Origin of the Celts. Ancient Celts

Origins that in ancient times at the turn of eras occupied a vast territory in Western and Central Europe.

origin of name[ | ]

The appearance of the word "Celtic" in English language happened in the 17th century. Oxford-based Welsh linguist Edward Lloyd drew attention to the similarities inherent in the languages spoken in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. He called these languages “Celtic” - and the name stuck. The word "Celtic" is also used to describe a specific and highly recognizable ornamental style with a complex hierarchical structure of multi-scale elements: spirals, woven ribbons, human figures and fantastic animals. Of particular interest are fractal structures, unique in the world history of ornament. However, there is no evidence that this design was created by an ethnically homogeneous group of people.

Story [ | ]

The internecine wars that weakened the Celts contributed to the invasion of the Germans from the east and the Romans from the south. The Germans pushed back some of the Celts in the 1st century BC. e. beyond the Rhine. Julius Caesar in 58 BC e. - 51 BC e. took possession of all of Gaul. Under Augustus, the Romans conquered areas along the upper Danube, northern Spain, Galatia, and under Claudius (mid-1st century AD) a significant part of Britain. The Celts, who wished to remain on the territory of the Roman Empire, underwent strong Romanization.

Contacts with ancient civilizations[ | ]

The Celts were one of the most warlike peoples in Europe. To intimidate the enemy before the battle, the Celts uttered deafening screams and blew war trumpets - carnyxes, the bells of which were made in the form of animal heads. In the 1st millennium BC. e. Celts To increase the strength of the wheels of their chariots, they began to use a metal rim. The wheel is an attribute of Taranis, the Celtic thunder deity.

The Eastern Celts, settled along the Danube valley, penetrated far to the east in 281 BC. e. to Thrace in northern Greece, the Greeks called them Galatians.

While settling, the Celts mixed with local tribes: Iberians, Ligurians, Illyrians, Thracians, but some of them long time managed to maintain their identity (Lingons, Boyas), which was one of the reasons for their small number. So, for example, in 58 BC. e. , according to Julius Caesar, there were 263,000 Helvetii and only 32,000 Boii (the argument here is controversial, since the Dacian king Burebista dealt mercilessly with the Boii around 60 BC). The Celts of southern France developed in conditions of active interaction with ancient city-states and therefore were distinguished by the highest level of culture. Driven out by the Romans in the 2nd century BC. e. from the north of Italy (from the so-called Cisalpine Gaul), the Celts settled in central and northwestern Bohemia (these were the Boii tribes, from which the territory received the name Boiohaemum - the homeland of the Boii - Bohemia).

The most numerous tribes of the Celts were the Helvetii, Belgians, and Arverni.

It should also be noted that the Celtic origin of the Arverni is still in question, and most of the Belgian tribal union had Germanic roots; in any case, most experts consider their tribes as probably having a mixed German-Celtic origin. The Biturigs and Volci were also not native Celtic tribes. However, the very formulation of the question of origin needs clarification, formulating which scientists come to the conclusion that during the migrations of the Bronze and Iron Ages, newcomers (in different historical periods these could be Celts, Germans and others) did not so much displace (or exterminate) the defeated autochthonous population , how many were included with them in the process of mutual assimilation, the consequence of which was the formation of new ethnic groups that retained one of the previous ethnonyms.

Celtic beliefs [ | ]

Irish law[ | ]

The original national law, which had been in force in Ireland since ancient times, was abolished by the English government at the beginning of the 17th century and doomed to oblivion, like everything that could remind the Irish of their former national existence. But in 1852, the English government commissioned Irish scientists to find and publish monuments of ancient Irish law.

It is believed that the legal provisions contained in Great Book of Ancient Law, developed under the influence of the Bregons, approximately in 1st century AD, and the legal treatises, which serve as the basis of the collection and the subject of the later gloss, were compiled during the era of the introduction of Christianity in Ireland, that is, in the first half of the 5th century, then were preserved by oral tradition for several centuries, and were written down in the 8th century. The oldest manuscript that has come down to us belongs to XIV century. For the study of the original foundations and evolution of primitive Indo-European law, there is no other source - with the possible exception of the laws of Manu - that would surpass in importance the ancient Irish laws. consists of 5 books, of which the first two treat legal proceedings, the last three - about raising children, various forms leases and relationships different persons among themselves, and also to the church.

The book of Aicillus, another source of information on Celtic law, was based on two works, one by King Cormac (circa 250 AD) and the other by Cennfelads, who lived four centuries later; its manuscripts are no older than the 15th century, but the book itself was compiled much earlier, and the institutions described in it date back to remote antiquity.

In addition to these two main sources, other monuments of ancient Irish literature can serve, especially church texts - the confession of St. Patrick, Collatio canonum hibernica, etc.

All these monuments find the people in a state of tribal life, the highest manifestation of which was the clan. Along with clan relations, and sometimes in addition to them, a dependence similar to the vassal relations of the feudal system was established through the lease of land. The basis of the lease, which, however, could be free, that is, not to establish a dependent relationship between the tenant and the owner, was actually the giving for use not of land, but of livestock (the so-called shetel, cheptel, from the Celtic chatal or chetal - livestock) .

The owner by name was in fact only the manager of the common family estate, burdened with duties for the benefit of the family. Marriage was concluded through the purchase of wives and, before the introduction of Christianity, apparently could be performed for one year. The ransom for the daughter went in favor of the father, but in subsequent marriages a certain part of it, which gradually increased with each new marriage (the law provides for 21 marriages), was turned in favor of the daughter. When a brother replaced a father, he received half of what the father was due. When the spouses were equal both in social status and in the contributions they made to compile a common property fund, then the wife enjoyed the same rights as her husband and one could not enter into transactions without the other; in the case of an unequal marriage, priority in household affairs belongs to the spouse who made the contribution. Along with these cases, Senkhus-Mor provides for 7 more forms of marriage relations, reminiscent of irregular marriages, which are mentioned in the laws of Manu. When spouses separate, each takes their entire contribution, while acquired property is distributed between them on the basis of special rules that provide for the smallest details.

There was quite a complex system family relations, which was applied not only to the distribution of inherited property, but also to the distribution of monetary fines that took the place of blood feud: relatives were called upon to pay and receive these fines in the same manner as to inheritance. The reward for killing a free person (the price of blood, eric) was determined at 7 slaves (a slave was a common unit of value among the Celts) or 21 milk cows. In addition, there was also a price for honor (enechlann), the size of which depended on the wealth and social position of the victim. It was up to the relatives of the criminal to either pay for him, or abandon him and doom him to exile. Accidental killing did not exempt from payment of reward; murder by secret or ambush carried a double fine. There was a tariff of fines for injuries and beatings. The amount of remuneration for losses was in direct relation to the rank of the victim and inversely to the rank of the one who caused the harm. The initial stage of the process was the arrest, which was imposed by the plaintiff on the property (livestock) of the defendant and at the same time served as security for the claim. If the defendant did not have any property, then he was subjected to personal detention and taken to the plaintiff with shackles on his legs and a chain around his neck; the plaintiff was obliged to give him only a cup of meat broth a day. If the plaintiff and defendant belonged to different tribes and the seizure of the latter’s property was inconvenient, then the plaintiff could detain any person from the defendant’s tribe. The hostage paid for his fellow tribesman and had the right to claim back against him. If, by seizing property, it was impossible to induce the defendant to appear in court, then the case ended in a duel, the conditions of which were established by custom and which, in any case, took place in front of witnesses.

The court belonged to the head of the clan or the people's assembly, but in general it had an arbitration character. When making a decision, he was guided by the opinion Bregon(actually brithem, then brehon - judge), who in the pagan era belonged to the number fillet(filé - clairvoyant, prophet) - to the class of priests who directly followed the Druids; in the Middle Ages they became a hereditary corporation. Bregons are the broadcasters of law, the custodians of formulas and rather complex rituals of the process, characterized by the formalism usual in antiquity; in their conclusions they do not create law, but only reveal and formulate those legal norms that lie in the legal consciousness of the people. The Bregons were also poets and were at the head of schools in which law was studied through oral transmission, along with the rules of poetic creativity. In the pagan era, the Bregons’ belonging to the number of priests imparted their religious authority to the conclusions, especially since the fillet was attributed with supernatural power, the ability to bring all sorts of troubles to the rebellious. At that time, at the head of the Phile class was the so-called ollaw, corresponding in position to the chief druid of the Gauls. And after the introduction of Christianity, the conclusions of the Bregons did not lose their mystical connotations: various magical actions of Oregon were performed at the trial, which were supposed to cause supernatural revelations. Then the evidence was a judicial duel, an oath, ordeals, and the support of fellow jurors.

Celtic names in modern Europe[ | ]

Amiens - on behalf of the Gallic Ambian tribe;
Belgium - on behalf of the Belgian tribe;
Belfast - in Celtic “bel fersde” - “ford of the sandbank”;
Bohemia (obsolete name of the historical region of the Czech Republic) - on behalf of the Boj tribe;
Brittany (region in France) - named after the Briton tribe;
Britain is the same
Burj - on behalf of the Biturigian tribe;
Galatia (historical region in the territory of modern Turkey) - from the Greek name of the Celts “Galatians”;
Galicia (province in Spain);
Galicia (historical region on the territory of Ukraine);
Gaul - (historical region on the territory of modern France, Belgium, parts of Switzerland, Germany and Northern Italy);
Dublin - Irish for “black lake”;
Quimper - Breton for “confluence of rivers”;
Cambrian Mountains - from the ancient self-name of the Welsh “Cymry”;
Langres - from the name of the Gaulish tribe Lingones;
Lyon - "Fortress of Meadows", from ancient name“Lugdunum” (Lug - Gallic god of the Sun, Gallic “dun” - fortress, hill);
Nantes - on behalf of the Namnet tribe;
Auvergne - on behalf of the Arverni tribe;
Paris - from the name of the Celtic tribe of Parisians;
Périgord is a historical region in France;
Poitiers - from the name of the Picton (Pictavi) tribe;
Seine (river in France), from Gaulish Sequana;
Tur - on behalf of the Turon tribe;
Troyes - on behalf of the Tricasse tribe.

Modern Celtic peoples[ | ]

Irish (self-name - Irish. Muintir na hÉireann or Irish. na hÉireannaigh, singular - Éireannach, name of the language - An Ghaeilge, name of the state - Poblacht na hÉireann (Republic of Ireland))
Welsh (self-name - Welsh. Cymry, singular - Cymro, name of the language - Cymraeg, name of the country - Cymru, name of the administrative-territorial entity - Tywysogaeth Cymru (Principality

Celts are the name given to tribes of Indo-European origin in ancient times and at the turn of the era, who occupied vast areas in Western and Central Europe. It was very warlike people, who in 390 BC. even captured and sacked Rome. But internecine wars weakened the warlike people. As a result, the Germans and Romans drove the Celts out of their lands. These tribes remained surrounded by numerous secrets, intrigues, and therefore myths. Let's try to understand who they really were.

The Celts lived in what is now Britain and Ireland. It is difficult to say anything definitive about the origins of the Celts. Some historians believe that they inhabited Britain as early as 3,200 years ago, while others believe that they inhabited Britain long before that. But one thing is clear - the migration of the Celts began around 400 BC. from Central Europe. The tribes began to spread in all directions, but to the south they had to face the strong Romans. It turned out that the warlike but disparate Celts were opposed by a single unified empire. The tribes constantly fought with each other, without thinking about uniting against a common enemy. As a result, some of the tribes were completely destroyed, others submitted to the Romans, adopting their culture, and others generally went to the remote corners of that world - to Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are still communities of modern Celts there who even strive to preserve their culture. And in their travels, the Celts even reached Greece and Egypt.

The Celts fought naked. When mentioning the Celts, there is always someone who will mention their tradition of fighting naked with a gold band around their necks, a neck mane. This myth about the Celts is one of the most popular. But once you think about such a statement, its absurdity immediately becomes clear. And this false statement appeared thanks to the Romans. Today, almost all the information we have about these ancient tribes comes from the records of Roman historians. There is no doubt that they exaggerated their exploits, and described the enemy as absolutely primitive savages. In this case, history was made by the victors; was it worth expecting honesty from it towards the vanquished? But there is another side to this story. The Celts lived during a period of history called the Iron Age. Then, instead of bronze, they just started using iron. It was used to make armor, weapons and tools. The Celts had the opportunity to arm themselves with swords, axes, hammers, create metal armor, chain mail, and rivet leather. Given the existence of armor, it would be foolish to assume that warriors abandoned them and fought naked.

Druids were ancient wizards. For that time, the Celtic Druids were truly powerful characters. They didn't just wear white robes and perform human sacrifices, but they did truly incredible things. Druids acted as advisers to tribal leaders and even kings. With their help, laws were born, just as today the English Parliament “invites” the Queen to sign acts. Druids often acted as judges, ensuring compliance with the rules they themselves introduced. For the Celts, the Druids were the personification of wisdom. No wonder you had to study for 20 years to earn such a title. The Druids had knowledge in the field of astronomy, they preserved folk legends and cultivated natural philosophy. Celtic wise men told villagers when they should start sowing. The Druids even believed that they could predict the future.

Celtic traditions died with them. Thanks to the Celtic Druids, one interesting tradition which we still know today. The fact is that in those days the oak was considered a sacred tree. The Druids believed that the gods lived in everything that surrounds us, including rocks, water, and plants. No less sacred a thing than the oak tree was the mistletoe, which grew on it. Beliefs in the powers of these plants continue to this day. It is no coincidence that in the English-speaking world there is a Christmas tradition of kissing under the mistletoe.

Celtic women were sullen. Based on the assumption that the Celts were savages (thanks to the Romans!), it is logical to consider their women gloomy and downtrodden. But this is a myth. In fact, Celtic women could be quite powerful and influential, owning their own land and even divorcing at will. For those times, such freedoms seemed incredible. Roman women were essentially limited in their rights, but among the Celts, women could make a career by climbing the social ladder. High status could be both inherited and acquired through merit. Among the Celts, landowners followed their leader into battle. If it turned out to be a woman, then she too went into battle. In fact, among the Celts, female warriors even taught boys and girls the art of war. Women could even become druids, creating the laws of society. These norms protected everyone in the Celtic tribe, including the elderly, the sick and infirm, and children. It was believed that the latter were still innocent, and therefore they should be protected. But in Roman society, children were often abandoned, left to die hungry in garbage dumps. So the Celts were not savages at all, as the Romans would have us believe.

The Celts didn't build roads. It is difficult to argue with the fact that it was thanks to Roman engineers that a network of roads appeared that enveloped the whole of Europe. In fact, we cannot agree with this. After all, long before the Romans, the Celts built a whole network of wooden roads that connected neighboring tribes. These lines of communication allowed the Celts to trade with each other. It’s just that wooden roads turned out to be short-lived, there was practically nothing left of this material - it rotted. But today, in the marshes of France, England and Ireland, some wooden planks, parts of the road, are still found. Based on the fact that the Romans were never able to conquer Ireland, we can safely assume that the old planks were created by the Celts as part of the road surface. In the same Ireland there is the Corlea Trail, on which there are many parts of the old road. In some places it was even reconstructed so that you could see which way the Celtic tribes moved at one time.

The Celts had strange, but uniform helmets. Based on the fact that the Celts had metal armor, it is logical to assume the existence of helmets corresponding to it. They were often unusual - the Celts were not shy about experimenting with design. One such piece of equipment was found in the Romanian village of Cumesti, where these tribes also went. Here archaeologists found an old cemetery dating back to iron age. Among the 34 graves there was one that belonged to a Celtic leader. He was buried along with numerous items, including bronze axes and rich armor. It was believed that they were supposed to help the deceased in the afterlife. But an unusual helmet stood out among all the vestments. On it an unknown master forged a large bird of prey, spreading her bronze wings. The design of this decoration looks unusual - the bird's wings were suspended on hinges, so when the owner of the helmet walked, the creature seemed to be flying. Historians believe that the fluttering helmet in battle was still rather impractical and the leader wore it only in special cases. But the helmet became one of the most famous and copied masterpieces of Celtic art. Even Asterisk and Obelix have something similar.

The Celts thought only about who to fight with. This people became famous not only for their travels, but also for their love of battles. However, the Celts fought on anyone’s side, but not for free. Even King Ptolemy II, a representative of the glorious Egyptian dynasty. And the European tribes turned out to be such good soldiers that the king was afraid that they might take over his country. Ptolemy therefore ordered the Celts to land on desert island in the Nile. The Greeks also met with the Celts. At that time, the tribes were just expanding their territories. Those events are known in history as the Gallic invasion of the Balkans. Its culmination was the Battle of Delphi, which ended in the defeat of the uninvited guests. The fact is that once again the scattered Celts were opposed by trained united armies. So in 270 BC. The Celts were expelled from Delphi.

The Celts cut off the heads of their enemies. This fact is almost the most famous about the Celts, but it is still true. Indeed, the tribes were engaged in a real headhunt. It was this part of the body of a defeated enemy that was considered the most coveted trophy for the Celts. The reason for this is religion, which asserts the existence of spirits in all things. Likewise, the human head was imagined as a place where the souls of defeated enemies live. The warrior who had such a collection was surrounded by honor. And the heads of enemies around gave the Celts self-confidence and a sense of importance. It was customary to decorate saddles and house doors with the severed heads of enemies. It was something of owning a collection of luxury luxury cars in the modern world. Today people boast about a new stylish car, but back then they boasted about the head of a powerful, hostile leader appearing in their collection.

The Celts were a poor people. To debunk this myth, it’s worth diving into history a little. For the time being, the Celts and Romans coexisted peacefully next to each other. But then Julius Caesar appeared on the scene. His political career did not work out, and he was burdened with burdensome debts. It seemed obvious that a small, victorious war against the primitive barbarians, the Celts, could improve the situation. The Gallic Wars are often considered the most important military manifestation of the genius of Julius Caesar. Thanks to that campaign, the border of the empire began to expand rapidly. At the same time, Caesar defeated the Celtic tribes one after another and captured their territories. This victory changed the fate of that area, known in ancient world, like Gaul, with the Celtic tribes living on it. Caesar himself gained fame and influence. But why exactly did he attack Gaul? The Roman himself wrote that he tried to push back the barbarian tribes that threatened Rome. But historians see the reasons somewhat differently. One of these invading tribes were the Helvetii, who lived near the Alps. Caesar promised them protection when moving to Gaul. But then Rome changed its mind, and the barbarians decided to act on their own. Caesar stated that it was necessary to protect the Celts living in Gaul. As a result, the Romans exterminated more than a quarter of a million “invaders,” and in the process of defending their territories, almost all the Celts were destroyed. Gaul itself became part of a powerful empire. And this has a lot to do with wealth. Caesar needed money to pay off his debts and gain influence for his career. Not only did Gaul bring him fame as a commander, this territory was very rich in gold deposits. The Celts were known to have gold coins and jewelry, but these were thought to have been obtained through trade. But Caesar did not believe it. It turned out that there were more than four hundred gold mines on the territory of Gaul. This testified to the incredible wealth of the Celts, which was the reason for Caesar’s interest in them. Interestingly, Rome began minting its gold coins just after the conquest of Gaul.

The Celts were poorly educated. Once again, it is worth understanding that the Romans did their best to cast their rivals in the worst possible light. In fact, these people were not at all as simple-minded as they are imagined. Moreover, the Celts owned something that even the Romans did not have - an accurate calendar. Yes, there was a Julian calendar, but the Celts had their own calendar from Coligny. It was found in this French city back in 1897, which gave its name to the discovery. Not only does he have unusual look, so the calendar turned out to be made of mysterious metal plates with numerous marks: holes, numbers, lines, a set of Greek and Roman letters. For a hundred years, scientists could only understand that they were dealing with a calendar, but the principle of its operation remained a mystery. Only in 1989 was the invention of the Celts able to be deciphered. It turned out that the find was a solar-lunar calendar, which calculated the time of year based on the cycles of the appearance of celestial bodies. For that state of civilization, the calendar was very accurate, being an advanced invention. With its help, the Celts could predict where the sun would be in the sky in future months. This find clearly proved that the Celts had developed scientific and mathematical thinking. It would be interesting to compare the invention of the “barbarians” with the calendar used by the Romans. It was also considered quite accurate for its time, having an error with the actual solar calendar of only 11.5 minutes per year. But over centuries, this error quickly accumulates. As a result, in our time the Romans would celebrate the beginning of spring when it would be August in our yard. But the Celtic calendar, even today, would be able to correctly predict the seasons. So the Romans had a lot to learn from the “uneducated” barbarians.

The ancient Greeks called this mysterious people Celts, and the Romans called them Gauls. Settling throughout the territories, they gave their names to the localities: Gaul in France, Galicia in Spain, Belgium, Bohemia, the cities of London and Lyon.

Who the Celts are and where they came from to Europe is a question that has not yet been resolved. Some scientists believe they came from what is now Iran, Afghanistan or northern India. Others believe that it is from one of the Northern Islands. For example, the first Celtic tribe to settle in Ireland were the people of the goddess Danu. These were fair-haired people, powerful warriors, great magicians and wizards. According to legend, they received their knowledge and skills on the Great Island of the North, from the greatest druids, magicians and bards.

Archaeological excavations in the Urals show that the path of the ancient Celts passed through the Scythian steppes. Having walked along the northern shore of the Black Sea, they moved further to the Baltic, appeared in northern France, and only then, much later, settled throughout Europe. This happened in the 5th century BC.

In Upper Austria, near the town of Hallstatt, an ancient burial ground was opened in 1846. Amateur archaeologist Ramsauer conducted excavations here for 17 years. He discovered thousands of burials here. The finds were sensational: they indicated the existence in 700-500 years. BC e. civilization that used iron. The burial grounds were very diverse - modest graves of ordinary community members stood side by side with magnificent crypts of the nobility. In them, archaeologists found weapons, jewelry, horse harness and even war chariots. The ancient inhabitants buried their leaders in magnificent burial chambers made of oak logs, which were considered a sacred tree. Such graves rested under mounds topped with statues of the dead in full height, with an image of a deity or a tombstone and a ritual stele. The dwellings of the Celts themselves were quite primitive: an ordinary wooden house - a semi-dugout; only the tribal nobility built something like a castle or a fortified estate. Interesting

An example of such a “castle” is a manor discovered by archaeologists in the upper reaches of the Danube (VI century BC). Amphoras for wine and fragments of painted Greek black-figure pottery were found here, which indicates the ties of the Celtic owner with their ancient neighbors.

A true treasure applied arts Celts is a collection of ceramic vessels from the mounds of Hungary. On vessels of the 6th century. BC. figures of people and entire scenes were scratched with a chisel, giving an idea of the habits of this people and their clothing. These vessels depict fighting men dressed in ports and cloaks. There are also fighters on the vessels

women in embroidered bell-shaped skirts. The ladies fight in a simple way, grabbing each other's hair. However, the Celts did not only fight. There is an image of lovers, as well as curly-haired beauties weaving and spinning. Others are captured by the element of dance, they dance with their arms outstretched. One of the women depicted plays the lyre - a favorite musical instrument Celts.

When in 278 BC. e. The Celts captured the Greek sanctuary at Delphi, they were outraged by the human appearance of the Greek gods. The fact is that they had a certain taboo on the depiction of people. Only some deities had a human form. Among the main deities was Cernunos - Esus. When he goes into the underworld of the dead, then

was called Cernunos, and when returning to Earth - Esus.

The Celts had guardians of sacred springs and groves. The god of the tribe was considered the father of his people, the breadwinner and protector, and his wife was considered the mother of the tribe, the guardian of the fertility of people and animals, and the guardian of the lands. The ancient legends were kept by the Druids (oak people), who were also priests, teachers, poets and soothsayers. Among the Druids there were specialists in astrology, sacrifices (in

including human ones), royal advisers, poets and soothsayers. The Druids had enormous political authority and their associations had no analogues among religious organizations antiquity and our time. The Druids forbade writing down their main teaching, so little is known about it.

On the other hand, the Druids became the scourge of this people. Under their influence, the Celts, possessing advanced technologies, had an archaic clan political organization. They paid for the fact that they did not want to create a centralized state, so they were defeated by the Romans. Of the Celtic lands, only Ireland and Scotland remain

not subject to the Roman Empire. The rest of the Celts were gradually pushed out by the Romans to the British Isles.

The Celts left a rich cultural heritage. For example, we owe the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, of Tristan and Isolde to the Celts.

The present study of the Celts, the first of the great peoples whose name we know to inhabit the lands north of the Alps, is not the usual presentation of facts, generally accepted points of view and assumptions. This is rather an attempt to describe and discuss some aspects of the life of the Celts, as well as to outline the paths for further research, which should concern tribes unfamiliar to us, located both in time and in space.

The abundance of archaeological material on Celtic culture is complemented by evidence from ancient historians, national literary tradition and the results of modern philological research; the totality of these sources serves as the basis for generalizations, but the search for truth continues, and perhaps this book will add a new touch to the familiar picture and shed some more light on the life of the amazing and mysterious predecessors of the historical nations of Western and Central Europe.

Stone sculpture of a wild boar. Central Spain. Approximately 12x8 cm

The Celtic literary heritage, preserved from ancient times in Ireland and Wales, is the oldest in Europe after Greek and Latin. It is a mirror reflecting the morals and customs of an archaic society of moderate climate zone Europe, the cradle of European culture. The study of the origins of the Celts thus helps to find the roots of the Europeans, and the "barbarian classic literature" deserves more attention and recognition than it has received so far.

A few words should be said about how to work with this book. For the sake of the general reader, I did not overload the text with references to personalities and individual works, while I did not hesitate to include names and terms in other languages in the narrative in cases where this was necessary to clarify controversial or poorly covered issues in historical literature. The illustrations on the insert are accompanied by detailed comments at the end of the book. They can be considered separately, as an album designed to give a general impression of the Celts, their appearance, crafts, rituals and environment and does not at all pretend to be teaching aid according to archaeological patterns and periods. Some illustrations tell how the Celts imagined themselves, others help to see their image as it developed in the minds of their contemporaries - the Greeks and Romans.

Statues of warriors with round shields. Northern Portugal. Height 1 m 70 cm

In writing this book, I gleaned a lot of useful information from the works of other authors. The search for illustrative photographic material covered vast territories, and, whenever possible, I tried to select the least known and rarely reproduced objects in historical literature. I express my sincere gratitude for the invaluable assistance in working on this study to Mr. R.J. To K. Atkinson, Professor H.G. Bundy, Professor Gerhard Beers, Professor Karl Blumel, Mr. Rainbird Clark, Colonel Mario Cardoso, Professor Wolfgang Dein, Mademoiselle Gabrielle Fabre, Professor Jan Philip, Mr. R.W. Hutchinson, Dr. Siegfried Junghans, Dr. Joseph Keller, Herr Karl Keller-Tarnuzzer, Dr. K.M. Kraay, Professor Juan Maluker de Motes, Dr. J. Menzel, Dr. Fr. Morton, Prof. Richard Pittioni, Colonel Alfonso de Paso, Dr. Mayra de Paor, Dr. Adolphe Rit, Mademoiselle O. Taffanel, Miss Elaina Tankard, Prof. Julio Martinez Santa Olalla, Dr. J.C. St. Joseph, Mr. R.B. TO. Stevenson, Dr. Raphael von Uslar, Monsieur André Varagnac, Mademoiselle Angele Vidal-Al and, finally, Dr. Glyn Daniel and the first publishers of this book for their kind invitation to cooperation and the patience with which they endured all kinds of delays that occurred through the fault of the author.

Terence Powell

.Origin of the Celts

Sources and interpretations

The best information about the Celts that has reached us is fragmentary and completely random. Herodotus in the middle of the 5th century BC. e. mentions this people when speaking about the location of the source of the Danube, and Hecataeus, who became famous a little earlier (c. 540-475 BC), but whose work is known only from quotations given by other authors, describes the Greek colony of Massalia (Marseilles) , located, according to him, on the land of the Ligurians next to the possessions of the Celts. In another passage, Hecataeus refers to the Celtic city as Nirax, a site that most likely corresponds to Noria in the territory of ancient Noricum, which can be roughly correlated with the modern Austrian province of Styria.

In his great work "History" Herodotus pays little attention to either the source of the Danube or the Celts. This is unfortunate, since archaeological research has proven the value and accuracy of his judgments about other tribes, especially the Scythians, about whom he received information first-hand. However, it seems important that both Herodotus and, apparently, Hecataeus did not consider it necessary to tell the Greeks in detail about the morals and customs of the Celts.

Herodotus complains that his knowledge of the far west of Europe is scanty, but the historian’s references to the Celts are of some interest. He repeats twice that the Danube flows through their lands and that the Celts are the most western people in Europe, not counting the Kinetes, who presumably inhabited southern Portugal. In the first case, Herodotus places the source of the Danube near Pirena - this name could be correlated with the Pyrenees, but it is known that this was the name of the Greek trading settlement on the north-eastern coast of Spain. The historian goes on to say that the Celts lived at some distance from the Pillars of Hercules, that is, from the Strait of Gibraltar - he could hardly have made such an absurd mistake by placing Pirena in the same area. Thus, Herodotus's reports of the Celts of the Iberian Peninsula indicate that these tribes inhabited vast territories, including the areas adjacent to Massalia and, very likely, ancient Noricum.

It should be noted that the name Celtici survived in South-Western Spain until Roman times - this is the only example of the name of a large Celtic people being perpetuated by geography.

Fragment of a high relief on a silver bowl from Gundestrup, Denmark

No matter how erroneous Herodotus’s ideas about the location of the upper Danube were, his conviction that this river flows in the possessions of the Celts is based not only on the correlation of the source with the Pyrene. Herodotus knew much more about the Lower Danube: he knew that a ship could sail far upstream and that the river carries water across inhabited lands along its entire length. It is reasonable to assume that it was through this route that information about the Celts from the northern reaches reached Greece. Archaeological research proves with greater certainty that the banks of the Upper Danube were the ancestral home of the Celts, from where some tribes moved to Spain, and a little later to Italy and the Balkans. Thus, two sources of information point to the same point on the map.

Before we move on to summarizing the rest of the early historical evidence about the Celts, it is necessary to say a few words about why the name of this people was so widespread in that era. What is this connected with?

It seems clear that at the time of Herodotus, the Greeks considered the Celts to be the largest barbarian people living in the west and north of the Western Mediterranean, as well as in the Alps region. Ephor, who worked in the 4th century BC. BC, names the Celts among the four greatest barbarian peoples known world(the other three are Scythians, Persians and Libyans), and the geographer Eratosthenes in the next century mentions that the Celts populated Western and Trans-Alpine Europe. This is probably due to the fact that the Greeks did not differentiate between individual Celtic tribes. There is no doubt that Herodotus, speaking about other barbarians, for example the Scythians or Getae, saw in them both independent peoples and tribal communities. He was interested in their political institutions, morals and customs; As for languages, the Greeks did not bother themselves with linguistic research, and Herodotus did not take into account the linguistic differences between the barbarian tribes. It is reasonable to assume that even if he never communicated with representatives of the Celts, he knew them from descriptions and could distinguish them from other barbarians. Consequently, the term "Celts" has a purely ethnological meaning and does not necessarily mean "Celtic-speaking", contrary to the modern academic concept based on the work of linguistic pioneers George Buchanan (1506-1582) and Edward Lluyd (1660-1709).

So, over the course of four centuries, from the time of Herodotus to the era of Julius Caesar, the way of life, political structure and appearance the Celts were well known to their enlightened southern neighbors. All this information is quite vague, superficial and susceptible to multiple interpretations, but on its basis it is possible to draw certain conclusions about the differences between population groups.

As for the word "Celts" itself, the Greeks recorded it aurally as keltoi, and, with the exception of its use in a narrowly tribal context in Spain, as mentioned above, in other cases it was widely used to designate a collection of tribes with different names - this conclusion is based on later sources than the works of Herodotus. In relation to the population of Britain and Ireland, ancient authors, as far as is known, never used the term “Celts”, and there is no evidence that the inhabitants of the islands themselves called themselves that (however, this does not mean that the islanders were not Celts). The modern, popularized meaning of the words "Celt" and "Celtic" came into use during the heyday of Romanticism in the mid-18th century, then they went beyond the linguistic context in which Buchanan and Llwyd used them, and began to be used unreasonably in a wide variety of areas: in physical anthropology, in relation to insular Christian art and folk life in all its manifestations.

Next, one more question should be clarified: is the speech of the Celts from antiquity really related to living languages, which in philology are usually called Celtic? This is most convincingly evidenced by the works of ancient authors, which give the names of leaders, names of tribes and individual words that belonged to the Celts. This layer of linguistic material is in full accordance with the Celtic branch of the Indo-European family of languages, and there are many examples of words written down in ancient times being preserved in medieval and modern languages of the Celtic group.

The study of the language of the ancient Celts draws on three sources. First of all, these are numerous inscriptions that have survived to this day, mostly in Latin, less often in Greek, recording Celtic words and names. They are found on altars and other architectural monuments Celtic lands that were part of the Roman Empire. The territory of their distribution is vast: lands from Hadrian's Wall to Asia Minor, Portugal, Hungary, etc. The second source - numismatics - is akin to the first, but less dispersed in space. Historically and archaeologically, the inscriptions on the coins are particularly important as they indicate that they were minted by Celtic chieftains or individual clans. The third group of evidence is related to geographical names. These include the names of rivers, mountains and hills, as well as settlements and fortresses. Their direct connection with modern languages can also be established primarily on the materials of ancient authors who mention the Celts in their works; the localization of such names that “survived” in Western and Central Europe is closely related to areas where the Celtic influence was especially strong and persisted for quite a long time. A comparative analysis of Celtic, Teutonic, Slavic names, including those transformed as a result of borrowing by some peoples from others, provides rich material for a variety of interpretations, but this must be done special area philology, and a reliable map of the Celtic names of Europe still awaits its compiler. In the meantime, we can say with confidence that outside the British Isles, Celtic names have been preserved in large numbers in France, Spain, Northern Italy, less often they are found between the Danube and the Alps and further east to Belgrade, and in North-West Germany the Celts left their mark on banks of the Rhine, reached the Weser and, possibly, the Elbe itself. Of course, this picture does not give a complete picture of the area where Celtic names were dispersed in the past, and, in addition, one can find many various reasons the fact that some of them have survived to this day, and some have been consigned to oblivion.

George Buchanan, who introduced the term “Celtic” into linguistics, was the first to prove, based on ancient sources, that the modern Gaelic and Welsh languages grew out of ancient Celtic speech. Thus, the philological meaning of this term is derived from the ethnic research of Herodotus and the later historians and geographers who echoed him.

The large extent of the lands that were once inhabited by the Celts makes it possible to attract archaeological data to study their civilization.

Strictly speaking, archeology is the science that studies material evidence human activity in past. Its object can be the material culture of entire peoples and historical eras, or periods and geographical spaces that existed before the advent of developed civilizations that owned writing. In the latter case, archeology turns into a “silent” science - it is deprived of a language in which to describe the various manifestations of human life, reflected in the random and scattered remains of anonymous material culture. The goal of modern archaeological research is to look as deeply as possible into the past, to understand and recreate the life of ancient society, and not just to compile an accurate inventory of objects and monuments; however, archeology is often subject to excessive demands that, by its very nature, it is unable to satisfy. Thus, in relation to the Celts, archaeological research should first of all be directed within the narrow framework of several centuries - from Herodotus to Julius Caesar, whose activity marks the beginning and end of the historical era that left written evidence about these tribes. And archaeological data indeed confirm that during these centuries, a vast cultural province existed in the territories already mentioned. The discovered remains of a barbarian civilization are associated with the Celtic tribes known to science and date back to the 4th century BC. e. in Northern Italy, from the 2nd century BC. n. e. in Southern France and from the 1st century BC. e. almost the entire length of the Roman Empire.

Celts in ancient history

Let us temporarily leave aside material sources and prerequisites - ancient historians should again come to the fore, whose works make it possible to assess the degree of Celts’ intervention in the life of the enlightened world of the ancient Mediterranean. Here we will try to create only a chronological outline of events, more detailed information directly about the Celts will be analyzed in the following chapters.

About a quarter of a century after the death of Herodotus, northern Italy was invaded by barbarians who came along the Alpine passes. Descriptions of their appearance and names indicate that they were Celts, but the Romans called them galli (hence Gallia Cis- and Transalpina - Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul). More than two centuries later, Polybius refers to the invaders under the name galatae, a word used by many ancient Greek authors. On the other hand, Diodorus Siculus, Caesar, Strabo and Pausanias say that galli and galatae were identical designations for keltoi/celtae, and Caesar testifies that contemporary galli called themselves celtae. Diodorus uses all these names indiscriminately, but notes that the version keltoi is more correct, and Strabo reports that this word was known to the Greeks firsthand, since the keltoi lived in the vicinity of Massalia. Pausanias also prefers the name “Celts” in relation to the Gauls and Galatians. It is now impossible to establish what is causing this terminological uncertainty, but we can confidently conclude that the Celts called themselves keltoi for a long time, although throughout the 5th and 4th centuries BC. e. Other names may have appeared.

Gauls

The Galli, or Gauls, first settled in the upper valley of the Po River and on the banks of its tributaries. They began to oppress and expel the Etruscans, whose civilization at that time was already declining. Perhaps it was the inability of the Etruscans to resist the invaders and, as a result, freedom for robbery, rich booty and inhabited lands that encouraged the Transalpine inhabitants to overcome the mountain passes. The fact that they knew the Etruscans and even traded with them for a long time is confirmed by archaeological excavations.

Late Roman historians believed that the Celtic invaders came from the northwest, from Gallia Transalpina, which had been called that way since the 2nd century BC. e. Archaeological evidence suggests that they made their way through the central Alpine passes and that their homeland was located in what is now Switzerland and southern Germany. Ancient historians preserved for us the names of the main tribes. The Insubri were the first to cross the Alps and eventually founded their main settlement, calling it Mediolan (modern Milan). The Insubres were followed by at least four tribes who settled in Lombardy; The Boii and Lingons were forced to pass through their possessions and settle in Emilia, and the last migrants, the Senones, went to the less rich lands of the Adriatic coast - they found shelter in Umbria.

The Celts traveled not only as migrants - in search of new lands, with families and household belongings. Fast-moving bands of warriors raided the far southern territories, devastating Apulia and Sicily. Around 390 BC e. They successfully sacked Rome, which served as their number one target until 225 BC. e., when a large Gallic army, strengthened by fresh forces from the northern Alpine regions, was surrounded by two Roman armies and defeated. The end of the independence of Cisalpine Gaul was laid in 192 BC. e., when the Romans defeated the Boii and destroyed their fortress, which was located on the territory of modern Bologna.

According to historical sources, the Celts first appeared in the east in 369–368 BC. e. - then some of their detachments served as mercenaries in the Peloponnese. This fact suggests that the number of Celtic migrations to the Balkans was quite large even before this date. In 335 BC. e. Alexander the Great, who fought in Bulgaria, received delegations from all the peoples living in the territories of the Lower Danube; among them was an embassy of the Celts, who are known to have come from the Adriatic.

Galatians

Two generations passed, and the hordes of Galatians flooded Macedonia in the middle of winter - only great troubles could force them to set off at such a time of year, especially since they had families and carts with property with them. The Galatians began to rob the local inhabitants and move forward in search of suitable land for settlement. However, the invaders met serious resistance - further developments of events are described in detail by ancient Greek historians. The names of Bolga and Brenna, the leaders of the Celtic migrations, are known, but it is possible that these were nicknames of patron gods, and not mortal leaders. One way or another, people led by Brenn attacked Delphi, but were defeated. The Greeks, recognized experts in national differences, added Celtic shields to the Persian ones already hung as trophies in the Delphic temple of Apollo - this can undoubtedly be called one of the first exhibitions on the subject of comparative ethnology.

The Celts were quite capable of holding out in the Balkans for a long time, but two tribes that separated from those that captured Macedonia undertook the most curious journey recorded by ancient Greek scientists in the history of Celtic migrations. They moved southeast, towards the Dardanelles. Constant discord with the local residents eventually forced them to cross to Asia Minor, where ample opportunities for plunder and conquest of lands once again opened up for them. Soon the two tribes were joined by a third - the Tectosagi, who chose to leave Greece after the failure at Delphi. For some time, all three tribes indulged in all sorts of outrages and robberies with impunity, but eventually calmed down and settled in Northern Phrygia, which has since become known as Galatia. These tribes had a common capital, which bore the Celtic name Drunemeton, and the Tectosagi settled in the area of modern Ankara.

The Galatians managed to maintain their individuality for many centuries. Cut off from their European roots, they remained isolated, and over time they gave their name to Christian communities, to which the famous letter of the Apostle Paul was addressed. Later, in the 4th century AD. e., the Galatians became the subject of very interesting notes by St. Jerome, who, in particular, reports that, in addition to Greek, they spoke own language, akin to the Treverian dialect. Saint Jerome, who traveled through Roman Gaul, was undoubtedly familiar with the Treveri who lived in the Trier region on the Moselle River. Perhaps he heard from their lips Celtic speech, preserved in a purer form, different from the language of the inhabitants of the heavily Latinized west of Gaul, and thus, in his notes one must see a purely scientific comparative analysis, otherwise it is difficult to interpret such special treatment to this tribe. As for the language preserved by the Galatians, history knows similar examples: the language of the Goths who invaded the Crimean peninsula in the 3rd century AD. e., was gradually replaced by Slavic languages, but finally disappeared only after many centuries - its last speakers died in the 17th century.

Until now, we have been talking about the earliest evidence of ancient historians about the Celts; it was concluded that by the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. these tribes occupied vast territories from Spain to Asia Minor and that their ancestral home was presumably the uncivilized areas of Europe north of the Alps, where the enlightened inhabitants of the Mediterranean rarely visited. Historical sources relating to the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. e., they only mention the expansion of the Celtic possessions; it becomes clear that they occupied the entire territory of Gaul (modern France) and that at least some of them came from the regions beyond the Rhine.

In the 1st century BC. e. Gaul became part of the Roman Empire and thus came to the attention of historians, receiving closer attention. Caesar describes Gaul as ethnographically divided between the Aquitanians in the southwest, the Belgae in the northeast, and inhabited by Celts throughout. This message can be considered in the light of archaeology, but at the moment we are of particular interest to the Belgae, who were the most warlike and persistent opponents of the Roman commander.

Belgi

This tribe occupied the north-eastern reaches of Gaul and, according to Caesar, were proud of their “Germanic” roots, which, apparently, simply meant their origin beyond the Rhine, since they spoke a language very similar to the speech of the rest of the Celts who lived in Gaul, and their leaders bore Celtic names. Question about original meaning The word “germani” is extremely important, but let us leave it aside for now in order to trace further the historical line outlined by Caesar, which will lead Britain to the borders of the Celtic world. Caesar reports that long before his modern era, the Belgae founded settlements in the southeast of Britain. This is the first and only direct historical evidence of Celtic - or partly Celtic - migrations to Britain. There is a lot of other - archaeological - evidence that earlier Celtic settlements existed on this island, and the same conclusion can be drawn based on written sources. So what is the value of early references to Britain and Ireland in ancient literature?

Britain and Ireland

In the 6th century BC. e., more precisely, no later than 530, the inhabitants of Massalia undertook a journey past the eastern coast of Spain, through the Pillars of Hercules and along the Atlantic coast to the city of Tartessus (map 1). Obviously, this was not the first such voyage from Massalia, but what is important is that one of the sailors who returned on the ship wrote a report in which he provided information not only about the shores of Spain, but also about the lands lying further north along the Atlantic sea routes of Europe. The description of this journey is known as the Massaliot Periplus and is preserved in passages quoted in the 4th century AD. e. Rufus Festus Avienus in the poem "Ora Maritima". Some features of this periplus indicate that it was composed before the conquest of Tartessus by the Carthaginians, which led to the cessation of trade in the Atlantic for colonial Greece.

Map 1. Massalia and Western Sea Routes

The inhabitants of Tartessus, which was probably located near the mouth of the Guadalquivir, had friendly trade relations with the Greeks since the voyage of Koleus from Samos through the Pillars of Hercules around 638 BC. e. The Massaliot Periplus reports that Tartessian merchants visited such northern regions, as the Estrimnids, which meant the Brittany peninsula and the neighboring islands, and that the population of these lands traded with the inhabitants of two big islands– Ierne (lerne) and Albion (Albion). This is the earliest mention of Ireland and Britain in history, and the names are Greek variants of words that were preserved by speakers of the Irish branch of the Celtic language. Old Irish Eriu and modern Eire are derived from an older form of the word pronounced "Ierna" by the Greeks, and the name Albu was used by the Irish to refer to Britain until the 10th century AD. e. The question is whether these words have Celtic roots or are borrowings from an older language. Most likely, they belong to the Celts, but there is not enough evidence to make a definitive conclusion.

Avienus, of course, could have distorted the ancient source, but still preserved for history the very valuable information contained in the “Massaliot Periplus.”

In any case, the names Ierna and Albion entered the terminology of Greek geographers, including Eratosthenes, by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e. It must be said, however, that although Avienus refers to the Carthaginian Himilcon, a explorer of the 6th century BC. e., the latter, apparently, never visited the British Isles, contrary to existing opinion.

The journey of Pytheas Massaliot, which took place around 325–323 BC. e., became the second oldest source of information about Britain and Ireland. The Periplus of Pytheas is also known only second-hand, but, unlike the Massaliot Periplus, it is quoted - often with disbelief - by many authors, including Polybius, Strabo and Avienus. Britain and Ireland are called the Pretan Islands by Pytheas. The derived word for the inhabitants of these islands seems to be pretani or preteni, and is probably derived from a Celtic root which survives in the Welsh language: Prydain means Britain, Britain. The Latins, due to the peculiarities of pronunciation, transformed it into Britannia and britanni - this is the form in which Caesar uses these words. Consequently, the Pretanian islands meant Ierna and Albion, which is confirmed by the description of the voyage given by Pytheas, and one of the later Greek geographers claims this as a fact.

It is curious that Pytheas did not mention the ancient names Ierna and Albion when speaking about the Pretangian Islands. This may mean that the inhabitants of Massalia, who laid overland trade routes to the northwest, were familiar with them and did not require explanation. However, if we take into account the assumption that Pytheas visited only Britain and was not in Ireland, this may also indicate that he did not doubt the homogeneity of the population of the two islands. Further, although there is an equivalent in Irish literature for the name preteni, this word can designate, firstly, some residents of Britain and, secondly, British settlers in Ireland. The conclusion suggests itself that the name Pretan Islands, which came into use among the Greeks by the 4th century BC. e., indicates the emergence of a new, dominant population in Britain (in Albion), which did not exist at the time when the “Massaliot Periplus” was created.

All of the above brings us to other issues, primarily related to the Celtic languages. These issues will be addressed following a review of the archaeological data.

European prehistoric background

In this chapter on the origins of the Celts, Herodotus and Caesar have already been mentioned as figures whose activities mark two historical milestones - Herodotus because he is considered the father of history and anthropology, Caesar because his military campaigns ended the independence of the Celts. The works of ancient authors who lived after Caesar certainly contain more useful information about the Celts, but they are not able to change the overall picture. The next task is to consider the problem in the light of archaeology.

In response to a question about the cultural background associated with historical information about the Celts in the period from Herodotus to Caesar, most archaeologists - primarily representatives of continental schools - will without hesitation name two widespread material cultures of the Iron Age, known under the names “Hallstatt” and “Latène” and confirming geographically and chronologically written evidence ( cards 4, 6). However, rather than immediately proceeding to a detailed analysis of them, it seems useful to start from a more distant starting point in time and turn to other centuries and regions also illuminated by written history.

The gradual improvement of climatic conditions towards the end of the Ice Age opened up new territories of transalpine Europe for humanity. By the 9th millennium BC. e. even this northern zone, stretching from the Pennines to modern Denmark and the Baltic lands, was inhabited by primitive hunters and fishermen. Over time, climate trends have led to the emergence temperate zone in Europe, and for a whole millennium, primitive communities existed in this territory in their ecological niches. In terms of physical type, they were probably no less heterogeneous than their Late Paleolithic predecessors. An influx of new blood brought from the Eurasian steppes, on the one hand, and from Spain or even North Africa– on the other hand, he excluded the possibility of pure races appearing in Europe. Remains of material culture found throughout the temperate climate zone Europe, reflect examples of mutual influence and exchange in different areas at different times. The bearers of this culture can be considered as the oldest population of the indicated zone; It was their heirs – to one degree or another – that later population groups became.

Neolithic settlers

The people of the Mesolithic era were not disturbed until the 4th millennium BC. e., when from the peripheral areas of urban civilizations ancient East Primitive tribes of farmers and cattle breeders began expanding to the north. In the temperate zone of Europe, the first and most historically important settlers of the Neolithic era came from the southeast and captured the rich and easy-to-cultivate loess lands in the Middle Danube basin, and then penetrated further - to the Rhine and its main tributaries, to the confluence of the Saale and Elbe, to the upper reaches of the Oder.

Later, the Neolithic economic system, brought by immigrants, spread from the Western Mediterranean to Atlantic coast Europe to the British Isles, although the earliest Neolithic settlers most likely reached Britain from the Gulf of Lyon via eastern France. The bearers of this economic system led a relatively sedentary lifestyle, which gave them the opportunity to accumulate personal property and the necessary supplies. Settlers everywhere had a significant impact on the populations of the Mesolithic way of life - barter trade stimulated the development of the economy and material culture of the indigenous inhabitants, and over time, when, as a result of the spread of the Danube and Western Neolithic cultures, people began to cultivate the land throughout the temperate zone of Europe, the Mesolithic way of life was preserved only on the eastern and northern outskirts. By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. The continuum of interconnected material cultures spread throughout Europe demonstrates the diversity in the origins and abilities of their bearers, as well as in the level of their interaction with the incomparably more civilized world of the Eastern Mediterranean.

The emergence of pastoralism

Around the same time, two trends emerged in the development of the Neolithic economy: on the banks of rivers, people continued to cultivate the land and grow crops, while in mountainous areas and on the Central European Plain, cattle breeding became the dominant way of life, and not only nomadic. Based on examples from the history of Europe and other regions, it can be assumed that such differences in occupations and living conditions led to the emergence of social associations or political unions. It is also reasonable to assume that tribes of farmers and pastoralists appeared during that period, and the existence of individual tribal unions can be concluded based on the results of studying the remains of material culture.

From the book - Terence Powell Celts. Warriors and magicians.

Hello, friends!

Welcome to the World of the Celts. My name is Suren Israilyan, I am from Bulgaria and I am the chairman of the Bulgarian Society „ Celtic Heritage”.

The main goal of the Society– introduce our audience to thousand-year-old Celtic customs and holidays. Why not celebrate them with you?

You may not know that on the territory of today's Bulgaria there was a Celtic Kingdom " TILE” in the 3rd century BC. We want to recreate the celebration of the Eight Celtic Holidays, realize the idea, and also popularize Celtic Dishes and Music.

History of the Celts

Celts is probably one of the oldest pan-European civilizations, and Celtic customs and deities had a significant influence on early Christianity.

It is customary to date the appearance of the Celts VIII-VII centuries BC, but there is evidence of their earlier presence in Europe. There is even archaeological evidence of the presence of Celts in what is now France and western Germany around 1200 BC, but most archaeologists believe that the “first Celts” were found during excavations at Hallstatt in Austria.

The Romans called the Celts - " Gauls”, Greeks - „ Keltoi”, but in both languages it is translated as “barbarians”. In the V-III centuries BC. The Celts are invincible, they conquer most of Europe, especially the northern part (above the Alps), and in the 3rd century BC. heading south.

Around 281 BC The Celtic army reaches the lands of today's Bulgaria and establishes the Kingdom, which is called Thiele(Thile), then continue their march to the south and in the lands of today’s Turkey, in Anadol, they found the southernmost Kingdom - Galatia(Galatia). Galatia existed for more than 300 years (according to some sources - even longer), but Thiele clearly interfered with the Thracians and they destroyed this Celtic Kingdom around 218 BC.

The influence and power over the Celts is shown in this 3rd century BC map:

yellow: Greece and Greek colonies.
dark green: Hellenistic cultures.
green: Etruscans.
Bordeaux: early Roman Empire.

It is believed that the Celts appeared in the British Isles around the 5th-4th centuries BC. At this time, the bulk of the Celts lived on the mainland, but with the rise of Rome and the military campaigns of the Roman legions, the British Isles and the province of Brittany in France remained the safest places. The Romans attacked the islands several times and when England was conquered, the Celtic clans moved to areas "on the periphery" - Ireland, Wales and Scotland.

In these lands, Celtic influence was almost never interrupted, so today most Irish people believe that they have Celtic roots. Many modern inhabitants of Ireland, Wales, Scotland and Brittany (France) speak Celtic dialects.

Celtic languages

Celtic languages included to the Indo-European group and are currently used in the territory of the so-called “Six Celtic Nations”.

According to the Celtic League, about 3 million people understand or speak Celtic dialects. These facts clearly prove that Celtic languages and culture are not dead, but are very active factors that are developing, albeit on a regional scale.

Where do the descendants of the Celts live today?

In modern times, people who consider themselves descendants of the Celts live in the following regions:

Republic of Ireland(Ireland), in Celtic – “Eire”.
Isle of Man(Isle of Man) is an independent community within Great Britain.
County of Cornwall(Cornwall), Southern England. In Cornish (Celtic dialect) – Kernow.
Scotland(Scotland), in Scottish Celtic - Alba.
Wales(Wales), in Welsh (Celtic dialect) - Cymru.
Province of Brittany(Brittany), France, in Breton (Celtic dialect) - Breizh.

What did the Celts leave to Europe and the world?

Love for “Mother Nature”

Each of the Eight Celtic Festivals (Imbolg, Ostara, Belten, Lytha, Lunasach, Lamas, Mabon, Sauin and Yule) contains rituals of veneration to “Mother Nature”. At the Belten festival, God Bel is dressed in a tunic with green leaves and is called “Green Jack”.

Even the Celtic horoscope is associated with trees: the zodiac signs are named after different names of trees and change every 10 days.

Equality between men and women

According to Celtic mythology, life is led by "Triple Deity": Girl, Mother and Grandmother, which are symbols Life, Death and Rebirth. For this reason, probably, the Celts observed the first equality of the sexes in Europe.

Contemporaries of the Celts describe with amazement the Celtic women generals, women traders and property owners, even women Druids.

Items made of iron

Plow. When the Celts weren't fighting, they were good farmers, so good that they could have up to 8 oxen in the field at a time. Therefore, they invented a metal plow, which, in combination with an ox team, was much more effective.

Sword, chain mail. A sword was found in Kirkburn (East Yorkshire), which is assembled from 70 different parts (the likely reason is the secret transportation of the sword). The sword and scabbard are assembled from 70 separate parts, which speaks of the high skill of Celtic gunsmiths.

But here is an even more impressive fact - around the 3rd century. BC Celtic masters invented chain mail, which is still known today. Roman contemporaries write that the Empire copied chain mail from the bodies of slain Celts and thus this attribute spread throughout Europe.

Druids

The Druids were the most respected people in Celtic society. They were healers, preachers, judges, scientists and teachers. In certain cases (for example, in case of a sudden enemy attack) they had more rights than even the king. In practice, they linked the Celtic clans into one community. Druidry has excited people at all times, even in the 17th century it was revived as a tradition (Druid Revival). The influence of the Druids on Celtic society was so strong that the Romans, when attacking Celtic settlements, killed the Druid first.

Here is one of the interpretations of the Druid Philosophy - the so-called Seven Talents of Druidry:

First Talent- a philosophy that asserts that life is a holy gift and emphasizes the role of man in its creation.
Second Talent- closeness with Nature, synchronization of our lives with the natural cycles of Nature, and from there the development of a sense of community with all living beings.
Third Talent- Healing through experiences that promote healing and rejuvenation along with mental and physical methods for health and longevity.
Fourth Talent- the perception of our life as a journey through adolescence, marriage and death in the name of our children.
Fifth Talent- the discovery of New realities, New consciousness, New World, which will be built on Celtic and Druid images and traditions.
Sixth Talent- development of our capabilities as a path to self-improvement, revelation of our creative powers, mental qualities and intuition, development of intellectual and spiritual powers.
Seventh Talent- Magic that teaches how ideas become reality, how to discover, develop and use the power of the spiritual impulse, which the Druids call Awen (enlightenment, inspiration).

Celtic Holidays - Wheel of the Year

Wheel of the Year is the Celtic concept of the cycle of the seasons of life. All holidays are strongly associated with natural cycles - solstice, equinox, “quarters” (dates midway between the solstice and equinox).

Each of these holidays has its own energy and at the same time is connected with the other, and together they form an eternal cycle of life.

The Celtic Wheel introduces us to the cycles of growth, harvest, rest and renewal. Each cycle is important and cannot exist without the other.

The Celts lived and worked according to these cycles of life so that there would be more “mutual understanding and success.” They believed that if they noted the cycles of the seasons and were guided by them, they could unlock many secrets of life, earth and magic.

Celtic holidays:

The dates of the Celtic holidays are not fixed, because each Celtic community celebrated them, according to various sources, from several days to 2 weeks.

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