, Italy and Spain still retain influence over some African countries. All countries (except the Vatican) are members of the UN, the OECD, and the largest are members of NATO and the European Union. Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, led by Great Britain.

Natural conditions and resources. The region is located on the peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea - the Iberian, Apennine and Balkan. Only Italy is part of mainland Europe. The Mediterranean Sea largely determined the similarities natural conditions region. There is an acute shortage of fuel in the region. useful fossils. There is almost no oil, very little natural gas and coal. However, the rich are deposits of various metals, especially colored ones: bauxite(Greece belongs to the top three European leaders), mercury, copper, polymetals(Spain, Italy), tungsten(Portugal). Huge reserves building materials – marble, tuff, granite, cement raw materials, clay. In southern European countries it is underdeveloped river network. Large massifs forests preserved only in the Pyrenees and the Alps. The average forest cover of the region is 32%. Natural and recreational resources are extremely rich. These are warm seas, many kilometers of sandy beaches, lush vegetation, picturesque landscapes, numerous sea and mountain resorts, as well as areas favorable for mountaineering and skiing, etc. There are 14 national parks. Unique natural resource potential region contributed to the significant development of the agricultural sector and tourism and recreational activities in its countries.

Population. Traditionally, Southern Europe is characterized by a high birth rate, but natural population growth is low: from 0.1% per year in Italy to 0.4-0.5% in Greece, Portugal and 0.8% in Malta. Women account for 51% of the region's population. The majority of the population belongs to the southern (Mediterranean) branch of e Caucasian race. During the era of the Roman Empire, most of them were Romanized, and now people belonging to the Romanesque group predominate here Indo-European language family (Portuguese, Spaniards, Galicians, Catalans, Italians, Sardinians, Romansh). Exception are: Greeks(Greek group of the Indo-European family); Albanians(Albanian group of the Indo-European family), represented in Italy; Gibraltar (Germanic group of the Indo-European family); Maltese(Semitic group of the Semitic-Hamitic language family). The Maltese language is considered to be a dialectal form of Arabic; Turks(Turkic group of the Altaic language family) - there are many of them in Greece; Basque(in the rank of a separate family) - live in the historical region of the Basque Country in northern Spain. Population composition in the countries of the region is predominantly homogeneous. High indicators of mononationality characteristic of Portugal (99.5% Portuguese), Italy and Greece (98% Italians and Greeks, respectively), and only in Spain there is a significant weight (almost 30%) of national minorities: Catalans (18%), Galicians (8%) , Basques (2.5%), etc. The majority of the population is Christians. Christianity is represented by two branches: Catholicism(west and center of the region); Orthodoxy(east of the region, Greece). In Southern Europe there is the spiritual and administrative center of the Roman Catholic Church - the Vatican, which exists in the 4th century. Some Turks, Albanians, Greeks - Muslims.

Population posted unevenly. Highest density– in fertile valleys and coastal lowlands, the smallest – in the mountains (Alps, Pyrenees), in some areas up to 1 person/km2. Urbanization level in the region is much lower than in other parts of Europe: in Spain and Malta alone, up to 90% of the population lives in cities, and, for example, in Greece and Italy - more than 60%, in Portugal - 36%. Labor resources are about 51 million people. In general, 30% of the active population is employed in industry, 15% - in agriculture, 53% - in service sector. IN Lately In Southern Europe, during the fruit and vegetable harvest season, many hired workers from Eastern and South-Eastern Europe come to the country who cannot find work in their own countries.

Features of economic development and general characteristics of the economy. The countries of the region still lag economically behind the highly developed countries of Europe. Although Portugal, Spain, Greece and Italy are members of the EU, all of them, except Italy, lag behind the leaders in many socio-economic indicators. Italy is the economic leader of the region, belongs to highly developed industrial-agrarian countries, with a clear tendency to form a post-industrial type of economy. At the same time, the country still has significant contrasts in the development of many industries and production, in the social sphere, and in the socio-economic conditions of the North and South. Italy lags behind many highly developed countries in terms of scientific and technological development. Ahead of some countries Western Europe in terms of the volume of net profits from tourism, it is inferior to them in terms of the scale and intensity of international trade and credit and financial transactions. Spain. This is the second country in the region in terms of socio-economic development. The public sector plays a significant role in the Spanish economy, accounting for up to 30% of the country's GDP. The state carries out economic programming, controls the railways, the coal industry, a significant part of shipbuilding and ferrous metallurgy. In the second half of the 80s. XX century Portugal was experiencing significant economic growth. The average GDP growth during this period was one of the highest in the EU and amounted to 4.5-4.8% per year; in 2000, GNP was equal to $159 billion. Greece has a larger GNP than Portugal (181.9 billion in 2000). The country's industry is significantly monopolized by large local and foreign capital (mainly the USA, Germany, France and Switzerland). Up to 200 companies receive over 50% of all profits. Greece has fairly high inflation rates for EU countries (3.4% per year). Government measures to reduce it (cutting government subsidies, freezing wages, etc.) predetermine social instability.

IN MGRT The countries of the region are represented by certain branches of mechanical engineering (production of automobiles, household appliances, technological equipment for light and food industries), furniture industry, production of construction products and equipment, light industry (fruit and vegetable canning, oilseeds - production of olive oil, winemaking, pasta, etc.). Agriculture is dominated by agricultural sectors - the cultivation of various subtropical crops: citrus fruits, wood oils, grapes, vegetables, fruits, essential oil plants, etc. Due to the insufficient feed supply, livestock farming is dominated by sheep breeding and, to a small extent, beef cattle breeding. The countries of the region are actively developing merchant shipping and ship repair. They are the undisputed leaders in the development of international tourism. Warm sea, Mediterranean climate, rich subtropical vegetation, numerous monuments ancient culture and architecture are the main factors thanks to which Southern Europe is a favorite place of recreation and entertainment for many holidaymakers in the world, the largest tourist center.

5. General characteristics of the countries of Eastern (Central) Europe

The countries of Eastern (Central) Europe began to be distinguished as a socio-political and economic integrity in the 90s of the twentieth century. This is due to the collapse of the former USSR and the socialist system, education independent states. The region covers 10 countries (Table 6). The economic and geographical position of Eastern Europe is distinguished by the following features : delineation in the west with highly developed countries, and in the east and southeast - with Russia and the countries of South-Eastern Europe - potential markets for Eastern Europe; the passage of trans-European transport routes of meridional and latitudinal directions through the region. Over the past 10 years in EGP (economic-geographical position) of the region the following took place changes : collapse of the USSR, formation of the CIS and new countries; unification of Germany; the collapse of Czechoslovakia, as a result of which two independent states were formed: the Czech Republic and Slovakia; the appearance on the southern borders of neighbors “unstable” in relation to the military-political state – Balkan countries, Yugoslavia.

Table 6 – Eastern European countries

A country	Capital	Area, thousand km	Population, million people/km2	Population density, persons/km2	GNP per capita, US dollars (2000)
Belarus	Minsk	207,6	10,0
Estonia	Tallinn	45,1	1,4
Latvia	Riga	64,5	2,4
Lithuania	Vilnius	65,2	3,7
Poland	Warsaw	312,6	38,6
Russia (European part)	Moscow	4309,5	115,5
Slovakia	Bratislava	49,0	5,4
Hungary	Budapest	93,0	10,0
Ukraine	Kyiv	603,7	49,1
Czech	Prague	78,8	10,3
Total	5829,0	246,4	Average – 89	Average – 8600

Political and socio-economic changes influenced the formation of the modern political map of Eastern Europe. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, independent states were formed: Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia. A new political and economic association arose - the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The Baltic countries were not included in it. In the process of profound revolutionary changes, the countries of Eastern Europe entered a period of political and economic reforms, actively asserting the principles of real democracy, political pluralism, market economy. All countries in the region are members of the UN. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus are in the CIS, Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary are in NATO. Natural conditions and resources. The length of the coastline (excluding Russia) is 4682 km. Belarus, Slovakia, Hungary, and the Czech Republic do not have access to the World Ocean. Climate in the predominant part of the territory it is moderate continental. Natural resources . The region has significant mineral resources , in terms of their richness and diversity, it ranks one of the first places in Europe. He fully satisfies his needs in coal , brown coal . On oil and gas The mineral resources of Russia are rich, there are small reserves in Ukraine and Hungary, as well as in the south of Belarus. Peat lies in Belarus, Poland, Lithuania, in the north of Ukraine, the largest reserves of oil shale are in Estonia and Russia. Countries are forced to import a significant portion of fuel and energy resources, especially oil and gas. Ore minerals are represented: iron ores , manganese , copper ores , bauxite , mercury nickel . Among nonmetallic mineral reserves available rock salt , potassium salt , sulfur , amber , phosphorites, apatites . The average forest cover of the region is 33%. To the main recreational resources belong to the sea coast, mountain air, rivers, forests, mineral springs, karst caves. The region is home to famous seaside resorts.

Population size. On the territory of Eastern Europe, excluding Russia, there are 132.1 million people, including the European part of Russia - 246.4 million. The largest population is in Ukraine and Poland. In other countries it ranges from 1.5 to 10.5 million people. Demographic situation is quite complex, due to the consequences of the Second World War, increasing urbanization and the associated industrial development of states. As in most other European countries, natural population growth has decreased significantly in recent decades, primarily due to a sharp decline in the birth rate, and in Ukraine, Russia, Belarus and Slovakia it has become negative. The population is also decreasing - the birth rate is lower than the death rate, which has led to the process of aging of the population. The gender composition of the population is dominated by women (53%). Among the inhabitants of the region, representatives of the transitional (Central European) group predominate є Caucasian . Countries have mostly heterogeneous ethnic composition . The population belongs predominantly to a bilingual family: Indo-European And Ural . Dominates the region Christianity , represented in all directions: Catholicism professed in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Lithuania, by a significant number of Hungarians and Latvians; Orthodoxy - in Ukraine, Russia, Belarus; Protestantism (Lutheranism ) - in Estonia, the majority are Latvians and some Hungarians; To Uniate (Greek Catholic ) the church is inhabited by Western Ukrainians and Western Belarusians.

Population posted relatively evenly. The average density is almost 89 persons/km2. The level of urbanization is low - on average 68 %. The urban population is constantly increasing. Labor resources approximately 145 million people (56%). Industry employs 40-50 % working population, in agriculture - 20-50%, in the non-production sector - 15-20%. Since the mid-90s. XX century In the countries of Eastern Europe, economic emigration of the population in search of work and permanent income has increased significantly. Significant and intra-regional migration from the eastern regions (Ukraine, Russia, Belarus) to the economically developed western countries of the same region - Poland, the Czech Republic. Based on GDP indicators and its level per capita, the UN divides the countries of the region into 3 groups : 1) Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Slovakia (20-50% of GDP per capita from the US level); 2) Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia (10-20%); 3) Ukraine, Belarus, Russia (less than 10%). All states in the region belong to countries with an average level of socio-economic development.

IN ICCPR countries are represented by regions fuel and energy complex (coal, oil, gas), metallurgy, chemical industry (mainly by the branches of basic chemistry and coal chemistry), certain industries mechanical engineering , timber industry complex, easy (textile, knitwear, footwear, etc.) and food (meat and fish processing, sugar, oil and flour milling, etc.) industries. The agricultural specialization of countries is determined by the cultivation cereals (wheat, rye, barley, corn), technical (sugar beet, sunflower, flax, hops) and fodder crops , potatoes, vegetables and so on… Livestock It is represented mainly by dairy and beef cattle breeding, pig farming, and poultry farming. Fishing has long been traditional in the countries along the Baltic Sea coast. Industry. The leading sector of the economy of the countries of the region is industry, mainly processing (mechanical engineering, metallurgical complex, chemical, light and food, etc.). Transport. Eastern Europe has all types of transport. An important task for the countries of the region is to bring the transport system up to EU standards. Foreign economic relations countries of Eastern Europe are still in their infancy and do not have a clearly defined orientation. Foreign trade mostly serves the needs of this region, since the products of many countries are still uncompetitive on the world market. IN export , which amounts to 227 billion dollars, is dominated by products of mechanical engineering, chemical and light industry, and some products of non-ferrous metallurgy. Foreign economic relations Ukraine with the countries of the region: significant volumes of exports of Ukrainian goods come to Russia, Belarus, Hungary, Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, and the largest amount of imports to Ukraine comes from Russia, Poland, Belarus, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania. Eastern Europe is rich in resources for development recreational industry and tourism.

6. General characteristics of the countries of South-Eastern Europe

South-Eastern Europe covers 9 countries of the former socialist camp, located in the south-eastern part of Europe, not included in the region of Eastern (Central) Europe (Table 6)

Table 6 – Countries of South-Eastern Europe

The region has a rather favorable economic and geographical position due to its location on the routes from South-West Asia to Central Europe. The states of the region border with the countries of Eastern, Southern and Western Europe, as well as South-West Asia, are washed by the Atlantic seas (Black, Adriatic), and through the Mediterranean Sea they have access to transport routes in the Atlantic Ocean. The peculiarities of the political and geographical position of the region are negatively affected by religious and ethnic conflicts (Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro). All countries in the region have economies in transition. Member of the UN, Moldova is a member of the CIS.

Natural conditions. The countries of the region are rich in diverse landscapes. Climate in most of the territory it is temperate continental, only in the south and southwest it is subtropical Mediterranean. To obtain stable harvests, they irrigate large areas. Natural resources. Hydropower resources regions are among the most powerful in Europe. Mineral resources are varied, but the supply of them to the countries of the region is not the same. Largest reserves coal - in Transylvania (Romania), minor - west of Sofia in Bulgaria. Brown coal lies in Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, Slovenia. The only country in the region that is entirely self-sufficient oil and gas , - Romania. All others depend on their imports. H chernozems occupy large areas Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova. Forests , covering over 35% of the territories are the national wealth of the countries of the region. The region has significant recreational resources. Favorable agroclimatic resources determined the development of a fairly significant agricultural sector in most countries in the region. Population. Demographic situation characterized by the same trends as in most other European countries. It is characterized by a sharp decline in the birth rate and natural increase, which is caused by socio-economic factors. There are more women than men in the region (51 and 49%). Most countries in the region are dominated by representatives of the southern group e European race. In the northern regions, the majority of the population belongs to Central European racial types . South-Eastern Europe - nationally and religiously heterogeneous region, which predetermines numerous conflicts. Constant military conflicts gave rise to significant population migrations. In the countries of the region, a large percentage national minorities , and in some of them there was territorial mixing of ethnic groups (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro). Residents of the region belong to Indo-European language family, Altaic and Uralic families . Religious composition also quite varied. The vast majority of the population professes Christianity (Orthodox - Bulgarians, Romanians, Moldovans, Serbs, Montenegrins, a significant part of Macedonians, and Catholics - Slovaks, Croats, part of Romanians and Hungarians) and Islam (Albanians, Kosovo Albanians, Bosnians, Turks). In Albania the entire population is Muslim. Hosted Population evenly. Increasingly influences population distribution urbanization , associated primarily with the movement of rural residents to cities. Labor resources make up over 35 million people. Employment in agriculture is very high - 24%, and in Albania - 55%, the highest figure for Europe, 38% of the population is employed in industry, construction and transport, 38% in the service sector. One of important issues region is to overcome the socio-demographic and religious-ethnic crisis that arose in the countries of the former Yugoslavia.

Features of economic development and general characteristics of the economy. By The level of socio-economic development of the countries in the region belongs to the moderately developed ones. Only Albania meets the criteria of a developing country. The structure of the economy is dominated by industrial-agrarian countries. Each country is characterized by specific features of the transition period .

IN MGRT The countries of the region are represented by non-ferrous metallurgy, certain branches of the chemical industry (production of fertilizers, soda, perfumes and cosmetics), transport, agricultural engineering, machine tool manufacturing, furniture, light (production of clothing, shoes, leather goods) and food (sugar, oil, fruit and vegetable canning) , tobacco, wine) industry. IN agriculture agriculture traditionally predominates with the cultivation of cereals (wheat, barley, corn) and industrial crops (sugar beet, sunflower, tobacco, essential oil plants). They have significant development vegetable growing, horticulture, viticulture . In the countries of the Black Sea and Adriatic coasts, developed tourist and recreational complex .

Foreign economic relations. There are close economic ties between the countries of the region. They export products worth $33.9 billion: petroleum products, agricultural products, etc. Import ($45.0 billion) fuel, industrial goods, equipment, etc... The main ones trading partners are EU countries, CIS countries, Austria, Germany, Italy, Turkey, etc. Ukraine exports many goods to Moldova, Romania and Bulgaria, imports mainly from Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Slovenia.

The countries of Southern Europe are distinguished by their location on large peninsulas - the Iberian, Apennine and Balkan, which jut deep into the Mediterranean Sea. Most large states this part of Europe - Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece. In addition to them, in Southern Europe there are several of the smallest, “dwarf” states in the world. (What do you know about them?)

Indicate the main features of the geographical location of the countries of Southern Europe. Find the capitals of the countries named in the text. Remember the main features of the nature of Ancient Italy and Ancient Greece.

The countries of Southern Europe have much in common in nature and in the economic activities of the population.

Italy is one of the oldest countries in the world, distinguished by its rich history and typically Mediterranean nature. It occupies the Apennine Peninsula, large islands in the Mediterranean Sea - Sicily and Sardinia, as well as part of the mainland.

Mountains stretch across almost the entire territory of the country. The northern part is occupied by the largest mountain system throughout Europe and Italy - the Alps. Their mountain peaks on the northern border reach almost 5 thousand m (Mount Blanc - 4807 m). This is an area of young folding at the boundary of lithospheric plates. It coincides with the European-Asian seismic belt. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur here. The most famous of the volcanoes is Vesuvius. Mount Etna is located on the island of Sicily. Earthquakes are most frequent in Central and Southern Italy.

The Apennines are inferior in altitude to the Alps and do not exceed 3000 m above sea level. They do not have eternal snow. The Apennines are composed of limestone and sandstone, which is favorable for the formation of caves and grottoes.

There are few lowlands in Italy; they stretch in a narrow strip along the coasts. The largest, the Padan Plain, is located along the Po River valley. This is the main breadbasket of the country, where there are orchards and vineyards, grain crops and sugar beets everywhere.

Rice. 107. In the mountainous regions of Italy

Italy is comparatively poor in mineral resources, with the exception of mercury ore and sulfur. There are small deposits of polymetallic ores. But there are a lot of different building materials - marble, granites, volcanic tuffs.

The large extent of the country from north to south, protection from the north by high mountains and the influence of a warm and ice-free sea determine the climate of the country. The further south you go, the warmer it becomes. The climate on the Padan Plain is moderately warm, with hot summers but cold and foggy winters.

Most of the country has a Mediterranean climate with long, hot summers and warm, wet winters. average temperature January above O °C. In winter it often rains and the sky is covered with clouds. Snow falls very rarely on the Apennine Peninsula.

Rice. 108. In the south of the Balkan Peninsula. Greece

The climate of the Alps is typical of the mountains. It varies from the foothills to the peaks, from moderately warm to cold. In the mountains, the snow does not melt for several months, and the tops of the mountains are covered with eternal snow. The Alps receive particularly high precipitation, up to 3000 mm in the western, highest part. They are brought by moist westerly winds.

The rivers of Italy are short, with fast current. Unlike other rivers in Europe, they flood in winter. The longest and deep river- By. It carries a huge amount of suspended particles and forms a delta when it flows into the Adriatic Sea. On the Apennine Peninsula the most large river- The Tiber, on which the capital of the country is located - Rome.

There are many relatively large lakes of glacial origin in the Alps. Resorts of world significance have been created on their beautiful shores.

The soils of Italy are favorable for agriculture, growing fruit trees and grapes.

Italy is located in a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs, but almost no forests have survived. The hillsides and foothills are covered with dense thickets of evergreen shrubs and low trees. On the plains, the land is used for various agricultural crops.

National parks have been created to protect flora and fauna in the high parts of the Alps and Apennines. Floods are common in Italy, causing great damage to the local population. Enterprises located on the coast pollute the Mediterranean Sea.

Population. In terms of population in foreign Europe, Italy is second only to Germany. The main population is Italians, their language belongs to the Romance group. The highest population density is in the north of the country, where there are many cities, and around Naples. Relatively rare population in the mountains. Many Italians live and work in neighboring Switzerland and Germany. More than half the population lives in cities.

Italy is an industrial country. Most of the population is employed in factories and factories. Since our own mineral resources are insufficient, imported raw materials are mostly used. The country produces a variety of cars, among which the production of automobiles stands out; Italy ranks among the first in the world in their production. There are many factories that process oil into fuel and chemical products - plastics, synthetic fibers, fabrics made from them, yarn, varnishes and paints. Almost all oil is imported from abroad, mainly from Southwest Asia and North Africa. Many industrial enterprises are located on the sea coast. Modern ships are being built in port cities. Italian motorcycles and scooters are also known. Italy is the birthplace of motor scooters.

High temperatures in summer and warm, wet winters favor the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. Cereals can produce two harvests a year, but dry summers require artificial irrigation in many places. The main grain crop is wheat. Everyone knows the traditional Italian dish made from wheat flour - pasta, of which there are several dozen types. On the irrigated lands of the Padan Plain, large areas are occupied by rice and vegetable crops.

Rice. 109. On the Mediterranean coast

Italy is called the “main garden” of Europe, because of the variety of fruits grown - apples, pears, peaches, apricots, cherries, figs. In the southern part of the country and especially in Sicily, there are plantations of oranges, tangerines, lemons, and vineyards everywhere. Italy is second only to Spain in olive harvesting.

Big number sunny days, beautiful nature, warm sea, abundance historical monuments attract millions of tourists to Italy various countries peace. In Rome, a city with almost three thousand years of history, buildings and ruins of buildings built at the beginning of our era have been preserved. Part of the city is occupied by the “dwarf” state of the Vatican, where the head of the Catholic Church is located.

What changes have the economic activities of the population brought to the nature of Italy?
Find the country's largest cities on a comprehensive map of Western and Southern Europe.
Find areas where grains, rice, and fruits are grown.

Table 4 - Countries Northern Europe

Northern Europe has a favorable economic and geographical location, which is determined by the following features : demarcation of the countries of the region into Western and Eastern Europe; access to the seas of the Atlantic Ocean: the Baltic, North, Norwegian and two seas of the Arctic Ocean - Greenland and Barents; location at the intersection of important maritime and aviation routes from Europe to North America; the land neighborhood with Russia, which provides the prospect of close contacts and a huge sales market, as well as the maritime neighborhood with the Baltic countries influence their political and economic situation; neighborhood on the southern borders with highly developed EU countries (three countries in the region - Denmark, Sweden and Finland - are members of the EU).

There are many similarities in the historical development, geographical location, language and culture of the peoples of the Nordic countries. All countries are members UN: Denmark, Iceland, Norway - NATO members; Since 1814, Sweden has adhered to the principle of non-participation (neutrality) in military-political blocs and military conflicts in its foreign policy.

Natural conditions and resources. The most characteristic peculiarity of the geographical location of the Nordic countries is their location near the sea, which significantly influenced both the nature and economy of the region. Most of Finno-Scandinavia (the area that covers the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland) is located within the Baltic Shield, so fuel minerals there is no. Reserves oil on the North Sea shelf (Norwegian sector) - 1.2 billion tons, natural gas - 1995 billion m3. Finland has significant peat reserves (25 million tons). Sweden is one of the world's richest uranium raw materials countries in Europe. The crystalline rocks of the Baltic Shield are rich in iron ore with iron content from 25 to 40% (Sweden), copper and lead (Finland).

Mountain rivers are the source hydropower resources . The countries of the region are sufficiently wealthy fresh water. The enormous wealth that is called here “green gold” is forest. Natural and recreational resources very unique, especially in Iceland - a country of geysers and active volcanoes, located near the Arctic Circle. Features of the natural resource potential of the Nordic countries determined the development of industries of international specialization in them, in particular those related to the use of marine (shipbuilding, fish processing), forest (timber processing, pulp and paper industry), mineral resources(fuel and energy, metallurgical industries).

Population.

By features of population reproduction countries in the region belong to type 1. Growth rate population are positive, but minimal: from 0.2% (in Denmark) and 0.3% (in Finland) to 1.1% (in Iceland). The region has one of the highest in the world life expectancy : in Sweden - 73 years (men) and 79 years (women), in Iceland - 76 years (men) and 81 years (women). The share of children in the total population is constantly decreasing (19%), while that of older people is increasing (16%). In terms of numbers, women predominate over men (51 and 49%, respectively). The peoples of Northern Europe mostly belong to the northern group of the great Caucasian . In the north of Scandinavia, in Lapland, live the Sami, who are classified as transitional laponoid race, which absorbed elements of Caucasoid and Mongoloid race

Ethnic composition largely homogeneous.Residents of the region belong to two large language families - Indo-European and Ural. By religious grounds all countries belong to the Protestant branch of Christianity, which is dominated by Lutheranism. Traditionally, religion significantly influences socio-political life, since the countries of Northern Europe belong to the clerical world, and only citizens of the Protestant religion have the right to hold government positions in them.

Population distribution extremely unevenly, which is primarily due to the natural conditions of the region. The average population density is the lowest in Europe - from 10 to 5 people/km 2 . Northern Europe - urbanized region , the proportion of the urban population ranges from 63% in Finland to 92% in Iceland. Labor resources make up over 13 million people. The labor resources of the Nordic countries are traditionally characterized by a high level of education and professional training. Accordingly, the cost work force quite high.

Features of economic development and general characteristics of the economy.

The Nordic countries are one of the most economically developed in the world. They formed a special model of socio-economic development (“welfare society”, so-called “Scandinavian socialism”), defined by the following features : high standard of living, absence of sharp contrasts between rich and poor; significant level of taxes (55% of profits); average area housing - 400 m 2, Sweden ranks 1st in the world in terms of housing provision per capita (445 apartments for every 1000 people); per 1000 inhabitants there are 504 cars (2 cars per family), up to 500 televisions and 681 telephones; high social security: officially the working week is 40 hours, in practice on average it is 37 hours, paid leave is 5 weeks, expenses for children under 16 are paid, loans are provided for apartments.

Highly developed healthcare system: There are an average of 25 doctors per 10 thousand population. Low unemployment rate, which averages 5.3% in the region. The Nordic countries account for about 1% of the population and 3% of the GDP and industrial output of developed countries, but in terms of GDP per capita they belong to the 15 most developed countries in the world. All countries in the region have positive production growth (from 4.8% per year in Finland to 0.7% in Norway) and insignificant average annual inflation. The Scandinavian countries have a very high standard of living.

Having a relatively small population, Nordic countries are different high level industrial development and intensive agriculture. Industry structure their national economies fully correspond to the modern structure of the economies of other highly developed countries (the share of agriculture and mining industry in the structure of GNP ranges from 2 to 4%, only in Iceland it reaches 15% due to the intensive development of fishing and sheep farming); manufacturing and construction on average in the region account for 28% of GNP; service sector - 67%, since a shift occurred in the structure of GNP of the Northern European countries, similar to structural changes in general in the world economy: the share of the service sector in GNP increased, the share of agriculture decreased, and the importance of the latest knowledge-intensive industries increased. The share of R&D costs in the structure of GDP is constantly increasing and amounts to 3.3% in Sweden, 2.4% in Finland, 1.8% in Denmark and Norway, and 1.4% in Iceland. Sweden has become the world leader in recent years in terms of the share of R&D expenditures in GDP, ahead of the United States (2.5%) and Japan (2.7%), while Finland took fifth place.

IN MGRT countries of the region represented by individual sectors of the fuel and energy complex (oil and hydropower), non-ferrous metallurgy; aluminum, copper, mechanical engineering (production of ships, cars, electrical products and communications equipment), a highly developed forestry complex (production of lumber, pulp, paper), food industry (fish processing, meat processing, dairy and butter and cheese).

IN agriculture Intensive livestock farming predominates (dairy and beef cattle breeding and pig breeding). In areas located above the Arctic Circle, they breed reindeer, and in Iceland and the Faroe Islands - sheep. Agriculture (mainly in the southern regions of the region) is represented by fodder crops; potatoes, sugar beets, wheat, barley and rye are grown. For a long time great importance In the life of the countries there are fishing and maritime commercial shipping.

Industry.

In the countries of the region it predominates manufacturing industry with significant share of electricity, mineral extraction and forest development (except Denmark and Iceland). In the global division of labor, the main sectors of specialization are energy, metallurgy, timber processing, and mechanical engineering.

Agriculture- one of the most productive sectors of the economy of the countries of the region. Agricultural productivity high in all countries. According to statistics, one Danish farmer can feed 150 people (American and English - 60, German and French - up to 40 people). In the region's agriculture there is clearly livestock a direction that accounts for 70-80% of agricultural products. Crop production is of secondary importance.

Transport.

The countries of the region and their regions are connected to each other (except Iceland) by all modes of transport, which form a complex transport network. Sea transport - main in the region. Railway transport It ranks 2nd in freight turnover and plays a major role in long-distance domestic transport in Sweden and Finland.

Lake transport developed in Sweden and Finland, where lakes are connected by canals and have access to the sea. Motor transport creates significant competition for rail transport. Air Transport developed, SAS, an association of airlines from Scandinavian countries, plays an important role in international air transportation. Directly from North Sea offshore platforms underwater pipelines oil is transported to the UK and natural gas to Germany.

The countries of the region are quite active subjects foreign economic relations. They produce 2 % industrial products of developed countries and account for 5% of their exports. The main trading partners are the countries of the European Union and the USA. The foreign economic interests of the countries of the region also reach Ukraine: significant volumes of its exports go to Finland and Sweden. Norway and Denmark, and the largest amount of imports to Ukraine comes from Finland, Denmark, and Sweden. The Nordic countries have significant resources for development tourism and recreational activities .

Southern Europe includes 8 countries and one dependent territory - Gibraltar (possession of Great Britain) (table). Feature region is the location of the smallest state-city of the Vatican, whose territory is 44 hectares, and the oldest republic in the world - San Marino

Table 5 - Southern European countries

A country	Capital	Area, thousand km	Population, million people/km 2	Population density, persons/km 2	GNP per capita, US dollars (2000)
Andorra	Andorra la Vella	0,467	0,07
Vatican	Vatican	0,00044	0,001		-
Greece	Athens	132,0	10,4
Gibraltar (British)	Gibraltar	0,006	0,03
Spain	Madrid	504,7	39,2
Italy	Rome	301,3	57,2
Malta	Valletta	0,3	0,37
Portugal	Lisbon	92,3	10,8
San Marino	San Marino	0,061	0,027
Total		1031,1	118,1	Average - 115	Average - 175000

Important peculiarity of the economic and geographical position of the countries of Southern Europe , located on the peninsulas and islands of the Mediterranean Sea, is that they are all on the main sea routes from Europe to Asia, Africa and Australia, and Spain and Portugal also to Central and South America. All this, since the time of the great geographical discoveries, has affected the development of the region, the life of the countries of which is closely connected with the sea. No less significant is the fact that the region is located between Central Europe and the Arab countries of North Africa, which have multilateral ties with Europe. The former metropolises of Portugal, Italy and Spain still retain influence over some African countries. All countries (except the Vatican) are members of the UN, the OECD, and the largest are members of NATO and the European Union. Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, led by Great Britain.

Natural conditions and resources.

The region is located on the peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea- Iberian, Apennine and Balkan. Only Italy is part of mainland Europe. The Mediterranean Sea largely determined the similarity of the natural conditions of the region. There is an acute shortage of fuel in the region. useful fossils. There is almost no oil, very little natural gas and coal. However, the rich are deposits of various metals, especially colored ones: bauxite(Greece belongs to the top three European leaders), mercury, copper, polymetals(Spain, Italy), tungsten(Portugal). Huge reserves building materials - marble, tuff, granite, cement raw materials, clay.

In southern European countries it is underdeveloped river network. Large massifs forests preserved only in the Pyrenees and the Alps. The average forest cover of the region is 32%. Natural and recreational resources are extremely rich. These are warm seas, many kilometers of sandy beaches, lush vegetation, picturesque landscapes, numerous sea and mountain resorts, as well as areas favorable for mountaineering and skiing, etc. There are 14 national parks in the region. The unique natural resource potential of the region has contributed to the significant development of the agricultural sector and tourism and recreational activities in its countries.

Population.

Traditionally, Southern Europe is characterized by a high birth rate, but natural population growth is low: from 0.1% per year in Italy to 0.4-0.5% in Greece, Portugal and 0.8% in Malta. Women account for 51% of the region's population. The majority of the population belongs to the southern (Mediterranean) branch of e Caucasian race. During the era of the Roman Empire, most of them were Romanized, and now people belonging to the Romanesque group predominate here Indo-European language family(Portuguese, Spaniards, Galicians, Catalans, Italians, Sardinians, Romansh). Exception are: Greeks(Greek group of the Indo-European family); Albanians(Albanian group of the Indo-European family), represented in Italy; Gibraltar (Germanic group of the Indo-European family); Maltese(Semitic group of the Semitic-Hamitic language family).

Consider that Maltese is a dialectal form of Arabic; Turks(Turkic group of the Altaic language family) - there are many of them in Greece; Basque(in the rank of a separate family) - live in the historical region of the Basque Country in northern Spain. Population composition in the countries of the region is predominantly homogeneous. High indicators of mononationality characteristic of Portugal (99.5% Portuguese), Italy and Greece (98% Italians and Greeks, respectively), and only Spain has a significant weight (almost 30%) of national minorities: Catalans (18%), Galicians (8%), Basques (2.5%), etc. The majority of the population is Christians . Christianity is represented by two branches: Catholicism(west and center of the region); Orthodoxy(east of the region, Greece). In Southern Europe there is the spiritual and administrative center of the Roman Catholic Church - the Vatican, which exists in the 4th century. Some Turks, Albanians, Greeks - Muslims.

Population posted unevenly. Highest density- in fertile valleys and coastal lowlands, the smallest in the mountains (Alps, Pyrenees), in some areas up to 1 person / km 2. Level urbanization in the region is much lower than in other parts of Europe: in Spain and Malta alone, up to 90% of the population lives in cities, and, for example, in Greece and Italy - more than 60%, in Portugal - 36%. Labor resources are about 51 million people. In general, 30% of the active population is employed in industry, 15% - in agriculture, 53% - in service sector. Recently, many employees from Eastern and South-Eastern Europe come to Southern Europe for the fruit and vegetable harvest season, who cannot find work in their own countries.

Features of economic development and general characteristics of the economy.

The countries of the region still lag economically behind the highly developed countries of Europe. Although Portugal, Spain, Greece and Italy are members of the EU, all of them, except Italy, lag behind the leaders in many socio-economic indicators. Italy is the economic leader of the region, belongs to highly developed industrial-agrarian countries, with a clear tendency to form a post-industrial type of economy. At the same time, the country still has significant contrasts in the development of many industries and production, in the social sphere, and in the socio-economic conditions of the North and South.

Italy lags behind many highly developed countries in terms of scientific and technological development. While ahead of some Western European countries in terms of net profits from tourism, it is inferior to them in the scale and intensity of international trade and financial transactions. Spain. This is the second country in the region in terms of socio-economic development. The public sector plays a significant role in the Spanish economy, accounting for up to 30% of the country's GDP. The state carries out economic programming, controls the railways, the coal industry, a significant part of shipbuilding and ferrous metallurgy.

In the second half of the 80s. XX century. Portugal experienced significant economic growth. The average GDP growth during this period was one of the highest in the EU and amounted to 4.5-4.8% per year; in 2000, GNP was equal to $159 billion. Greece has a larger GNP than Portugal (181.9 billion in 2000). The country's industry is significantly monopolized by large local and foreign capital (mainly the USA, Germany, France and Switzerland). Up to 200 companies receive over 50% of all profits. Greece has fairly high inflation rates for EU countries (3.4% per year). Government measures to reduce it (cutting government subsidies, freezing wages, etc.) predetermine social instability.

IN MGRT countries of the region are represented individual branches of mechanical engineering (production of cars, household appliances, technological equipment for the light and food industries), furniture industry, production of construction products and equipment, light industry branches (fruit and vegetable canning, oilseeds - production of olive oil, winemaking, pasta, etc.) . Agriculture is dominated by agricultural sectors - growing a variety of subtropical crops: citrus fruits, wood oils, grapes, vegetables, fruits, essential oil plants, etc.

Due to the insufficient feed supply, livestock farming is dominated by sheep breeding and, to a small extent, beef cattle breeding. The countries of the region are actively developing merchant shipping and ship repair. They are the undisputed leaders in the development of international tourism. The warm sea, Mediterranean climate, rich subtropical vegetation, numerous monuments of ancient culture and architecture are the main factors thanks to which Southern Europe is a favorite place of recreation and entertainment for many recreationists in the world, the largest tourist center.

5. General characteristics of the countries of Eastern (Central) Europe

The economic and geographical position of Eastern Europe is distinguished by the following features:

Demarcation in the west with highly developed countries, and in the east and southeast - with Russia and the countries of South-Eastern Europe - potential markets for Eastern Europe;

Passage of trans-European transport routes of meridional and latitudinal directions through the region.

Over the past 10 years in EGP(economic-geographical position) of the region the following took place changes:

The collapse of the USSR, the formation of the CIS and new countries;

German reunification;

The collapse of Czechoslovakia, as a result of which two independent states were formed: the Czech Republic and Slovakia;

The appearance on the southern borders of “unstable” neighbors in relation to the military-political state - the Balkan countries, Yugoslavia.

This name refers to that part that lies in the subtropical zone and is part of a vast, single, physical-geographically, territory located along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and Western Europe and is usually called the Mediterranean. In Europe, the Mediterranean includes three peninsulas and islands of the Mediterranean Sea. The northern border of Southern Europe runs along the northern foot, southern foot and southern edge of the Padan Plain, then along the Sava and the lower Danube. If in the western and central parts this boundary is expressed quite clearly in nature, then in the east natural boundary actually absent. On the Balkan Peninsula, the landscapes of Central Europe penetrate quite far to the south and gradually transform into the landscapes of the subtropical zone. The Balkan Peninsula is an area, according to natural conditions, transitional from Central Europe to Southern Europe.

The Mediterranean as a whole, and with it Southern Europe, is characterized by great unity of natural conditions. This is a territory with a predominance of mountainous, highly fragmented relief, in which mountain structures of the alpine geosyncline are combined with more ancient folded massifs, and areas of flat relief occupy relatively little space.

Complete destruction of natural vegetation, cultivation of subtropical crops - olives, citrus fruits, cotton.

Three physical-geographical regions are distinguished: Iberian, Apennine, Balkan.

Pyrenees. The Iberian region includes the Iberian Peninsula (the largest and most massive) and adjacent islands. Border along the Pyrenees Mountains. There was a long connection with (until the end of the Paleogene), therefore the originality of the landscapes.

An area of plateaus and mountains, varying in height and relief. About 60% of the territory is occupied by the ancient Paleozoic Meseta massif, surrounded (except in the west) by alpine structures. The Andalusian mountains and the Balearic Islands are similar to the Alps (alps) in composition and. The Cantabrian, Iberian and Catalan mountains are less complex uplifts with inclusions of the Hercynian massifs (Iberids).

The core of the peninsula is the Meseta plateau, an ancient Hercynian formation. Denudation, peneplanation, and fault dislocation created low table ridges and deep valleys on the surface of the Meseta. The crystalline base of the plateau comes to the surface in the north-west of the peninsula, here the ridges drop steeply to the sea (rias type of coast). Most of the Meseta are low (600-800 m) Old Castilian and Novocastilian plateaus, separated by the Central Cordillera.

Starokastilskoe is distinguished by its height (700-800 m) and rocky, uniform surface. Novocastilian is lower and strongly dissected river valleys. Central - blocky mountains from latitudinal ranges: Sierra de Guadarrama, Sierra de Gata, Sierra de Behar, Sierra de Gredos (Almansor, 2592 m).

Between the river Tagus and Guadiana are a chain of mountains of Toledo and Sierra de Guadalupe. In the south of Meseta there is a strip of Sierra Morena ridges, in the west there are plains - the lowered outskirts of Meseta with highly rugged terrain. In the east there are the Iberian Mountains, anticline ridges, limestones are widely represented (karst processes); at the foot of the pasture.

The Aragonese plain east of the Iberian Mountains with the Ebro River has an undulating surface (up to 250 m), on the periphery - up to 500-700 m of Cenozoic conglomerates and sandstones.

The Pyrenees Mountains are among the most inaccessible in Foreign Europe, stretch for 450 km (Aneto peak, 3404 m). The axial zone is made of crystalline rocks, narrows and pinches out to the west. Alternation of high plateau-like areas and rocky peaks with cirques, small and tarn lakes (especially on the northern slopes). To the south of the axial zone there are high mountain structures made of Mesozoic limestones and Cenozoic conglomerates, in the north there is a strip of the Middle Pyrenees, at the base of which there are ancient Hercynian cores, framed by Mesozoic limestones with karst terrain. Even further north, the Little Pyrenees are low foothills with alluvial fans mountain rivers. There are the Western Pyrenees - low and easily surmountable, the Central Pyrenees - massive and high and mid-mountain -

Eastern Pyrenees. The continuation of the Pyrenees in the west is the Cantabrian Mountains (Penya Vieja, 2815 m), in the east to the mouth of the Ebro - the Catalan Mountains (Moncena, 1712 m).

In the southeast of the peninsula there are the Andalusian Mountains (Beta Cordillera) with the highest point of the entire peninsula, the city of Mulacén, 3478 m - the most complex tectonic mountain range of the Alpine type. Alpine features are expressed in two zones: axial crystalline and northern limestone. The difference from the Alps is that they are strongly fragmented into ridges separated by valleys and basins. To the north of the Andalusian Mountains is the Andalusian Lowland, an intermountain trough filled with marine sediments.

Sharp climatic differences between regions, manifested in temperature and precipitation. In the northern part of the peninsula, the climate is transitional from subtropical to temperate with mild winters (+6, +8°) and not hot summers (18-20°). Precipitation (1000-2000 mm) is uniform throughout the seasons. Western regions are subtropical maritime (hot summers, humid, warm winters). Precipitation 800-1000 mm, max. in winter, not a long period of drought. Typical Mediterranean climate in the eastern and southern regions (summer 26-28°, winter 9-12°), precipitation 300-500 mm, in the mountains 1000 mm with a summer minimum.

The internal plateaus of the Meseta and the Aragonese plain are characterized by a dry continental climate (in winter +1, +4°, in summer more than 30°), precipitation - 350-450 mm with a maximum in winter.

The rivers Duero, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir are navigable in their lower reaches. The Mediterranean regime is typical (rise in winter, decline in summer).

Forests have been preserved in the northern regions, covering 8-10% of the territory. In the Cantabrian Mountains and Galicia, 25-30% is covered with forest; forests of beech, oak (summer and winter), chestnut, ash, and maple are common. By the sea, evergreen holm oak and seaside pine are mixed in. Birch trees, a relic of the Ice Age, are found in Galicia.

In Portugal, evergreen forests and shrubs grow (trees include several types of oak (holm, cork, Portuguese) and pine (maritime, pine). Maquis is widely represented - strawberry tree, myrtle, pistachio, cistus.

In the south and east of the peninsula there are formations of hard-leaved shrubs (maquis, garrigue, tomillary). In the Balearics there is the palmito formation (chamerops palm - dwarf fan). On the plateaus of Old and New Castile - tomillaria (aromatic Lamiaceae - thyme, lavender, rosemary).

The Pyrenees Mountains have vertical zonation. On the southern slopes up to 400-500 m there is Mediterranean vegetation (garriga), above 500 m - pine forests with an admixture of holm oak and juniper, at 1000-1700 m - beech and fir forests, from 2300 m - subalpine and.

In the Western Pyrenees, Mediterranean vegetation disappears, and a belt of oak and beech forests is widely represented. Conifers - to the very tops.
Among the animals there are European and African forms. In the south there are civet genets, porcupines, and wild rabbits; The only species of European monkey is the macaque macaque. Endemic birds: blue magpie, red partridge. Lots of reptiles.

Special features: the largest and most massive peninsula. Until the end of the Neogene, there was a connection with Africa - hence the uniqueness of the landscapes. Hercynides (Meseta massif - 60% of the territory), Iberids (Cantabrian, Iberian, Catalan mountains) and Alpides (Andalusian mountains, Balearic Islands). An area of plateaus and mountains, varying in height and type of relief. In the Pyrenees, the development of axial crystalline, framed from the north and south by Mesozoic limestone zones. The Pyrenees are one of the most inaccessible mountain regions in Europe. Sharp climatic differences in individual regions (in temperature, amount of precipitation). In the northern regions there are broad-leaved forests, in the west there are evergreen forests and shrubs, in the south and east there are formations of hard-leaved shrubs, on the plateaus of Old and New Castile there are tomillars, in the Balearic Islands there are palmito trees, on the Aragonese plain there are patches of salt marshes with halophytes.

Apeninskaya. The Apennine region includes the Apennine Peninsula, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, etc. In the north, the shield of the Alps has a typical Mediterranean climate and nature.

The Alpine tectonic structures of the Apennine Mountains in the extreme south meet the Hercynian structures of the Calabrian peninsula. This combination is also typical for Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica.

Ancient Paleozoic Tirrenida massif in the Neogene and Quaternary period sank and islands were formed. This was accompanied by volcanic activity, which continues unabated even now: Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli.

The strip of foothills separating the Apennines from the Tyrrhenian Sea is the Pre-Apennines. In the north it is a wide, hilly Tuscan plain with individual low rises of crystalline rocks - the Apuan and Ore Mountains - deposits of Carrara marble and ore. To the south are the Roman Predapennines (Lazio) with ancient volcanic formations. In the calderas of extinct volcanoes there are round-shaped lakes (Bolsena, Bracciano, Vico, etc.). Among the volcanic hills is Rome. Still to the south are the Neapolitan Predapennines (Naples Campania) - an ancient and modern volcanic terrain. Along the Gulf of Naples stretch Phlegrean fields- low volcanic cones, eroded by water flows, with emissions. In the depths of the bay is Vesuvius 1277 m.
The eastern foothills of the Apennines - Subapennines - are more uniform in structure. In the north there is a coastal plain, to the south there are wide arched limestone massifs and plateaus (Gargano massif, Le Murge plateau, Salentina Peninsula) with karst processes, arid.

Sicily is composed of alpine structures that form latitudinally elongated ridges (Nebrodi, Le Madonie). In the north of the island there is a continuation of the Calabrian Apennines - the Peloritan Mountains (up to 1375 m), in the central part there is a heavily rugged plateau, sparsely populated and arid. On the east coast, Etna (3340 m) is the most active in Europe with side cones on the slopes (about 900), it is characterized by altitudinal zone- gardens, vineyards up to 800 m, above pastures and xerophytic evergreen shrubs. and associated relief in the landscapes of almost the entire island. The most active volcanoes in the Apennine region are Etna and Stromboli.

Sardinia and Corsica - the remnants of the Tyrrhenians - are composed of crystalline rocks. The relief includes medium-high mountains. In the west of Sardinia there are lava and tuff plateaus, in the east there are the highest altitudes, the southwest is also elevated (Iglesiente massif). It is separated by the Campidano lowland. Corsica is a high granite massif (Mont Sainteau, 2710 m).

Fragments of the Tyrrhenids - Aeolian Islands (Vulcano, Lipari, Stromboli, etc. - active volcanoes).

In the east of the Dinaric Highlands - complexly built mountainous areasŠumadia, north-eastern Peloponnese and the island of Euboea - Paleozoic sandstones, shales, and crystalline rocks predominate. Karst processes are poorly developed. Dome-shaped peaks, gentle slopes.

The middle Thracian-Macedonian massif of Hercynian age consists of blocky uplifts and tectonic depressions. Most high education- Rila mountains (highest point 2925 m), Rhodopes, Pirin, Osogovska Planina, Shar Planina. The mountains are separated by tectonic basins and fault zones; large ones have a meridional strike with the valleys of the Vardar, Struma, and Morava rivers.

Continuation of the Dinaric Highlands - the Pindus Mountains (Zmolikas, 2637 m) stretch from north to south for 200 km - made of limestone and flysch. The ridges are dissected by deep river valleys. Even further to the southeast are isolated mountain ranges limited by faults (Olympus, 2917 m; Parnassus, 2457 m).

The Peloponnese peninsula is strongly dissected, in the center of the Sparta plateau. Connected to the rest of the city by the Corinth Canal (length 6.3 km, built in 1897).

In the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula are the Thessalian, Upper Thracian, Lower Thracian, and Thessaloniki plains.

Upper and Lower Thracian are located in the trough zone. The first of lake and river sediments, with a flat surface with residual mounds of crystalline rock outcrops.

Lower Thracian from Neogene marine sandy-clayey sediments. Agriculture centers.

Islands: Ionian in the west, Sporades in the east, Crete in the south with mountainous dissected terrain (Ida, 2456 m).

For most of the peninsula the climate is Mediterranean, in the north and north-east it is transitional from temperate continental (sub-Mediterranean climate). Differences in climate especially in winter. In the north and center from -2 to +2° (in the Rhodope Mountains -I0°). Stable in the mountains. In the south from +4, +5 to 18-12°. In summer, temperatures are uniform (21-23° in the north, 25-27°C in the south).
The amount of precipitation decreases from west to east and north to south. On the western slopes of the Dinaric Highlands 2000-3000 mm, in the Rhodope Mountains more than 1000 mm per year, least of all in the Thracian Lowland and southern Greece (less than 500 mm). Differences in precipitation patterns in areas with a Mediterranean climate - max. In winter, the share of summer precipitation increases to the north.

Lakes in tectonic basins (Skadar, Prespa, Ohrid). In the west and south there are karst lakes with great depths. A special feature of the Balkan region is the abundance of thermal springs (in the Rhodope Mountains, in the Struma River basin).

The vegetation is varied and depends on orography and climatic differences.

Interaction between Central European and Mediterranean flora. There are many endemics and relics (Pine and Rumelian pine, Judas tree, spruce). Mountain forests of Central European species, shrub formations. In the eastern part of the peninsula, the freegan and shiblyak formations predominate. Typically Mediterranean vegetation is characteristic of the south and the islands (holm oak, wall oak, Aleppo pine, pine, cypress, maquis and shiblyak thickets). Mediterranean vegetation rises to 600-800 m in the south and 200-300 m in the north; above the mountains are covered with forests of evergreen and deciduous species (ash, hornbeam, hop hornbeam, downy oak, winter oak, Macedonian oak). The upper border of the forest is coniferous (Greek fir, armored pine). In the sub-Mediterranean climate there is a combination of evergreen and Central European species. In the lower belt of mountains on rocky soils there are thickets of gorse, astragalus, milkweed, sage, and thyme (freegan). In more continental conditions there are thickets of deciduous shrubs (shiblik). fluffy hornbeam, plane tree, oriental beech. The soils are brown and brown forest. In basins on products of andesitic lavas, black soils (smolnitsa) up to 120 cm of humus horizon are the most of the Balkan Peninsula.

From 1700 m there is a belt of coniferous forests (European fir, spruce, pine). Above are mountain shrubs and subalpine lawns.

The fauna includes representatives of Central European and Mediterranean species- in the mountains there are wild boars, deer, chamois, a vulture, a falcon, an eagle. Lizards, vipers, Greek tortoise.

Special features: the north is not protected from continental influences - the landscapes are transitional from Central European to Mediterranean. In the west and north there are folds of Alpine age, at the base of the peninsula there is the ancient Hercynian Thracian-Macedonian massif - a fragment of the Aegean. In the west of the Dinaric Highlands there are thick strata of Mesozoic limestones - a wide distribution of karst forms: carr fields, craters, depressions, caves, underground rivers, fields The Karst Plateau is an area of classically expressed karst landforms. Sub-Mediterranean climate in the north and northeast of the peninsula, manifested in sharp decreases in winter temperatures due to breakthroughs of cold continental masses and an increase in the share of summer precipitation. The predominance of the freegana and shiblyak formations. The presence of black soils - smolnitsa - the most fertile soils in the Balkan region.