The Mongol Empire and the change in the political map of the world. Genghis Khan

The legend of Genghis Khan tells the story of his life in sufficient detail, but not all geographical names in the text can be accurately correlated with modern names on the map. Exact date It is difficult to name the birth of Genghis Khan, most scientists adhere to the date - 1162. According to the history of Rashid ad-Din, the date of birth is 1155. On the one hand, the evidence of his history is numerous and varied, on the other hand, it is surprising that most of these stories were discovered far from Mongolia. According to the figurative remark of historian L.N. Gumilyov: “In the history of the rise of Genghis Khan, everything is doubtful, starting with the date of his birth.”


According to the historical chronicles that have reached us, Genghis Khan carried out conquests of almost the entire world on an unimaginable scale; no one before or after him managed to compare with him in the grandeur of his conquests. For short time a huge Mongol Empire, stretching from the shores Pacific Ocean to the Black Sea. Nomads from Central Asia, armed with bows and arrows, were able to conquer three more civilized empires, which also had significantly more military power. Their conquests were accompanied by inhuman atrocities and mass extermination of civilians. Cities along the path of the Mongol hordes were often razed to the ground; by the will of Genghis Khan, rivers changed their course, prosperous areas became devastated, agricultural irrigated lands were destroyed so that arable land again became wild pastures for the horses of his army. For modern historians, the phenomenal success of Genghis Khan's wars remains an inexplicable fact, which can be explained either by a hoax or supernatural powers and the military genius of Genghis Khan. Contemporaries of that time considered Genghis Khan “sent from Heaven - the scourge of God.” In the same way, at one time the Goths nicknamed Attila - “God's scourge.”

“The Secret Legend of the Mongols” (presumably the 13th century, according to the version of the 19th century text) “Genealogy and childhood of Temujin. Genghis Khan's ancestor was Borte-Chino, born by the will of the Higher Heaven. His wife was Goa-Maral. They appeared after swimming across the Tengis (inland sea). They roamed at the sources of the Onon River, on Burkhan-khaldun, and their descendant was Bata-Chigan.”

“White History” (XVI century). “Appearing at the behest of the highest heaven, born in order to rule the whole world, the divine Suuta-bogdo Genghis Khan, starting with the people of the blue Mongols / peoples speaking / in three hundred and sixty-one languages ​​of seven hundred and twenty-one clans of Dzambu-dwipas, five colored and four foreign, sixteen great nations united everyone into single state» .

“Shastra Orunga” (Mongolian composition of the 15th century). “In the happy nomad of Burkhan Khaldun, one wonderful boy was born. At this time, his father Yesugei Bagatur captured the Tatar Temujin Uge and other Tatar people. Due to the coincidence with this event, he was named Temujin. When this boy was three years old, he played every day on Mount Burkhan Khaldun. There, on a towering red stone, one lark with a body one span high and wide, with a white head, with a blue back, with a yellow body, with a red tail, with black legs, embodying all five colors in its body, with a voice as melodious as sound flutes, sang every day: “Chinggis, Chinggis.”

According to the “Secret Legend,” the ancestor of all Mongols is Alan-Goa, in the eighth generation from Genghis Khan, who, according to legend, conceived children from sunbeam in a yurt. Genghis Khan's grandfather, Khabul Khan, was a wealthy leader of all Mongol tribes and successfully waged wars with neighboring tribes. Temujin's father was Yesugey-baatur, the grandson of Khabul Khan, leader of the majority of the Mongol tribes, in which there were 40 thousand yurts . This tribe was the complete owner of the fertile valleys between the Kerulen and Onon rivers. Yesugei-baatur also successfully fought and fought, subjugating the Tatars and many neighboring tribes. From the contents of the “Secret Legend” it is clear that Genghis Khan’s father was the famous khan of the Mongols.

Temujin was born in 1162 on the banks of the Onon River in the Delyun-buldan tract, which researchers localize 230 versts from Nerchinsk (Chita region) and 8 versts from the Chinese border. At the age of 13, Temujin lost his father, who was poisoned by the Tatars. The elders of the Mongol tribes refused to obey the too young and inexperienced Temujin and left along with their tribes to another patron. So young Temujin was left surrounded only by his family - his mother, younger brothers and sisters. All their property consisted of eight horses and the family “bunchuk” - a white banner with nine yak tails, symbolizing the four large and five small yurts of his family, with the image bird of prey- gyrfalcon in the center. Soon he was forced to hide from the persecution of Targutai, who became the successor of his father, to whom the Mongol tribes went into submission. The “Secret Legend” tells in detail how Temujin hid alone in a dense forest, then was captured, how he escaped from captivity, found his family and together with her several years (4 years) was hiding from persecution.

Having matured, Temujin, at the age of 17, went with his friend Belgutai to the camp of the father of the beautiful Borte, according to the custom of the Mongols marriage contract was concluded by their fathers when the girl was nine years old, and took her as his wife. She subsequently became known in history as Borte Fujin, the empress and mother of Genghis Khan's four sons and five daughters. And although the chronicles report that Genghis Khan had about five hundred wives and concubines from different tribes during his life, among the five main wives, the first wife, Borte Fujin, remained the most respectable and eldest for Genghis Khan all his life.

Information about initial period Temujin's life, until the time of his recognition by Genghis Khan, is stingy and contradictory; many details of that time are not known. The story that has come down to us in the “Secret History of the Mongols” in a number of places does not coincide with the description of the same events by Rashid ad-Din.

Both chronicles tell of the capture of Borte, Temujin's wife, by the Merkits, who after 18 years decided to take revenge for the theft from their family of the beautiful Hoelun, Temujin’s mother, by his father Yesugei-baatur. According to the “Secret Legend,” the Merkits handed over Borte to a relative of the man who lost Hoelun. Having no one in his yurt except his brothers, and not having the opportunity to attack the Merkits, Temujin goes to his father's named brother, the Kerait Khan Togrul (Wan Khan) and asks him for help. He willingly provides military assistance to the lonely Temujin and marches with several thousands of troops against the Merkits and beats his wife back. Rashid ad-Din describes this episode differently: the Merkits sent Borte Toghrul Khan, who voluntarily, as a sign of memory of the sister-city relationship - “ande”, with Temujin’s father, returned it to the future Genghis Khan through one confidant.

The protection and patronage of Toghrul Khan secured him for several years. The chronicles say little about Temujin's early life, but after One day at dawn, many tribes joined Temujin’s nomadic camp at the same time , the Mongols quickly gained strength and already accounted for 13 thousand people . From that time on, the chronicles report that Temujin had military detachments numbering up to 10 thousand people . The first battle that Temujin decisively won according to Rashid ad-Din was the battle with the 30 thousand Tayuchite army led by Zhamukha. Temujin ordered all prisoners to be boiled alive in 70 cauldrons. Frightened by this, the Juryat tribe immediately submitted and submitted to the young khan. In the “Secret Legend” this episode is interpreted differently, Zhamukha wins, and accordingly he boils Temujin’s captured warriors in cauldrons, this atrocity pushes many people away from Zhamukha, and many neighboring tribes go under the banners of the defeated Temujin. According to historians, Rashid ad-Din’s version looks more convincing, and the victory in that historical battle was won by Temujin, to whom, under the protection of the stronger, many people go over. After some time, under the family banner of Temujin there was already 100 thousand yurts . Having concluded an alliance with the Keraits, "a relationship of unshakable friendship with the Kerait leader Togrul Khan", the united hordes of Temujin and Togrul Khan defeated the old enemies of the Mongols, the Tatars. Chronicles report a general massacre of the Tatars.

When the aging Toghrul lost power, his sons, at the head of the Keraits, opposed Temujin and won the battle. To strengthen his position, the retreating Temujin united most of the tribes of the northern Gobi around him during the winter and in the spring attacked the Keraits and Merkits and defeated them. The chronicles report that Temujin decreed that none of the Merkits should be left alive. The surviving Keraits stood under the banner of Temujin. For three years after the battle that made him master of the Gobi, Temujin sent his troops to the lands of the Western Turkic tribes, Naiman and Uighurs and won victories everywhere. The history of Genghis Khan is described in more detail in the chronicles when he reaches 41 summer age and “until finally, after the mentioned twenty-eight years of disorder, the Most High truth granted him strength and help, and his work turned to exaltation and increase.”

In 1206, the kurultai - a congress of khans of all Mongol tribes - proclaimed Temujin the great kagan and awarded him the title of Genghis Khan - Genghis Kha-Khan, the Greatest of rulers, Lord of all people. Subsequently, historians called him “Conqueror of the World” and “Conqueror of the Universe.” The Persian chronicles describe this event as follows: “He (shaman Teb-Tengri) gave him the nickname of Genghis Khan, saying: By the command of the Eternal Blue Sky, your name should be Genghis Khan! In Mongolian, “chin” means “strong,” and Chingiz is the plural of it. In the Mongolian language, the nickname Genghis Khan has the same meaning as Gur Khan, but with a more exaggerated meaning, since it is plural, and this word can be generalized, for example, with the Persian “shahanshah” (“King of Kings”).” .

The rule of Genghis Khan strengthened central power and brought Mongolia to the ranks of the most powerful military countries in Central Asia at that time. He went down in history as a ruthless conqueror: “Genghis Khan proclaimed with special valor: to rob, steal or kill a person of another, non-Tatar tribe, that the tribes subordinate to him constitute the only people in the universe chosen by heaven, that they will henceforth bear the name “Mongols”, which means "overcoming" All other peoples on earth must become slaves of the Mongols. Rebellious tribes must be cleared from the plains of the earth, like weeds, harmful grasses, and only the Mongols will remain to live.”

War was proclaimed the most effective means of acquiring material well-being. Thus began the era of the bloody aggressive campaigns of the Mongols. Genghis Khan, his sons and grandsons, having conquered the territories of other states, created the largest empire in terms of size in human history. It included Central Asia, Northern and Southern China, Afghanistan, Iran. The Mongols carried out devastating raids on Rus', Hungary, Moravia, Poland, Syria, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The chronicles of eyewitnesses are replete with descriptions of barbaric plunder and massacres of the civilian population of captured cities. The excessive cruelty of the Mongols was reflected in various chronicles.

Historical chronicles have preserved the statements of the great khan of the Mongols: “Genghis said: Cruelty is the only thing that maintains order - the basis for the prosperity of a power. This means that the more cruelty, the more order, and therefore the more good.” And he also said: “Tengri himself commanded our power to rise, and his will cannot be understood by reason. Cruelty must go beyond the limits of reason, for only this will help the fulfillment of the highest will. One day, the Menkhol tribe of Tatars, by whose name the Chins called all Menkhols in memory of their former primacy over them, killed Chingiz's father; for this all the Tatars were killed, including women and children. And from then on, they called Tatars all those non-menkhols who served them and whom they sent into battle to die in front of them. And these serving Tatars shouted in battle “Tatars! Tatars!”, which meant: “Those who do not obey Menkhol will be exterminated like the Tatars.”

Laurentian Chronicle: “In 1237 they came from the eastern countries to Ryazan land godless Tatars, and began to conquer the Ryazan land, and captured it as far as Pronsk, and took the entire Ryazan principality, and burned the city, and killed their prince. And some of the captives were crucified, others were shot with arrows, and others had their hands tied behind their backs. They set many holy churches on fire, burned monasteries and villages, and took considerable booty from everywhere. They took Suzdal, plundered the Church of the Holy Mother of God, and burned the princely courtyard with fire, and burned the monastery of St. Dmitry, and plundered others. Old monks, and nuns, and priests, and the blind, and the lame, and the hunchbacked, and the sick, and all the people were killed, and the young monks, and nuns, and priests, and priests, and clerks, and their wives, and daughters, and sons - they all took them to their camps.”

Ibn al-Athir, in his Perfect History, describes the invasion of Muslim lands by Mongol armies in these words: “The events I am about to relate are so terrible that for many years I avoided any mention of them. It is not easy to write about the death that has befallen Islam and Muslims. I wish my mother had not given birth to me, or that I had died before witnessing all these misfortunes. If they tell you that the earth has never known such a calamity since God created Adam, believe it, for it is the absolute truth...”

The Persian historian Juvaini, who took part in the war against the Mongols, in his work, as an eyewitness, testifies: “Thirteen days and thirteen nights they counted the people killed by the Mongols in the city of Merv. Counting only those whose bodies were actually found, and not counting those who were killed in grottoes and caves, in villages and desert places, they counted more than 1.3 million killed.” After Merv, the Mongol army received orders from Genghis Khan to take Nishapur: “destroying the city in such a way that you could walk over it with a plow, and for the purpose of revenge not even leaving cats and dogs alive.” “They exterminated all the townspeople of Nishapur, numbering 6 thousand souls, their beating lasted four days. Even dogs and cats were exterminated.”

"The Mongols were enemies settled life, agriculture and cities. During the conquest of northern China, the Mongol nobility sought from Genghis Khan an order to kill the entire settled population to a single person, and turn the lands into pastures for nomads.” The Mongols adhered to the tactic of completely devastating the captured lands, so that the arable land would once again become a steppe rich in grass and pastures for livestock. Cities were destroyed to the ground, irrigation canals were filled with sand, the entire local population was exterminated, and prisoners were mercilessly destroyed so as not to be fed. And only at the end of his life, in the last campaign against the Tangut state, Genghis Khan began to understand that it was more profitable to preserve the cities in order to take taxes from them.

In addition to Rus', Eastern and Southern Europe, the Mongols conquered Tibet, invaded Japan, Korea, Burma and the island of Java. Their troops were not only land forces: in 1279, in the Gulf of Canton, Mongol ships defeated the fleet of the Chinese Song Empire. During the reign of Kublai Khan, the Chinese fleet achieved brilliant victories at sea. The first attempt to invade Japan was made by Kublai Khan in 1274, for which a flotilla of 900 ships with 40 thousand Mongol, Chinese and Korean soldiers was assembled. The fleet with a military landing left the Korean port of Masan. The Mongols capture the islands of Tsushima and Iki, but a typhoon destroys the squadron. Korean chronicles report that the losses in this naval expedition amounted to 13,000 people and that many of them drowned. Thus ended the first invasion.

In 1281, a second attempt was made to land in Japan. It is believed that this was the largest naval invasion in human history, with 3,400 ships and 142,000 Mongol-Chinese warriors. Typhoon, as with the first attempt to invade japanese islands, again destroys the naval squadron. A similar scenario of an unsuccessful invasion occurred in Russian history in 866. 200 Russian longships went to Constantinople, but were scattered by a typhoon; in 906, 2000 Russian longships of 40 soldiers each (80 thousand soldiers) under the leadership of Prince Oleg landed in Constantinople (Constantinople).

The Japanese called the Mongol invasion Genko (Yuan invasion). In Japan, picturesque ancient scrolls “The Tale of the Invasion from the Sea” (1293) have been preserved. The scroll's drawings depict scenes of a naval battle, archers on the decks of small ships. Japanese ships are marked with the Japanese national flag; it is not determined who the enemy ships belong to based on the drawings. The Mongol-Korean invasion by sea is the only time in samurai history that Japan was invaded from outside.

Six years passed after the first attempt at landing from the sea, during which time the Japanese prepared for defense. A stone wall about 25 miles long and about 5 meters high was erected along the coast in Hakata Bay to protect against attackers from the sea, which has survived to this day. On the inside, the wall was inclined, so that one could ride on it on horseback, and the other side ended with a sheer wall towards the sea. Hojo Tokimuke, the Japanese shogun (1268–1284), led the defense against the Mongol invasion, but the Japanese were unable to resist the armada of invaders. In prayers, the entire Japanese people asked for divine help. On August 15, 1281, in the evening immediately after offering prayers, the heavens responded with a typhoon, later called by the Japanese “kamikaze” - a sacred wind that scattered the squadron of attackers and saved Japan from conquest. The Chinese fleet was destroyed and over 100,000 attackers died at sea.

In the early 80s of the twentieth century, Japanese archaeologist Torao Masai at the bottom of Takashima Island with the help modern technology discovered many objects (weapons, iron rods and ingots, stone anchors and cannonballs, the seal of a thousand-man), which confirmed the fact of the death of Khubilai's fleet.

In 1470, in the Honko-yi monastery, a huge, three-meter-long map of the world was drawn, where all of Eurasia and even North Africa, including the adjacent seas, were considered Mongolian possessions. For the first time in history, this unique monastic map and Invasion by Sea scroll was exhibited abroad at the exhibition "The Legacy of Genghis Khan: The Worldwide Empire of the Mongols" in Bonn in 2005.

Estimates of the number of Genghis Khan's troops vary widely, but it is difficult to give an exact figure. From the chronicles of Rashid ad-Din: “In total, Genghis formed 95 detachments of a thousand people. Tului, the youngest son of Genghis Khan, after his death inherited almost all of his troops - 101 thousand out of 129 thousand.” According to historians, Genghis Khan's hordes were not, like the Huns, a migrating mass, but a disciplined invading army. Each warrior had two or three horses and was wrapped in fur clothes, which allowed him to sleep right in the snow. According to the estimate of the English historian G. Howorth, the army of Genghis Khan during his campaign against the Khorezmshah amounted to 230 thousand soldiers and moved separately along two routes. It was the most large army of all that Genghis Khan collected. From historical chronicles it is known that Genghis Khan’s army at the time of his death consisted of four corps along with the imperial guard and numbered 129 thousand soldiers. According to authoritative historians, the population of the Mongol people under Genghis Khan was no more than 1 million people. The speed of movement of the Mongolian troops is amazing, having set out from the steppes of Mongolia, a year later they victoriously reach the lands of Armenia. For comparison, the Scythian campaign in 630 BC. from the banks of the Don through Caucasus mountains to Persia and Asia Minor lasted 28 years, Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer Persia (330) lasted 8 years, Timur's campaign (1398) from Central Asia to Asia Minor lasted 7 years.

Genghis Khan is credited with uniting the nomads and creating a strong Mongol state. He united Mongolia and expanded its borders, creating the largest empire in human history. His collection of laws "Yasy" for a long time remained legal basis nomadic peoples of Asia.

The old Mongolian code of laws “Jasak”, introduced by Genghis Khan, reads: “Genghis Khan’s Yasa prohibits lying, theft, adultery, prescribes to love one’s neighbor as oneself, not to cause offenses, and to forget them completely, to spare countries and cities that have submitted voluntarily, to free from all tax and respect temples, dedicated to God, as well as his servants." The significance of “Jasak” for the formation of statehood in the empire of Genghis Khan is noted by all historians. The introduction of a set of military and civil laws made it possible to establish a firm rule of law on the vast territory of the Mongol Empire; non-compliance with its laws was punishable by death. Yasa prescribed tolerance in matters of religion, respect for temples and clergy, prohibited quarrels among the Mongols, disobedience of children to their parents, the theft of horses, regulated military service, rules of conduct in battle, distribution of military spoils, etc.

“Immediately kill whoever sets foot on the threshold of the governor’s headquarters.”

“Whoever urinates in water or on ashes is put to death.”

“It is prohibited to wash a dress while wearing it until it is completely worn out.”

“No one leaves his thousand, hundred or ten. Otherwise, he himself and the commander of the unit who received him will be executed.”

“Respect all faiths, without giving preference to any one.”

Genghis Khan declared shamanism, Christianity and Islam the official religions of his empire.

“Great Jasak” - the legislation of Genghis Khan was most fully preserved in the chronicles of Rashid ad-Din. There in “Bilik” - a collection of parables and sayings of Genghis Khan it is said: “The greatest pleasure and pleasure for a husband is to suppress the indignant and defeat the enemy, uproot him and seize everything that he has; make his married women weep and shed tears, sit on his good ride with the smooth rumps of geldings, turn the bellies of his beautiful-faced spouses into a night dress for sleeping and a bedding, look at their rose-colored cheeks and kiss them, and suck their sweet lips the color of breast berries! » .

In “The History of the Conqueror of the World,” Juvaini notes: “The Almighty singled out Genghis Khan for his intelligence and reason among equals, and in wisdom and power he elevated him above all the kings of the world, therefore everything that is already known about the orders of the powerful Khosroes and recorded about the customs of the pharaohs and Caesars is Genghis Khan , without the tedious study of chronicles and conformity with antiquities, he invented only from the pages of his own mind; and everything that was connected with the methods of conquering countries and related to the crushing of the power of enemies and the elevation of friends was the product of his own wisdom and the consequence of his reflections.

Several novels about Genghis Khan have been published in Russian, among them the most famous are the novels by V. Yang “Genghis Khan”, I. Kalashnikov “The Cruel Age”, Ch. Aitmatov “The White Cloud of Genghis Khan”. Two films are available on video cassettes: the Korean-Mongolian film “Khan of the Great Steppe. Genghis Khan" and the film "Genghis Khan", in leading role O. Sharif. In Russian only in 1996–2006. eight books have been published about the life of Genghis Khan: Rene Grousset (2000), S. Walker (1998), Michel Hoang (1997), E. Hara-Davan (2002), E.D. Phillips (2003), Juvaini (2004), Jean-Paul Roux (2005), John Maine (2006), from which many historical facts of his deeds can be gleaned.

In historical sources about Siberia there is no mention of the name Tengis in connection with Baikal. In the Turkic and Mongolian languages, “tengis” means sea, but the local Baikal population always called the lake differently - Lamu or Baigaal. Translator of “The Secret Legend” S.A. Kozin expressed two versions of the possible identification of the name Tengis, according to the first version with the Caspian Sea, and according to the second - with Baikal. The fact that the name Tengis means the Caspian Sea, and not Baikal, is supported by the naming of the Caspian Sea in all medieval sources as an inland sea. In the Nart epic and in Persian geographical texts, the Caspian Sea was called Khazar-Tengiz, the Black Sea - Kara-Tengiz. The proper name Tengiz is also widespread among the peoples of the Caucasus. In the distant past, the peoples inhabiting the shores of Baikal each called the lake in their own way. Chinese in ancient chronicles 110 BC it was called “Beihai” - the North Sea, the Buryat-Mongols - “Baigaal-dalai” - “big body of water”, the ancient peoples of Siberia, the Evenks - “Lamu” - the sea. Under the name "Lamu", the lake is often mentioned in Evenki legends, and under this name it first became known to the Russian Cossacks. The Evenk name of the lake, Lamu, was at first more common among Russian explorers of Siberia. After Kurbat Ivanov’s detachment reached the shore of the lake, the Russians switched to the Buryat-Mongolian name “Baygaal” or “Baigaal-dalai. At the same time, they linguistically adapted it to their language, replacing the “g” characteristic of the Buryats with the more familiar “k” for the Russian language - Baikal. The origin of the name “Baikal” is not precisely established. The name Baigal first appears in the Mongolian chronicles of the first half of the 17th century. “Shara Tuji” (“Yellow Chronicle”).

In the 13th century, Rus' was attacked by the troops of Khan Batu, after which the Mongol-Tatar yoke began. However, here’s the question: why are these invaders called Mongol-Tatars? Who were they really and what did they call themselves? In addition, the definition, consisting of two ethnonyms “Mongols” and “Tatars”, appeared relatively recently - in the 19th century. What were their names called by their contemporaries from Europe and Asia?

Wild, white and black

The famous historian Lev Gumilev recognized the fact that an ethnic group and its name do not always correspond to each other. This happened with the Tatars. In the 8th century it was a small tribe that roamed the Baikal region. But over time it grew, and three centuries later the community called the Tatars already included about 30 clans. They all lived in the basin of the Kerulen River, which flows through the territory of modern Mongolia.

Since the Tatars lived on the lands bordering China, the inhabitants of the Celestial Empire began to call all the tribes of nomads that settled from Great Wall to Siberia. That is, according to the Chinese, the Tatars were Mongolian, Turkic-speaking tribes, as well as inhabitants of the taiga.

Therefore, it is not surprising that local chronicles divide the Tatars into three categories: black, wild and white. In the first group, the chroniclers of the Celestial Empire included the Tungus, Yakuts, Buryats and other peoples of Siberia. People whose main activity was hunting were considered wild by Chinese authors, and wrote so in their historical works. The White Tatars included the Tatars themselves, who lived near the Great Wall. They were heavily culturally influenced by their neighbors: they wore silk clothes, followed the teachings of Confucius, and were familiar with hieroglyphic writing. The Chinese often hired these people to protect their borders from attacks by warlike nomads, considering the White Tatars to be more civilized.

As you already understand, the chroniclers of the Celestial Empire included the Mongolian tribes in the first category. The so-called “black Tatars” were engaged in cattle breeding. They resisted “cultivation” by the Chinese and highly valued their identity and freedom. And those who were ready to become like their rich and influential neighbors for money, trying to achieve the title of civilized people among them, were openly despised by the Mongols.

They were often at enmity with the Tatars (White Tatars, according to the Chinese classification). Both tribes carried out predatory raids on each other, and the steppe was always restless.

Since it was the Chinese who meticulously kept records in those days, later residents of all other countries also mistakenly began to call the Mongols Tatars. Although these were different peoples, this is evidenced by their mentality and way of life.

They made mistakes in Europe too

Following their Chinese colleagues, Russian chroniclers made the same mistake. Throughout the entire existence of the Golden Horde, the authors of medieval chronicles, which were written in various principalities, persistently and unambiguously called the invaders Tatars.

Representatives of many peoples conquered by the Mongols served in the army of Batu Khan, which attacked Russian lands in 1236. There were also Tatars among them, but not many. However, European merchants, who often dealt with the Chinese, buying goods delivered along the Great Silk Road, adopted from them the broadly used ethnonym “Tatars.” And even before the famous invasion of Batu’s troops, this name was assigned to all nomads living in Asia.

In the 19th century, wanting to correct the mistake, Russian and European historians began to call the invaders Mongol-Tatars, which caused even more confusion. Based on the logic of this designation, it turned out that Rus' was captured by two peoples who were in a friendly alliance, which was not at all true.

We are Mongols

It is clear that the Mongols themselves would never and would never call themselves Tatars: this contradicts the self-awareness of the nomads.

As you know, the founder of the huge empire Temujin (Temuchin) was the son of Yesugei-Baghatur and came from the Borjigin clan of the Kiyat tribe of the Mongol people. He subjugated all the neighboring tribes of nomadic herders and in 1206 convened a kurultai (a congress of representatives of various Mongol clans), at which he was proclaimed Genghis Khan. Then the scattered and warring tribes united for the first time. And a historic decision was made to begin aggressive campaigns on the lands of other peoples.

Speaking at the kurultai after the official assumption of supreme power, Genghis Khan called his people Keke-Mongols, which can be roughly translated as “the happiness of heaven” or “heavenly happiness.” So the ruler wanted to make it clear to his subjects that under his rule the Mongols would follow the will of higher powers.

Myngu or Tatanians?

The Chinese often distorted and altered the names of neighboring peoples. Therefore, they called the Tatars “ta-ta”, or even “da-da”. And the ethnonym “Myngu” (Mongols) was first mentioned in the chronicle “ Old story Tang Dynasty" dated 945. It is noteworthy that it says “myngu da-da,” that is, Mongol-Tatars. Maybe that's when the confusion began?

And although Genghis Khan officially called his empire “Eke Mongol Ulus” (Great Country of the Mongols), the authors of Chinese historical chronicles with enviable consistency continued their tradition and called the state founded by the legendary commander “House of Tatan” (Country of the Tatars). This continued until the 16th century.

The persistent use of an erroneous ethnonym is all the more surprising since Temujin in 1202 almost completely exterminated all the Tatars. Since this tribe was often at enmity with their ancestors and relatives legendary commander, Genghis Khan, having defeated him, made, together with his inner circle, a tough decision on his complete extermination. There was no Geneva Convention regulating the treatment of prisoners of war at that time, and the memory of the misfortunes experienced during the Tatar raids was strong. The Mongols made an exception only for small children, as well as some young and beautiful women who were taken as concubines.

Subsequently, the handful of surviving Tatars were forced to join the Mongol army and serve their invaders. If they were in the troops of Khan Batu, who conquered Rus' in the 13th century, then clearly not in such numbers as to speak of a union of two peoples.

An interesting fact is that modern Tatars - Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian, Crimean - are representatives different nations, formed on the fragments of the Golden Horde. All of them went through a difficult path of ethnogenesis, but they have practically nothing to do with the tribe killed by the troops of Genghis Khan in 1202.

Technological map of a history lesson in 6th grade according to the Federal State Educational Standard

Basic questions of studying the material

1) Formation of the power of Genghis Khan.

2) The beginning of Genghis Khan’s campaigns of conquest.

3) Battle of Kalka.

4) Historical legacy of the Mongol Empire

Lesson type

Learning new material

Lesson Resources

Textbook, § 15. Maps “Rus in the XII - early XIII centuries,” “The beginning of the Mongol conquests and the creation of the power of Genghis Khan.” Document fragments

Basic concepts and terms

Nomadic cattle breeding. Horde. Kurultai. Noyons. Tumen. Ulus

Key dates

1211- the beginning of Genghis Khan's campaigns of conquest.

1215- conquest of the Jin Empire.

1223- Battle of Kalka

Personalities

Genghis Khan. Munke. Ögedei. Batu

Homework

§ 15 of the textbook. Make a list of the rulers of Europe and Asia who were contemporaries of Genghis Khan.

*Mini-project for lesson 24: “Armament of Russian soldiers” (video, drawings)

Lesson modules

Educational tasks for organizing the educational process

Main types of student activities (at the level of educational activities)

Assessment of educational results

Motivational-targeted

Explain the meaning of the concepts “nomad”, “nomadic cattle breeding”. How did the life of ancient nomads differ from the life of sedentary peoples? Suggest what the consequences of the “meeting” of nomadic and sedentary peoples could be

Explain the meaning of a concept or term in a historical context.

Argument conclusions and judgments to gain experience in a civilizational approach to assessing social phenomena

Orientation (update/repetition)

What nomadic peoples do you know from the history courses of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages?

With which neighbors nomadic peoples did Rus' interact? Have contacts always been peaceful?

Update knowledge from the course general history, history of Russia

Show on the map the habitats of the Mongolian tribes.

Read paragraph 2. What caused the Mongol conquests?

Describe military equipment Mongols using illustration.

Using the map, trace the progress of Genghis Khan's conquests in Asia.

Read the excerpt “Rashid ad-din about the capture of the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, by the Mongols” (see the section “Studying the document”). Explain the actions of the Mongol conquerors after the capture of Urgench. Was looting common in the wars of the time, or were the Mongols different from other conquerors? Express your attitude to the actions of the Mongol conquerors.

How did the habitat of the Mongol tribes change with the formation of the Mongol Empire (see map)? Name the states that are now located on the territory of the Mongol Empire.

Read an excerpt from the Ipatiev Chronicle about the Battle of Kalka (see additional material). How did Russian soldiers fight? What prevented the Russian princes from achieving success? What facts confirm the treachery of the enemy (the chronicle calls them “Tatars”)?

Use the map as a historical source.

Analyze the source text, give examples, express your attitude.

Determine the causes of events.

Formulate value judgments and/or your attitude on the topic under discussion.

Draw conclusions based on the analysis of the chronicle text

Working with a map, text from a historical source (chronicle).

Control and evaluation (including reflective)

What do you see as the reasons for the success of the Mongol conquests?

Make a table showing the positive and negative consequences for the peoples of Eurasia the Mongol conquests and the creation of the Mongol Empire. Make a list of the rulers of Europe and Asia who were contemporaries of Genghis Khan.

To complete what tasks did you need the help of a teacher (fellow)?

Determine the causes of historical events.

Summarize the material of the lesson topic in the form of a table.

Establish synchronistic connections.

Evaluate the results of your educational activities

Compiling a table

Additional material

They conquer fortifications in the following way. If such a fortress is encountered, they surround it; Moreover, sometimes they fence it off so that no one can enter or exit; At the same time, they fight very bravely with guns and arrows and do not stop fighting for a single day or night, so that those on the fortifications have no rest; The Tatars themselves rest, since they divide the troops and one replaces the other in battle, so they do not get very tired. And if they cannot take possession of the fortification in this way, then they throw Greek fire at it... And when they have already entered, then one part throws fire to burn it, and the other part fights with the people of that fortification.

When they are already standing against the fortification, they speak kindly to its inhabitants and promise them a lot with the goal that they will surrender into their hands; and if they surrender to them, they say: “Come out to be counted, according to our custom.” And when they come out to them, the Tatars ask which of them are artisans, and they leave them, and kill the others, excluding those whom they want to have as slaves, with axes. During wars, they kill everyone they take prisoner, unless they want to save someone to have them as slaves.

IPATEVIAN CHRONICLE about the Battle of Kalka

News reached the camp that the Tatars had come to see the Russian boats; Having heard about [this] Daniil Romanovich and, mounting his horse, rushed to look at the unprecedented army; and the horsemen who were with him and many other princes rushed with him to see the unprecedented army. It moved away, and Yuri told them [the princes] that “these are arrows.” And others said that “these are simple people, lower than the Polovtsians.” Yuri Domamirich said: “These are warriors and good warriors.”

Having returned, Yuri told Mstislav everything. The young princes said: “Mstislav and the other Mstislav - don’t stand there! Let's go after them! All the princes - Mstislav, and another Mstislav, Chernigovsky, crossed the Dnieper River, other princes crossed [too], and [all of them] went to the Polovtsian field... From there they walked 8 days to the Kalka River. They were met by Tatar guards. The [Russian] guards fought with him and Ivan Dmitrievich and two others with him were killed.

The Tatars retreated, and near the Kalka River the Tatars met with the Russian Polovtsian regiments. Mstislav Mstislavich first ordered Daniel to cross the Kalka River with [his] regiment and other regiments with him, and after them he crossed, moving personally in the vanguard. When he saw the Tatar regiments, he returned and said: “Arm yourself!” Mstislav [Mstislavich] did not inform Mstislav Romanovich and the other Mstislav, who was sitting in the camp and knew nothing [about what was happening] because of envy of them, for there was a great discord between them.

The regiments converged and fought, Daniil rode forward, and Semyon Olyuevich and Vasilko Gavrilovich rushed to the Tatar regiments, Vasilko was pierced and wounded. And Daniel himself, wounded in the chest, due to his youth and ardor, did not feel the wounds in his body that he received, for he was 18 years old and strong.

Daniil fought well, beating the Tatars.<…>When the Tatars fled, and Daniil beat them with his regiment, Oleg Kursky fought hard with the other regiments [of the Tatars] who fought them. For our sins, the Russian regiments were defeated... And there was victory over all the Russian princes. This has never happened [before]. The Tatars, who defeated the Russian princes for Christian sins, came and reached Svyatopolchy Novgorod. The Russians, who did not know their treachery, came out to meet them with crosses, but they [the Tatars] killed them all.

LEGENDARY PEOPLE OF MONGOLIA

GENGISH KHAN
(1162-1227)


Genghis Khan (Mong. Chinggis Khaan proper name - Temujin, Temujin, Mong. Temuuzhin). May 3, 1162 - August 18, 1227) - Mongol khan, founder of the Mongol state (from 1206), organizer of conquests in Asia and Eastern Europe, the great reformer and unifier of Mongolia. The direct descendants of Genghis Khan in the male line are the Genghisids.

The only one historical portrait Genghis Khan from a series of official portraits of rulers was painted under Kublai Khan in the 13th century. (beginning of reign in 1260), several decades after his death (Genghis Khan died in 1227). A portrait of Genghis Khan is kept in the Beijing Historical Museum. The portrait shows a face with Asian features, with blue eyes and a gray beard.

Early years

The ancestor of all Mongols, according to the “Secret Legend,” is Alan-Goa, in the eighth generation from Genghis Khan, who, according to legend, conceived children from a sunbeam in a yurt. Genghis Khan's grandfather, Khabul Khan, was a wealthy leader of all Mongol tribes and successfully waged wars with neighboring tribes. Temujin's father was Yesugei-baatur, the grandson of Khabul Khan, the leader of most of the Mongol tribes, in which there were 40 thousand yurts. This tribe was the complete owner of the fertile valleys between the Kerulen and Onon rivers. Yesugei-baatur also successfully fought and fought, subjugating the Tatars and many neighboring tribes. From the contents of the “Secret Legend” it is clear that Genghis Khan’s father was the famous khan of the Mongols.

It is difficult to name the exact date of birth of Genghis Khan. According to the Persian historian Rashid ad-din, his date of birth was 1155, modern Mongolian historians adhere to the date - 1162. He was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract on the banks of the Onon River (in the area of ​​Lake Baikal) in the family of one of the Mongolian leaders of the Taichiut tribe Yesugei-bagatura (“bagatur” - hero) from the Bordzhigin clan, and his wife Hoelun from the Onhirat tribe. It was named in honor of the Tatar leader Temujin, whom Yesugei defeated on the eve of the birth of his son. At the age of 9, Yesugei-Bagatur betrothed his son to a 10-year-old girl from the Khungirat family. Leaving his son with the bride's family until he came of age, so that they could get to know each other better, he went home. On the way back, Yesugei stopped at a Tatar camp, where he was poisoned. When he returned to his native ulus, he became ill and died a few days later.

The elders of the Mongol tribes refused to obey the too young and inexperienced Temujin and left along with their tribes to another patron. So young Temujin remained surrounded by only a few representatives of his family: his mother, younger brothers and sisters. All their remaining property included only eight horses and the family “bunchuk” - a white banner with the image of a bird of prey - a gyrfalcon and with nine yak tails, symbolizing the four large and five small yurts of his family. For several years, widows and children lived in complete poverty, wandering in the steppes, eating roots, game and fish. Even in the summer, the family lived from hand to mouth, making provisions for the winter.

The leader of the Taichiuts, Targultai (a distant relative of Temujin), who declared himself the ruler of the lands once occupied by Yesugei, fearing the revenge of his growing rival, began to pursue Temujin. One day, an armed detachment attacked the camp of the Yesugei family. Temujin managed to escape, but was overtaken and captured. They put a block on it - two wooden boards with a hole for the neck, which were pulled together. The block was a painful punishment: a person did not have the opportunity to eat, drink, or even drive away a fly that had landed on his face. He finally found a way to escape and hide in a small lake, plunging into the water with the block and sticking only his nostrils out of the water. The Taichiuts searched for him in this place, but could not find him; but one Selduz, who was among them, noticed him and decided to save him. He pulled young Temujin out of the water, freed him from the block and took him to his home, where he hid him in a cart with wool. After the Taichiuts left, the Selduz put Temujin on a mare, provided him with weapons and sent him home.

After some time, Temujin found his family. The Borjigins immediately migrated to another place, and the Taichiuts could no longer detect them. Then Temujin married his betrothed Borte. Borte's dowry was a luxurious sable fur coat. Temujin soon went to the most powerful of the then steppe leaders - Togoril, the khan of the Keraits. Togoril was once a friend of Temujin's father, and he managed to enlist the support of the Kerait leader by recalling this friendship and presenting a luxurious gift - Borte's sable fur coat.

Beginning of conquest

With the help of Khan Togoril, Temujin's forces began to gradually grow. Nukers began to flock to him; he raided his neighbors, increasing his possessions and herds.

Temujin's first serious opponents were the Merkits, who acted in alliance with the Taichiuts. In Temujin's absence, they attacked the Borjigin camp and took Borte and Yesugei's second wife, Sochikhel, captive. Temujin, with the help of Khan Togoril and the Keraits, as well as his anda (sworn brother) Jamukha from the Jajirat clan, defeated the Merkits. At the same time, while trying to drive away the herd from Temujin’s possessions, Jamukha’s brother was killed. Under the pretext of revenge, Jamukha and his army moved towards Temujin. But without achieving success in defeating the enemy, the leader of the Jajirat retreated.

Temujin's first major military enterprise was the war against the Tatars, launched jointly with Togoril around 1200. The Tatars at that time had difficulty repelling the attacks of the Jin troops that entered their possessions. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Temujin and Togoril inflicted a number of strong blows on the Tatars and captured rich booty. The Jin government awarded high titles to the steppe leaders as a reward for the defeat of the Tatars. Temujin received the title "jauthuri" (military commissar), and Togoril - "van" (prince), from that time he became known as Van Khan. In 1202, Temujin independently opposed the Tatars. Before this campaign, he made an attempt to reorganize and discipline the army - he issued an order according to which it was strictly forbidden to capture booty during the battle and pursuit of the enemy: the commanders had to divide the captured property between the soldiers only after the end of the battle.

Temujin's victories caused the consolidation of the forces of his opponents. A whole coalition took shape, including Tatars, Taichiuts, Merkits, Oirats and other tribes, which elected Jamukha as their khan. In the spring of 1203, a battle took place that ended in the complete defeat of the forces of Jamukha. This victory further strengthened the Temujin ulus. In 1202-1203, the Keraits were led by Van Khan's son Nilha, who hated Temujin because Van Khan gave him preference over his son and thought to transfer the Kerait throne to him, bypassing Nilha. In the fall of 1203, Wang Khan's troops were defeated. His ulus ceased to exist. Van Khan himself died while trying to escape to the Naiman.

In 1204, Temujin defeated the Naimans. Their ruler Tayan Khan died, and his son Kuchuluk fled to the territory of Semirechye in the country of the Karakitai (southwest of Lake Balkhash). His ally, the Merkit khan Tokhto-beki, fled with him. There Kuchuluk managed to gather scattered detachments of Naimans and Keraits, gain favor with the Gurkhan and become quite a significant political figure.

Reforms of the Great Khan

At the kurultai in 1206, Temujin was proclaimed the great khan over all tribes - Genghis Khan. Mongolia has been transformed: the scattered and warring Mongolian nomadic tribes have united into a single state.

At the same time, a new law was issued: Yasa. In it, the main place was occupied by articles about mutual assistance in the campaign and the prohibition of deception of those who trusted. Anyone who violated these regulations was executed, and the enemy of the Mongols, who remained loyal to his khan, was spared and accepted into his army. “Good” was considered loyalty and courage, and “evil” was cowardice and betrayal.

After Temujin became the all-Mongolian ruler, his policies began to reflect the interests of the Noyon movement even more clearly. The Noyons needed internal and external activities that would help consolidate their dominance and increase their income. New wars of conquest and the robbery of rich countries were supposed to ensure the expansion of the sphere of feudal exploitation and the strengthening of the class positions of the noyons.

The administrative system created under Genghis Khan was adapted to achieve these goals. He divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from his confidants and nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their households in peacetime, and in wartime took up arms. This organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to increase his armed forces to approximately 95 thousand soldiers.

Individual hundreds, thousands and tumens, together with the territory for nomadism, were given into the possession of one or another noyon. Great Khan, considering himself the owner of all the land in the state, he distributed the land and arats into the possession of the noyons, on the condition that they would regularly perform certain duties for this. The most important duty was military service. Each noyon was obliged, at the first request of the overlord, to field the required number of warriors in the field. Noyon, in his inheritance, could exploit the labor of the arats, distributing his cattle to them for grazing or involving them directly in work on his farm. Small noyons served large ones.

Under Genghis Khan, the enslavement of arats was legalized, and unauthorized movement from one dozen, hundreds, thousands or tumens to others was prohibited. This ban meant the formal attachment of the arats to the land of the noyons - for migrating from their possessions, the arats faced the death penalty.

Specially formed armed detachment personal bodyguards, the so-called keshik, enjoyed exceptional privileges and was intended mainly to fight against the internal enemies of the khan. The Keshikten were selected from the Noyon youth and were under the personal command of the khan himself, being essentially the khan’s guard. At first, there were 150 Keshikten in the detachment. In addition, it was created special squad, who was always supposed to be in the vanguard and the first to engage in battle with the enemy. It was called a detachment of heroes.

Genghis Khan elevated the written law to a cult and was a supporter of strong law and order. He created a network of communication lines in his empire, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, and organized intelligence, including economic intelligence.

Genghis Khan divided the country into two “wings”. He placed Boorcha at the head of the right wing, and Mukhali, his two most faithful and experienced associates, at the head of the left. He made the positions and ranks of senior and highest military leaders - centurions, thousanders and temniks - hereditary in the family of those who, with their faithful service, helped him seize the khan's throne.

Conquest of Northern China

In 1207-1211, the Mongols conquered the land of the Yakuts [source?], Kyrgyz and Uighurs, that is, they subjugated almost all the main tribes and peoples of Siberia, imposing tribute on them. In 1209, Genghis Khan conquered Central Asia and turned his gaze to the south.

Before the conquest of China, Genghis Khan decided to secure eastern border, having captured in 1207 the state of the Tanguts Xi-Xia, who had previously conquered Northern China from the dynasty of Chinese Emperors Song and created their own state, which was located between his possessions and the state of Jin. Having captured several fortified cities, in the summer of 1208 the “True Ruler” retreated to Longjin, waiting out the unbearable heat that fell that year. Meanwhile, news reaches him that his old enemies Tokhta-beki and Kuchluk are preparing for a new war with him. Anticipating their invasion and having carefully prepared, Genghis Khan defeated them completely in a battle on the banks of the Irtysh. Tokhta-beki was among the dead, and Kuchluk escaped and found shelter with the Karakitai.

Satisfied with the victory, Temujin again sends his troops against Xi-Xia. After defeating an army of Chinese Tatars, he captured the fortress and passage in the Great Wall of China and in 1213 invaded the Chinese Empire itself, the state of Jin and marched as far as Nianxi in Hanshu Province. With increasing persistence, Genghis Khan led his troops, strewing the road with corpses, deep into the continent and established his power even over the province of Liaodong, central to the empire. Several Chinese commanders, seeing that the Mongol conqueror was gaining constant victories, ran over to his side. The garrisons surrendered without a fight.

Having established his position along the entire Great Wall of China, in the fall of 1213 Temujin sent three armies to different parts of the Chinese Empire. One of them, under the command of the three sons of Genghis Khan - Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei, headed south. Another, led by Temujin's brothers and generals, moved east to the sea. Genghis Khan himself and his youngest son Tolui, at the head of the main forces, set out in a southeastern direction. The First Army advanced as far as Honan and, after capturing twenty-eight cities, joined Genghis Khan on the Great Western Road. The army under the command of Temujin's brothers and generals captured the province of Liao-hsi, and Genghis Khan himself ended his triumphant campaign only after he reached the sea rocky cape in Shandong province. But either fearing civil strife, or due to other reasons, he decides to return to Mongolia in the spring of 1214 and makes peace with the Chinese emperor, leaving Beijing to him. However, before the leader of the Mongols had time to leave the Great Wall of China, chinese emperor moved his court further away, to Kaifeng. This step was perceived by Temujin as a manifestation of hostility, and he again sent troops into the empire, now doomed to destruction. The war continued.

The Jurchen troops in China, replenished by the aborigines, fought the Mongols until 1235 on their own initiative, but were defeated and exterminated by Genghis Khan's successor Ogedei.

Fight against the Kara-Khitan Khanate

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted to the flourishing cities of Southern Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to implement his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where rich cities were located and ruled by Genghis Khan’s longtime enemy, the Naiman Khan Kuchluk.

While Genghis Khan was conquering more and more cities and provinces of China, the fugitive Naiman Khan Kuchluk asked the gurkhan who had given him refuge to help collect the remnants of the army defeated at the Irtysh. Having gained a fairly strong army under his hand, Kuchluk entered into an alliance against his overlord with the Shah of Khorezm Muhammad, who had previously paid tribute to the Karakitays. After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies were left with a big gain, and the gurkhan was forced to relinquish power in favor of the uninvited guest. In 1213, Gurkhan Zhilugu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of Semirechye. Sairam, Tashkent, and the northern part of Fergana came under his power. Having become an irreconcilable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began persecuting Muslims in his domains, which aroused the hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. The ruler of Koylyk (in the valley of the Ili River) Arslan Khan, and then the ruler of Almalyk (northwest of modern Gulja) Bu-zar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

In 1218, Jebe's troops, together with the troops of the rulers of Koylyk and Almalyk, invaded the lands of the Karakitai. The Mongols conquered Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan, which were owned by Kuchluk. In the first battle, Jebe defeated the Naiman. The Mongols allowed Muslims to perform public worship, which had previously been prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to Afghanistan, where he was caught and killed. The residents of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - “ nice city" The road to Khorezm opened before Genghis Khan.

Conquest of Central Asia

After the conquest of China and Khorezm, the supreme ruler of the Mongol clan leaders, Genghis Khan, sent a strong cavalry corps under the command of Jebe and Subedei to explore the “western lands”. They walked along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, then, after the devastation of Northern Iran, they penetrated into Transcaucasia, defeated the Georgian army (1222) and, moving north along the western shore of the Caspian Sea, met a united army of Polovtsians, Lezgins, Circassians and Alans in the North Caucasus. A battle took place, which did not have decisive consequences. Then the conquerors split the ranks of the enemy. They gave gifts to the Polovtsians and promised not to touch them. The latter began to disperse to their nomadic camps. Taking advantage of this, the Mongols easily defeated the Alans, Lezgins and Circassians, and then defeated the Polovtsians piecemeal. At the beginning of 1223, the Mongols invaded Crimea, took the city of Surozh (Sudak) and again moved into the Polovtsian steppes.

The Polovtsians fled to Rus'. Leaving the Mongol army, Khan Kotyan, through his ambassadors, asked not to refuse him the help of his son-in-law Mstislav the Udal, as well as Mstislav III Romanovich, reigning Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the beginning of 1223, a large princely congress was convened in Kyiv, where it was agreed that the armed forces of the princes of Kyiv, Galicia, Chernigov, Seversk, Smolensk and Volyn principalities, united, should support the Polovtsians. The Dnieper, near the island of Khortitsa, was appointed as the gathering place for the Russian united army. Here envoys from the Mongol camp were met, inviting the Russian military leaders to break the alliance with the Polovtsians and return to Rus'. Taking into account the experience of the Cumans (who in 1222 persuaded the Mongols to break their alliance with the Alans, after which Jebe defeated the Alans and attacked the Cumans), Mstislav executed the envoys. In the battle on the Kalka River, the troops of Daniil Galitsky, Mstislav the Udal and Khan Kotyan, without informing the other princes, decided to “deal with” the Mongols on their own and crossed to the eastern bank, where on May 31, 1223 they were completely defeated while passively contemplating this bloody battle on the part of the main Russian forces led by Mstislav III, located on the elevated opposite bank of the Kalka.

Mstislav III, having fenced himself in with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then came to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai to lay down arms and freely retreat to Rus', as he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and cruelly tortured as “traitors to their own army.”

After the victory, the Mongols organized the pursuit of the remnants of the Russian army (only every tenth soldier returned from the Azov region), destroying cities and villages in the Dnieper direction, capturing civilians. However, the disciplined Mongol military leaders had no orders to linger in Rus'. They were soon recalled by Genghis Khan, who considered that the main task of the reconnaissance campaign to the west had been successfully completed. On the way back at the mouth of the Kama, the troops of Jebe and Subedei suffered a serious defeat from the Volga Bulgars, who refused to recognize the power of Genghis Khan over themselves. After this failure, the Mongols went down to Saksin and along the Caspian steppes returned to Asia, where in 1225 they united with the main forces of the Mongol army.

The Mongol forces remaining in China enjoyed the same success as the armies in Western Asia. The Mongol Empire was expanded with several new conquered provinces lying north of the Yellow River, with the exception of one or two cities. After the death of Emperor Xuyin-Tsung in 1223, the Northern Chinese Empire practically ceased to exist, and the borders of the Mongol Empire almost coincided with the borders of the Central and South China, managed imperial dynasty Sun.

Death of Genghis Khan

Upon returning from Central Asia, Genghis Khan once again led his army through Western China. In 1225 or early 1226, Genghis launched a campaign against the Tangut country. During this campaign, astrologers informed the Mongol leader that five planets were in unfavorable alignment. The superstitious Mongol believed that he was in danger. Under power foreboding the formidable conqueror went home, but on the way he fell ill and died on August 25, 1227.

Before his death, he wished that the Tangut king would be executed immediately after the capture of the city, and that the city itself would be destroyed to the ground. Different sources give different versions of his death: from an arrow wound in battle; from long illness, after falling from a horse; from a lightning strike; at the hands of a captive princess on her wedding night.

According to Genghis Khan's dying wish, his body was taken to his homeland and interred in the Burkan-Kaldun area. According to the official version of the “Secret Legend,” on the way to the Tangut state, he fell from his horse and was badly injured while hunting wild kulan horses and fell ill: “Having decided to go to the Tanguts after winter period the same year, Genghis Khan conducted a new re-registration of troops and in the fall of the Year of the Dog (1226) he set out on a campaign against the Tanguts. Of the Khanshas, ​​Yesui Khatun followed the sovereign. On the way, during a raid on the Arbukhai wild kulan horses, which are found there in abundance, Genghis Khan sat astride a brown-gray horse. During the raid of the kulans, his brown-gray climbed onto the dab, and the sovereign fell and was badly hurt. Therefore, we made a stop at the Tsoorkhat tract. The night passed, and the next morning Yesui-khatun said to the princes and noyons: “The sovereign had a strong fever at night. We need to discuss the situation.” The “Secret Legend” says that “Genghis Khan, after the final defeat of the Tanguts, returned and ascended to heaven in the year of the Pig” (1227). From the Tangut spoils, he especially generously rewarded Yesui-Khatun at his very departure.”

According to the will, Genghis Khan was succeeded by his third son Ögedey. Until the capital of Xi-Xia Zhongxing was taken, the death of the great ruler was to be kept secret. Funeral procession moved from the camp of the Great Horde to the north, to the Onon River. The “Secret Legend” and the “Golden Chronicle” report that along the route of the caravan with the body of Genghis Khan to the burial place, all living things were killed: people, animals, birds. The chronicles record: "They killed every living creature, which was seen so that the news of his death would not spread throughout the surrounding areas. His four main hordes mourned him and he was buried in the area that he had previously once deigned to designate as a great reserve." His wives carried his body through his native camp, and in the end he was buried in a rich tomb in the Onon Valley. During the burial Mystical rites were carried out, which were designed to protect the place where Genghis Khan was buried. The place of his burial has not yet been found. After the death of Genghis Khan, mourning continued for two years.

According to legend, Genghis Khan was buried in a deep tomb, sitting on a golden throne, in the family cemetery "Ikh Khorig" near Mount Burkhan Khaldun, at the source of the Urgun River. He sat on the golden throne of Muhammad, which he brought from captured Samarkand. To prevent the grave from being found and desecrated in subsequent times, after the burial of the Great Khan, a herd of thousands of horses was driven across the steppe several times, destroying all traces of the grave. According to another version, the tomb was built in a riverbed, for which the river was temporarily blocked and the water was directed along a different channel. After the burial, the dam was destroyed and the water returned to its natural course, forever hiding the burial site. Everyone who participated in the burial and could remember this place was subsequently killed, and those who carried out this order were subsequently killed too. Thus, the mystery of Genghis Khan’s burial remains unsolved to this day.

So far, attempts to find the tomb of Genghis Khan have not been successful. Geographical names from the times of the Mongol Empire have completely changed over many centuries, and no one today can say with accuracy where Mount Burkhan-Khaldun is located. According to the version of academician G. Miller, based on the stories of the Siberian “Mongols”, Mount Burkhan-Khaldun in translation can mean “God’s mountain”, “Mountain where deities are placed”, “Mountain - God scorches or God penetrates everywhere” - “sacred mountain Chinggis and his ancestors, the deliverer mountain, which Chinggis, in memory of his salvation in the forests of this mountain from fierce enemies bequeathed to make sacrifices forever and ever, was located in the places of the original nomads of Genghis and his ancestors along the Onon River."

RESULTS OF GENGIGI KHAN'S REIGN

During the conquest of the Naimans, Genghis Khan became acquainted with the beginnings of written records; some of the Naimans entered the service of Genghis Khan and were the first officials in the Mongolian state and the first teachers of the Mongols. Apparently, Genghis Khan hoped to subsequently replace the Naimans with ethnic Mongols, since he ordered noble Mongolian youths, including his sons, to learn the Naiman language and writing. After the spread of Mongol rule, during the lifetime of Genghis Khan, the Mongols also used the services of Chinese and Persian officials.

In the area foreign policy Genghis Khan sought to maximize the expansion of the territory under his control. Genghis Khan's strategy and tactics were characterized by careful reconnaissance, surprise attacks, the desire to dismember enemy forces, setting up ambushes using special units to lure the enemy, maneuvering large masses of cavalry, etc.

The ruler of the Mongols created the greatest empire in history, which in the 13th century subjugated vast expanses of Eurasia from Sea of ​​Japan to Black. He and his descendants swept away great and ancient states from the face of the earth: the state of the Khorezmshahs, the Chinese Empire, the Baghdad Caliphate, and most of the Russian principalities were conquered. Vast territories were placed under the control of the Yasa steppe law.

The old Mongolian code of laws "Jasak", introduced by Genghis Khan, reads: "Genghis Khan's Yasa prohibits lying, theft, adultery, prescribes to love one's neighbor as oneself, not to cause offenses, and to forget them completely, to spare countries and cities that have submitted voluntarily, to free from all tax and respect the temples dedicated to God, as well as his servants." The significance of "Jasak" for the formation of statehood in the empire of Genghis Khan is noted by all historians. The introduction of a set of military and civil laws made it possible to establish a firm rule of law on the vast territory of the Mongol Empire; non-compliance with its laws was punishable by death. Yasa prescribed tolerance in matters of religion, respect for temples and clergy, prohibited quarrels among the Mongols, disobedience of children to their parents, the theft of horses, regulated military service, rules of conduct in battle, distribution of military spoils, etc.
“Immediately kill whoever steps on the threshold of the governor’s headquarters.”
“Whoever urinates in water or on ashes is put to death.”
“It is prohibited to wash the dress while wearing it until it is completely worn out.”
“Let no one leave his thousand, hundred or ten. Otherwise, let him and the commander of the unit who received him be executed.”
"Respect all faiths, without giving preference to any one."
Genghis Khan declared shamanism, Christianity and Islam to be the official religions of his empire.

Unlike other conquerors who dominated Eurasia for hundreds of years before the Mongols, only Genghis Khan was able to organize a stable state system and make Asia appear to Europe not just as an unexplored steppe and mountainous space, but as a consolidated civilization. It was within its borders that the Turkic revival of the Islamic world then began, which with its second onslaught (after the Arabs) almost finished off Europe.

In 1220, Genghis Khan founded Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire.

The Mongols revere Genghis Khan as greatest hero and a reformer, almost like an incarnation of a deity. In European (including Russian) memory, he remained something like a pre-storm crimson cloud that appears before a terrible, all-purifying storm.

DESCENDANTS OF GENGISH KHAN

Temujin and his beloved wife Borte had four sons:

  • son Jochi
  • son Çağatay
  • son Ogedei
  • son Tolu y.

Only they and their descendants could claim supreme power in the state. Temujin and Borte also had daughters:

  • daughter Hodgin bags, wife of Butu-gurgen from the Ikires clan;
  • daughter Tsetseihen (Chichigan), wife of Inalchi, youngest son the heads of the Oirats Khuduha-beki;
  • daughter Alangaa (Alagai, Alakha), who married the Ongut noyon Buyanbald (in 1219, when Genghis Khan went to war with Khorezm, he entrusted her with state affairs in his absence, therefore she is also called Tor zasagch gunj (ruler-princess);
  • daughter Temulen, wife of Shiku-gurgen, son of Alchi-noyon from the Khongirads, the tribe of her mother Borte;
  • daughter Alduun (Altalun), who married Zavtar-setsen, noyon of the Khongirads.

Temujin and his second wife, Merkit Khulan-Khatun, daughter of Dair-usun, had sons

  • son Kulhan (Hulugen, Kulkan)
  • son Kharachar;

From the Tatar Yesugen (Esukat), daughter of Charu-noyon

  • son Chakhur (Jaur)
  • son Harkhad.

The sons of Genghis Khan continued the work of the Golden Dynasty and ruled the Mongols, as well as the conquered lands, based on the Great Yasa of Genghis Khan until the 20s of the 20th century. Even the Manchu emperors, who ruled Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th centuries, were descendants of Genghis Khan, as for their legitimacy they married Mongol princesses from Genghis Khan's golden family dynasty. The first prime minister of Mongolia of the 20th century, Chin Van Handdorj (1911-1919), as well as the rulers of Inner Mongolia (until 1954) were direct descendants of Genghis Khan.

The family record of Genghis Khan dates back to the 20th century; in 1918, the religious head of Mongolia, Bogdo Gegen, issued an order to preserve the Urgiin bichig (family list) of Mongol princes, called shastir. This shastir is kept in the museum and is called “Shastir of the State of Mongolia” (Mongol Ulsyn shastir). Many direct descendants of Genghis Khan from his golden family still live in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.

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