The Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan: biography, years of reign, conquests, descendants. Genghis Khan: Biography
Model of Genghis Khan's mobile yurt-camp on wheels. Ordos. Inner Mongolia Province. China.
"Lord of Humanity"
“Let my body perish, but my state will live forever.”
GENGISH KHAN.
“We took Berlin, not the enemy - Moscow. Our passionarity turned out to be higher than the German one. […] I fought in those places where only Russians and Tatars survived. Wars are won by those peoples who can sleep on bare ground. Russians and Tatars can, but Germans cannot.”
L.N. GUMILEV.
He who owns the past owns the present.
He who owns the present owns the future.
The Mongol Empire emerged in the 13th century as a result of the conquests of Genghis Khan and his successors.
Coronation of Genghis Khan. Miniature from the medieval manuscript “Book of Wonders” by Marco Polo, National Library France.
In just a quarter of a century, British historians write, Genghis Khan conquered a territory much larger in area than the Roman Empire took in 400 years. It united more than 700 tribes and nationalities - from the Japanese to the Caspian Sea. As a military strategist, he developed light cavalry tactics that were revolutionary for his time; introduced paper money, introduced a postal system, and practiced religious tolerance. However, the conquests of the Mongol Empire cost the conquered peoples more than 40 million human lives.
Map of the Mongol Empire at the end of the 13th century. The total area of this state was about 33 million square kilometers: from the Danube to Sea of Japan and from Novgorod to Southeast Asia.
The capital of the state was Karakorum, founded in 1220 after Genghis Khan’s Headquarters was moved to the banks of the Orkhon River.
The city got its name from the surrounding mountains, which translated from Mongolian meant “black stones of the volcano.”
A modern panorama of the new and old Karakorum.
The development of Karakorum began after the accession of Ogedei, the son of the Great Conqueror, in 1229. He erected there the “Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity.” Each of the younger Chingizids also had to build a palace here. Then all the buildings were surrounded by a fortress wall.
Model of ancient Karakorum.
Karakorum was a center for the production of weapons and equipment for troops. During his campaigns, Khan left his family here.
In 1388, the city was ravaged by Chinese troops of the Ming state.
Currently, Karakorum was located in Mongolia.
Taking apart state symbols Mongol Empire, we find in it many consonances with that of the Principality of Kyiv and the Kingdom of Moscow.
Before we present the facts, let us emphasize: we are far from thinking about DIRECT BORROWING.
We pay attention only to the SIMILARITY and believe that these are hardly just random coincidences.
The prototype of the coat of arms of the Mongol Empire was the tamga of Genghis Khan - a family sign. This word itself, of Turkic origin, meant “brand”, “stamp”, “seal”.
The pedestal of the monument near the Government House in Ulaanbaatar with tamgas of Mongolian clans.
A descendant of one clan or another inherited the tamga of his ancestor, adding his own element to the main outline.
Mongolian tamgas on coins, see:
http://info.charm.ru/library/tamgha.htm
Initially, the main element of Genghis Khan's coat of arms was a raven, and then a falcon.
Crows on Nestorian crosses of the 13th-14th centuries, which are still found in burials in Mongolia and northwestern China.
Dashi Namdakov. Crow.
Subsequently, the birds were transformed into tridents or bidents, similar to the coat of arms of the Rurikovichs. Only among the latter the bird “attacked, diving down,” and among the Chingizids it “soared into the sky.”
Horsemen with tamgas at one of the monuments in Mongolia.
Another heraldic consonance is the Double-Headed Eagle. A modern historian from Kazan, having studied an excerpt from the Tatar manuscript “Defter-i Chinggis-name”, drew attention to one of the clan attributes of the Great Khan: “ike bash kara kosh” - a two-headed black bird ( Iskhakova D.M.“House of Genghis Khan” (Altyn Uruk): clan affiliation and its attributes // Ethnological studies in Tatarstan. Kazan, 2007).
One of the first appearances of the Double-Headed Eagle is known on copper follaries minted at the end of the 13th - first half of the 14th centuries. at the Sakchi mint (in the Danube region) with the image of the tamga of Beklyarbek Nogai.
Thus, both the Trident and the Double-Headed Eagle are present on one coin.
The next appearance of the Double-Headed Eagle on Golden Horde coins was recorded under the khans Uzbek and his son Janibek, who ruled in 1313-1341 and 1342-1357, respectively.
The Double-Headed Eagle also appeared on the Crimean coins of Khan Tokhtamysh, but it was the coins of Uzbek and Janibek that had special meaning. It consisted in the fact that they were copper, and therefore were widely circulated within Russian borders in the period preceding the Battle of Kulikovo.
Among scientists, there are several versions of the story of the appearance of the Double-Headed Eagle on the coins of the Golden Horde.
Some researchers believe that this is a consequence of Byzantine influence. Emir Nogai, Khans of Tokhta (1291-1312) and Uzbek (1313-1341) were married to Princesses from the Palaiologan Dynasty, as well as mongol khan Iran Abacus, on whose coins minted in 1280 the Double-Headed Eagle is also found.
Other scholars were of the opinion about the Eastern origin of this symbol, noting that the Double-Headed Eagle has been found on coins of Muslim states of the East since the end of the 12th century.
No doubt, the Double-Headed Eagle is one of the well-known symbols Ancient East. It is recorded on artifacts from Chaldea in the 6th century. BC and Cappadocia IV-III centuries. BC He was also well known in Sasanian Iran.
One of the pages of the book “Wonders of Creation and Wonders of Existence,” created in 1258 by the Iranian scientist and writer Zakaria Qazvini (1203-1283).
What has been said - we repeat once again - is not a reason to talk about borrowing, but an opportunity to think about a “strange convergence”. (Especially considering the double coincidence - keeping in mind the coat of arms of the Rurikovichs.) It is “strange” for us, because it has not yet been understood and comprehended by us.
In this regard, let us remember what Yu.N. once said in a personal conversation. Roerich: “Understanding has many meanings.”
And one more thing: when talking about consonances with what is now outside our country, let us remember much less well-known, but more significant - domestic ones.
We are talking about the so-called. “shaman plaques” (arbitrarily called so by archaeologists). The time of their existence is determined by the III-XII centuries. according to R.H. The distribution area is the forest and forest-tundra zone of the northeastern Urals and western Siberia from the Kama and Vyatka basins to the Yenisei and Ob.
Among this iconic bronze casting, better known as the “Chud Antiquities of Riphean” or as the “Perm Animal Style,” there are many two-headed birds.
A similar two-headed bird with a constant left-sided swastika is often found in Nestorian burials of the 13th-14th centuries. in Mongolia and northwest China.
Neither the past centuries, which redrew the borders beyond recognition, nor other states that arose in this place, nor other peoples who settled within their borders - all these seemingly global changes did not truly turn the Empire of Genghis Khan into history.
After the destruction of the Asian Cavalry Division of Baron R.F., lured into the territory of the RSFSR. von Ungern-Sternberg and the capture of the general himself, a “people’s revolutionary” regime was established in Mongolia, with the help of the Bolsheviks from Russia. His main tasks were the abolition of Buddhist monasteries, the physical destruction of the lama and Genghisids.
The latter were identified, captured, taken to the steppe and shot, buried in unmarked mass graves. Some (based on some reasons that are not yet entirely clear) were sent to the territory of the USSR to Siberian camps, where they disappeared without a trace.
The destruction of all memory of Genghis Khan was one of the priorities of the leadership of Mongolia later. So, in the 1960s, the Banner of Genghis Khan Sulde, miraculously preserved by Buddhist monks, which translated from Mongolian means “life force”, “destiny”, was destroyed. According to Mongolian beliefs, Sulde was the guardian of not only the tribe, but also the entire people and army as a whole.
Warriors of Genghis Khan. Sculptural group on the arch at the monument to Genghis Khan at Ulaanbaatar airport.
However, it seems that the subverters ultimately miscalculated, underestimating the vitality of the Genghisids. Studies have shown that, according to DNA tests, every 500th resident of Asia is a descendant of Genghis Khan:
http://alades.livejournal.com/250134.html
After the fall of the previous government in Mongolia, more than a dozen monuments to the Great Khan were erected there.
Monument to Hoelun (mother of Genghis Khan). Ulaanbaatar.
In 2008, 54 kilometers from Ulaanbaatar, on the banks of the Tuul River, a giant equestrian statue of Genghis Khan was erected. Its height is 40 meters (it is considered the highest in the world). It is lined with 250 tons of sparkling stainless steel.
The statue rests on a 10-meter pedestal surrounded by 36 columns symbolizing the rulers of the Mongol Empire from Genghis Khan to Ligden Khan.
The “Great Shaker” extended his hand towards the place of his birth - the Onon River in Transbaikalia. The place for the monument itself is also symbolic: it was here, according to legend, that he found the golden whip.
In neighboring China they also honor the memory of their conqueror. In 2013, in the city of Songyang, Zhilin province, a majestic bronze monument to Genghis Khan was opened in the cultural park named after him.
An entire complex of Genghis Khan was built in China in the city of Ordos in Inner Mongolia. The word Ordos in translation means “Palace complex”, but at the same time it is also consonant with the word Orda.
This place is also historical. Since the 17th century Ikhe-Ejen-Khoro (Great Bet) in Ordos was considered the burial place of Genghis Khan. There was a yurt here, which supposedly contained a silver shrine with his remains.
“Ordos,” wrote the Siberian researcher G.N., who visited this place. Potanin, - has three shrines - Great, Middle and Small rates, which are felt yurts. The remains of Genghis Khan lie in the Great Yurt […] Golden domes sparkled on the yurts; The felts covering the vaults of the yurts were cut along the lower edge into festoons in the form of tongues hanging down. […] All the shrines of Ordos are under the supervision of the Darhat, a very respected class that is exempt from all taxes and duties. […] The celebration, in which only men participate, begins with the worship of the Great Yurt with the remains of Genghis Khan...”
Mausoleum of Genghis Khan in Ordos.
The 21-meter tall equestrian statue of the Great Khan stands out in the Genghis Khan mausoleum complex in Ordos. He holds Sudde in his hands. The inscription in Mongolian is engraved on the pedestal: “Son of Heaven.” (That's what he called himself.)
The Great Conqueror is also honored outside of Asia. In 1995, by decision of UNESCO, he was declared “the greatest man of the last millennium.” Washington is even planning to erect a monument to him.
This initiative was put forward by the Mongolian diaspora in the United States, numbering about two thousand people. In their opinion, the statue of Genghis Khan should be added to the pantheon of American presidents that adorns the American capital. The idea was also approved by Mongolian diplomats. “The time has come,” they say, “for a meeting between East and West.”
While the US is gathering its thoughts, the UK has already done this.
On April 14, 2012, to commemorate the 850th anniversary of the founder of the Mongol Empire, a bronze statue by Buryat sculptor Dashi Namdakov was installed in London near Hyde Park.
We will tell you about the sculptor himself and his works in our next posts.
There are a large number of unique people in world history. They were simple children, often brought up in poverty and did not know good manners. It was these people who radically changed the course of history, leaving behind only ashes. They were building new world, a new ideology and a new outlook on life. Humanity owes its present life to all these hundreds of people, because it was the resulting mosaic of past events that led to what we have today. Everyone knows the names of such people, because they are constantly on people’s lips. Every year, scientists can provide an increasing number of interesting facts from the lives of great people. In addition, many secrets and mysteries are gradually being revealed, the disclosure of which a little earlier could have led to terrifying consequences.
Acquaintance
Genghis Khan is the founder of the first great khan of which he was. He united various scattered tribes located on the territory of Mongolia. In addition, he carried out a large number of campaigns against neighboring states. Most military campaigns ended in complete victory. The empire of Genghis Khan is considered the largest continental empire in all of world history.
Birth
Temujin was born in the Delyun-Boldok tract. The father named Temujin-Uge in honor of the captive Tatar leader, who was defeated just before the birth of the boy. The date of birth of the great leader is still not known exactly, since different sources indicate different periods. According to documents that existed during the life of the leader and his biographer witnesses, Genghis Khan was born in 1155. Another option is 1162, but there is no exact confirmation. The boy's father, Yesugei-bagatur, left him in the family of his future bride at the age of 11. Genghis Khan had to stay there until he came of age so that the children could get to know each other better. The little girl, the future bride named Borta, was from the Ungirat clan.
Father's death
According to the scriptures, on the way back home the boy's father was poisoned by the Tatars. Yesugei had a fever at home and died three days later. He had two wives. Both of them and their children were kicked out of the tribe by the head of the family. Women and children were forced to live in the forest for several years. They managed to escape by a miracle: they ate plants, the boys tried to fish. Even in the warm season, they were doomed to hunger, since they had to stock up on food for the winter.
Fearing revenge from the heirs of the great khan, the new head of the Targutai tribe, Kiriltukh, pursued Temujin. The boy managed to escape several times, but was eventually caught. They put a wooden block on him, which absolutely limited the martyr's actions. It was impossible to eat, drink, or even get the annoying bug off my face. Realizing the hopelessness of his situation, Temujin decided to escape. At night he reached the lake, where he hid. The boy was completely submerged in the water, leaving only his nostrils on the surface. The head of the tribe's bloodhounds carefully looked for at least some traces of the escapee. One person noticed Temujin, but did not give him away. Later it was he who helped Genghis Khan escape. Soon the boy found his relatives in the forest. Then he married Bort.
The making of a commander
Genghis Khan's empire was created gradually. At first, nukers began to flock to him, with whom he carried out attacks on neighboring territories. Thus, the young man began to have his own land, army and people. Genghis Khan began to form a special system that would allow him to effectively manage the rapidly growing horde. Around 1184, Genghis Khan's first son, Jochi, was born. In 1206, at a congress, Temujin was proclaimed Great Khan by God. From that moment on, he was considered the complete and absolute ruler of Mongolia.
Asia
The conquest of Central Asia took place in several stages. The war with the Karakitai Khanate ended with the Mongols receiving Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan. In order to gain the support of the population, the Mongols allowed Muslims to perform public worship, which was prohibited by the Naiman. This contributed to the fact that the permanent settled population completely took the side of the conquerors. The population considered the arrival of the Mongols to be “the mercy of Allah,” in comparison with the harshness of Khan Kuchluk. The residents themselves opened the gates to the Mongols. It is for this reason that the city of Balasagun was called the “meek city”. Khan Kuchluk was unable to organize a strong enough resistance, so he fled the city. Soon he was found and killed. Thus, the way to Khorezm was opened for Genghis Khan.
The Empire of Genghis Khan absorbed Khorezm, a large state in Central Asia. Weak point it was what I knew full power in the city, so the situation was very tense. Muhammad's mother independently appointed all her relatives to important government positions, without asking her son. Having thus created a circle of powerful support, she led the opposition against Muhammad. Internal relations became greatly strained when the threat of a Mongol invasion loomed. The war against Khorezm ended with neither side gaining a significant advantage. At night, the Mongols left the battlefield. In 1215, Genghis Khan agreed with Khorezm on mutual trade relations. However, the first merchants who went to Khorezm were captured and killed. For the Mongols, this was an excellent reason to start a war. Already in 1219, Genghis Khan, together with the main military forces, opposed Khorezm. Despite the fact that many territories were taken by siege, the Mongols plundered cities, killed and destroyed everything around them. Muhammad lost the war even without a fight, and, realizing this, he fled to an island in the Caspian Sea, having previously given power into the hands of his son Jalal ad-Din. After lengthy battles, the khan overtook Jalal ad-Din in 1221 near the Indus River. The enemy army numbered about 50 thousand people. To cope with them, the Mongols used a trick: after carrying out an outflanking maneuver along the rocky terrain, they struck the enemy from the flank. In addition, Genghis Khan deployed a powerful guard unit of bagaturs. Ultimately, Jalal ad-Din's army was almost completely defeated. He and several thousand soldiers fled from the battlefield by swimming.
After a 7-month siege, the capital of Khorezm, Urgench, fell and the city was taken. Jalal ad-Din fought against the troops of Genghis Khan for 10 long years, but this did not bring significant benefit to his state. He died defending his territory in 1231 in Anatolia.
In just three short years(1219-1221) the kingdom of Muhammad bowed to Genghis Khan. The entire eastern part of the kingdom, which occupied the territory from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, was under the rule of the Great Khan of Mongolia.
The Mongols conquered the West through the campaign of Jebe and Subadei. Having captured Samarkand, Genghis Khan sent his troops to conquer Muhammad. Jebe and Subedei passed through all of Northern Iran and then captured the South Caucasus. Cities were captured through certain treaties or simply by force. The troops regularly collected tribute from the population. Soon, in 1223, the Mongols defeated the Russian-Polovtsian military forces. However, retreating to the East, they lost. Small remnants of the huge army returned to the Great Khan in 1224, and he was in Asia at that time.
Hiking
The Khan's first victory, which occurred outside of Mongolia, occurred during the 1209-1210 campaign against the Tanguts. Khan began to prepare for war with the most dangerous enemy in the East - the state of Jin. In the spring of 1211 it began great war, which claimed many lives. Very quickly, by the end of the year, Genghis Khan’s troops controlled the territory from the north to the Chinese Wall. Already by 1214, the entire territory covering the north and the Yellow River was in the hands of the Mongol army. In the same year, the siege of Beijing took place. Peace was obtained through an exchange - Genghis Khan married a Chinese princess, who had a huge dowry, lands and wealth. But this step by the emperor was only a ruse, and as soon as the khan’s troops began to retreat, after waiting for the right moment, the Chinese resumed the war. For them, this was a big mistake, because in the speed of the Mongols they destroyed the capital to the last pebble.
In 1221, when Samarkand fell, the eldest son of Genghis Khan was sent to Khorezm to begin the siege of Urgench, the capital of Muhammad. At the same time, the youngest son was sent by his father to Persia to plunder and seize territory.
Separately, it is worth noting what happened between the Russian-Polovtsian and Mongol troops. The modern territory of the battle is the Donetsk region of Ukraine. The Battle of Kalka (year 1223) led to the complete victory of the Mongols. First they defeated the Polovtsian forces, and a little later the main forces of the Russian army were defeated. On May 31, the battle ended with the death of about 9 Russian princes, many boyars and warriors.
The campaign of Subedei and Jebe allowed the army to pass through a significant part of the steppes occupied by the Cumans. This allowed military leaders to evaluate the merits of the future theater of war, study it and think over a reasonable strategy. The Mongols also learned a lot about the internal structure of Rus'; they received a lot of useful information from prisoners. Genghis Khan's campaigns were always distinguished by the thoroughness that was carried out before the offensive.
Rus
The Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' took place in 1237-1240 under the rule of Genghisid Batu. The Mongols actively attacked Rus', inflicting strong blows, waiting for good moments. The main goal The Mongol-Tatars were disorganizing the warriors of Rus', sowing fear and panic. Battles with a large number they avoided warriors. The tactic was to disunite a large army and break up the enemy piece by piece, wearing him down with sharp attacks and constant aggression. The Mongols began battles by throwing arrows in order to intimidate and distract their opponents. One of the significant advantages of the Mongol army was that battle management was organized in the best possible way. The managers did not fight next to ordinary warriors, they were at a certain distance, so as to maximally cover the viewing angle of military operations. Instructions to the soldiers were given using various signs: flags, light, smoke, drums and pipes. The Mongol attack was carefully planned. For this purpose, powerful reconnaissance and diplomatic preparation for battle were carried out. Much attention was paid to isolating the enemy, as well as fanning internal conflicts. After this stage, it concentrated near the borders. The offensive took place along the entire perimeter. Starting from different sides, the army sought to get into the very center. Penetrating deeper and deeper, the military destroyed cities, stole livestock, killed warriors and raped women. In order to better prepare for an attack, the Mongols sent special observation units that prepared the territory and also destroyed the enemy’s weapons. The exact number of troops on both sides is not reliably known, since information varies.
For Rus', the invasion of the Mongols was a severe blow. A huge part of the population was killed, the cities fell into decay, as they were thoroughly destroyed. Stone construction ceased for several years. Many crafts simply disappeared. The settled population was almost completely eliminated. The empire of Genghis Khan and the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' were closely connected, since for the Mongols it was a very tasty morsel.
Khan's Empire
The Empire of Genghis Khan included a huge territory from the Danube to the Sea of Japan, from Novgorod and to Southeast Asia. In its heyday, it united the lands Southern Siberia, Eastern Europe, Middle East, China, Tibet and Central Asia. The 13th century marked the creation and flourishing of the great state of Genghis Khan. But already in the second half of the century, the huge empire began to split into separate uluses, which were ruled by the Chingizids. The most significant fragments of the huge state were: the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the Chagatai ulus and the Hulaguid state. And yet the empire's frontiers were so impressive that no general or conqueror could achieve more.
Capital of the Empire
Karakoram city was the capital of the entire empire. The word literally translates as “black stones of the volcano.” It is believed that Karakorum was founded in 1220. The city was the place where the khan left his family during campaigns and military affairs. The city was also the residence of the khan, in which he received important ambassadors. Russian princes also came here to resolve various political issues. The 13th century gave the world many travelers who left notes about the city (Marco Polo, de Rubruck, Plano Carpini). The city's population was very diverse, since each quarter was isolated from the other. The city was home to artisans and traders who came from all over the world. The city was unique in terms of the diversity of its inhabitants, because among them there were people different races, religion and thinking. The city was also built up with many Muslim mosques and Buddhist temples.
Ögedei built a palace which he called “The Palace of Ten Thousand Years of Prosperity.” Each Genghisid also had to build his own palace here, which, naturally, was inferior to the building of the son of the great leader.
Descendants
Genghis Khan had many wives and concubines until the end of his days. However, it was the commander’s first wife, Borta, who gave birth to the most powerful and famous boys. The heir to Jochi's first son, Batu, was the creator of the Golden Horde, Jagatay-Chagatay gave the name to the dynasty that ruled over the central regions for a long time, Ogadai-Ogedei was the successor of the khan himself, Tolui ruled the Mongol Empire from 1251 to 1259. Only these four boys had a certain power in the state. In addition, Borta gave birth to her husband and daughters: Khodzhin-begi, Chichigan, Alagai, Temulen and Altalun.
The second wife of the khan, Merkit Khulan-Khatun, gave birth to a daughter, Dayrusun, and sons, Kulkan and Kharachar. Genghis Khan's third wife Esukat gave him a daughter, Charu-noinonu, and sons, Chakhur and Kharkhad.
Genghis Khan, whose life story is impressive, left behind descendants who ruled the Mongols in accordance with the Great Yasa of Khan until the 20s of the last century. The Emperors of Manchuria, who ruled Mongolia and China from the 16th to the 19th centuries, were also the direct heirs of the khan in the female line.
Decline of a great empire
The fall of the empire lasted 9 long years, from 1260 to 1269. The situation was very tense, as there was a pressing question about who would receive all the power. In addition, it should be noted the serious administrative problems faced by the management apparatus.
The fall of the empire occurred for the reason that the sons of Genghis Khan did not want to live according to the laws established by their father. They could not live by the main postulate “On the good quality and severity of the state.” Genghis Khan was shaped by a cruel reality that constantly demanded decisive action from him. Temujin was constantly tested by life, starting from the early years of his life. His sons lived in a completely different environment; they were protected and confident in the future. In addition, we should not forget that they valued their father’s possessions much less than he did.
Another reason for the collapse of the state was the struggle for power between the sons of Genghis Khan. She distracted them from the pressing affairs of the state. When important issues had to be resolved, the brothers were engaged in sorting things out. This could not but affect the situation in the country, world status, and the mood of the people. All this led to a general deterioration in the state in many aspects. Dividing their father's empire among themselves, the brothers did not understand that they were destroying it by dismantling it into stones.
Death of a Great Leader
Genghis Khan, whose story is impressive to this day, returned from Central Asia and marched with his army through Western China. In 1225, near the borders of Xi Xia, Genghis Khan was hunting, during which he fell and was seriously hurt. By the evening of the same day, he developed a severe fever. As a consequence of this, a meeting of managers was convened in the morning, at which the question of whether or not to start a war with the Tanguts was considered. On the council there was also Jochi, who did not enjoy much confidence at the top of the government, since he regularly deviated from his father’s instructions. Noticing this constant behavior, Genghis Khan ordered his army to go against Jochi and kill him. But due to the death of his son, the campaign was never completed.
Having recovered his health, in the spring of 1226 Genghis Khan and his army crossed the Xi Xia border. Having defeated the defenders and left the city to be plundered, the khan began his last war. The Tanguts were completely defeated on the approaches to the Tangut kingdom, the path to which became open. The fall of the Tangut kingdom and the death of the khan are very connected, because the great leader died here.
Causes of death
The scriptures say that Genghis Khan's death occurred after he accepted gifts from the Tangut king. However, there are several versions that have equal rights to exist. Among the main and most probable causes are the following: death from illness, poor adaptation to the climate of the area, consequences of a fall from a horse. There is also a separate version that the khan was killed by his young wife, whom he took by force. The girl, fearing the consequences, committed suicide that same night.
Tomb of Genghis Khan
No one can name the exact burial place of the Great Khan. Various sources disagree on hypotheses for a number of reasons. Moreover, each of them indicates various places and methods of burial. Genghis Khan's tomb may be located in any of three places: on Burkhan-Khaldun, on the northern side of Altai Khan or in Yekhe-Utek.
The monument to Genghis Khan is located in Mongolia. The equestrian statue is considered to be the largest monument and statue in the entire world. The opening of the monument took place on September 26, 2008. Its height is 40 m without the pedestal, the height of which is 10 m. The entire statue is covered with stainless steel, the total weight is 250 tons. Also, the monument to Genghis Khan is surrounded by 36 columns. Each of them symbolizes the khan of the Mongol Empire, starting with Genghis and ending with Ligden. In addition, the monument has two floors and houses a museum, an art gallery, billiards, restaurants, a conference room and a souvenir shop. The horse's head serves as an observation deck for visitors. The statue is surrounded by a large park. The city authorities plan to develop a golf course, an open theater and an artificial lake.
Genghis Khan became the founder of the Mongol Empire, the largest continental empire in human history.
He is the most famous Mongol in the entire history of the Mongolian nation.
From the biography of the great Mongol Khan:
Genghis Khan or Genghis Khan is not a name, but a title that was granted to Temuchin at the end of the 12th century at the kurultai.
Temujin was born into the family of an influential leader of one of the Mongol tribes, Yesugei, between 1155 and 1162, since the exact date of his birth is unknown. When Temuchin was nine years old, his father was poisoned by enemies, and the family had to look for a means of subsistence. His mother and children had to wander for a long time in complete poverty, and then live in a cave. The family was so poor at that time that, according to legend, Temujin killed his brother for eating the fish Temujin caught.
After the death of his father, the future commander and his family were forced to flee, since the rivals of his late parent wanted to destroy them all. The family of the future khan had to wander from place to place so that they would not be found by enemies who took away from the family the lands that rightfully belonged to them. Subsequently, Temujin had to make a lot of efforts to become the head of the Mongol tribe and eventually avenge the death of his father.
Temujin was betrothed at the age of nine to eleven-year-old Borte from the Ungirat clan, and the wedding took place when the young man turned sixteen. From this marriage four sons and five daughters were born. One of these daughters of Alangaa, in the absence of her father, ruled the state, for which she received the title “princess-ruler.” It was the descendants of these children who had the right to claim highest authority in the state. Borte was considered the main wife of Genghis Khan and bore a title equivalent to that of empress.
The second wife of the khan was the Merkit woman Khulan-Khatun, who bore the khan two sons. Only Khulan Khatun, as his wife, accompanied the khan on almost every military campaign, and she died in one of them.
Genghis Khan's two other wives, the Tatars Yesugen and Yesui, were the younger and older sisters, and the younger sister herself offered her older sister as the fourth wife on their wedding night. Yesugen gave birth to her husband a daughter and two sons.
In addition to four wives, Genghis Khan had about a thousand concubines who came to him as a result of his campaigns of conquest and as gifts from his allies.
Genghis Khan used dynastic marriages very profitably - he gave his daughters in marriage to allied rulers. In order to marry the daughter of the great Mongol Khan, the ruler kicked out all his wives, which made the Mongol princesses first in line for the throne. After this, the ally went to war at the head of the army, and almost immediately died in battle, and the khan’s daughter became the ruler of the lands. This policy led to the fact that by the second half of the 13th century his daughters ruled from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian.
The Great Mongol Khan died in 1227 during a campaign against the Tangut state; the exact cause of his death is not known. Scientists are inclined to several versions: 1) aggravation of an injury received in 1225, received during a fall from a horse; 2) a sudden illness associated with the unfavorable climate of the Tangoust state; 3) was killed by a young concubine, whom he stole from her lawful husband.
Dying, the great khan appointed his third son from his main wife Ogedei as his heir - he, according to the khan, possessed a military strategy and a lively political mind.
The exact burial place of the khan remains a mystery to this day. Possible burial places are called Burkhan-Khaldun, Mount Altai-Khan, and the slope of Kentei-Khan. The khan himself bequeathed to keep the place of his grave secret. To carry out the order, the body of the deceased was taken deep into the desert, the slaves accompanying the body were killed by the guards. The warriors rode horses over the Khan’s grave for 24 hours to raze it to the ground, and upon returning to the camp, all the warriors participating in the funeral of Genghis Khan were killed. The secret hidden in the 13th century remains a real mystery to this day.
The conquests of Genghis Khan and his cruelty:
About the great Mongol conqueror, it is known that he brought terror to the endless steppes Genghis Khan, also called Temujin or Temujin, went down in history as the most successful Mongol commander of all time. He created a real empire that covered most of Asia and part of Europe, and his troops were a nightmare for the inhabitants of many other lands. One can relate to Genghis Khan in different ways, but one cannot help but admit that he was a very outstanding personality.
Many of the great khan's bloody battles took place only because of revenge. So, at the age of twenty, he decided to take revenge on the tribe that was responsible for the death of his father. Having defeated them, Genghis Khan gave the order to cut off the heads of all Tatars whose height exceeded the height of the axle of the cart wheel (about 90 cm), thus, only children under three years of age survived.
The next time, Genghis Khan avenged the death of his son-in-law Tokuchar, who died from an arrow from one of Nishapur’s warriors. Having attacked the settlement, the khan's troops killed everyone in their path - even women and children did not escape revenge, even cats and dogs were killed. By order of the khan's daughter, the widow of the deceased, a pyramid was built from their heads.
Genghis Khan did not always strive only to conquer foreign lands; sometimes he wanted to improve relations diplomatically. This is what happened with the kingdom of Khorezm, where an embassy was sent on behalf of the Great Khan. However, the ruler of the kingdom did not believe in the sincerity of the ambassadors’ intentions and gave the order to behead them; their fate was repeated by the next embassy sent by the Mongols. Genghis Khan brutally took revenge for the murdered diplomats - the two hundred thousand strong Mongol army killed the entire population of the kingdom and destroyed every house in the region, moreover, by order of the khan, even the river bed was moved to another place so that the river flowed through the area where the king of Khorezm was born. Genghis Khan did everything to wipe the kingdom off the face of the earth and any mention of it disappeared.
During the conflict with Khorezm, the neighboring Tangut state, the kingdom of Xi Xia, which had previously been conquered by the Mongols, also suffered. Genghis Khan asked the Tanguts to send an army to help the Mongol army, but was refused. The consequence of this was the complete destruction of the Tangut kingdom, the population was killed, and all cities were destroyed to the ground. The existence of the kingdom remained only mentioned in the documents of neighboring states.
The largest-scale military operation of Genghis Khan was the campaign against the Jin Empire - territory modern China. Initially, it seemed that this campaign had no future, since the population of China was over 50 million, and the Mongols were only one million. However, the Mongols were victorious. In three years, the Mongol army was able to reach the walls of Zhongdu, present-day Beijing, the city was considered impregnable - the height of the walls reached 12 meters, and they stretched 29 km around the city. The city was under Mongol siege for several years; famine began to rage in the capital, which led to cases of cannibalism - in the end, the city surrendered. The Mongols plundered and burned all of Zhongdu, the emperor had to conclude a humiliating treaty with the Mongols.
25 interesting facts from the life of Genghis Khan:
1.The exact date of birth of Genghis Khan is unknown. He is believed to have been born between 1155 and 1162.
2. It is not known for certain what his appearance was, but surviving evidence suggests that he had green eyes and red hair.
3. Such an unusual appearance of Genghis Khan was due to a unique mixture of Asian and European genes. Genghis Khan was 50% European, 50% Asian.
4. Mongolian legends claim that the newborn Genghis Khan squeezed a blood clot in his palm, which was regarded as a symbol of the future conqueror of the world awaiting him.
5. At birth he was named Temujin - this was the name of the military leader whom his father defeated.
6.The name “Chingiz” is translated as “lord of the boundless, like the sea.”
7. Genghis Khan went down in history as the creator of the largest continental empire in history.
8.Neither the Romans nor Alexander the Great could achieve such a scale.
9. Under him, Mongolia rapidly expanded its territories. Genghis Khan created the Mongol Empire by uniting disparate tribes from China to Russia.
10.The Mongol Empire went down in history. His empire became the largest united state in history. It extended from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.
11. According to the research of individual scientists, Genghis Khan is responsible for the death of more than 40 million people.
12. Genghis Khan cruelly took revenge for his entourage. When the Persians beheaded the Mongol ambassador, Genghis flew into a rage and destroyed 90% of their people. Iranians still have nightmares about Genghis Khan. According to some estimates, the population of Iran (formerly Persia) could not reach pre-Mongol levels until the 1900s.
13. At the age of 15, Genghis Khan was captured and fled, which later brought him recognition.
14. The matured Genghis Khan began to little by little conquer the entire steppe, uniting other tribes around himself and mercilessly destroying his rivals. At the same time, he, unlike most other Mongol leaders, always tried not to kill enemy soldiers, but to save their lives in order to later take them into his service.
14. Genghis Khan believed that the more offspring a person has, the more significant he is. There were several thousand women in his harem, and many of them gave birth to children from him.
15. There are many direct descendants of Genghis Khan living in the modern world.
16.Genetic studies have shown that approximately 8% of Asian men have Genghis Khan genes on their Y chromosomes, i.e. they are descendants of Genghis Khan.
17. The dynasty of Genghis Khan’s descendants was named Genghisids in his honor.
18.Under Genghis Khan, for the first time, disparate tribes of nomads united into a huge single state. Having completely conquered the steppes, the commander took the title of kagan. A khan is the leader of a tribe, albeit a large one, and the kagan is the king of all khans.
19. Many peoples understood the greatness of the horde and paid tribute to it. Many nations swore allegiance to Temujin, and he became their ruler, or khan.
20. Then he changed his name to Chingiz, which means “Right”.
21. Genghis Khan replenished the ranks of his army with captives from the tribes he conquered, and thus his army grew.
22. Nobody knows where Genghis Khan's grave is. Many archaeologists are still searching for it without success. According to some reports, Genghis Khan's grave was flooded by the river. Supposedly, he demanded that his grave be flooded by the river so that no one could disturb it.
23. Some historians call Genghis Khan the father of “Scorched Earth,” that is, such military technologies that can destroy almost any trace of civilization.
24.The cult of Genghis Khan flourishes in modern Mongolia. There are huge monuments to this commander everywhere, and the streets are named after him.
25.His portrait began to be printed on Mongolian banknotes in the 90s of the last century.
Huge statue of Genghis Khan in Ulaanbaatar
photo from the Internet
Perhaps there has never been an empire in history as majestic and impressive as the Mongol Empire. In less than 80 years, it grew from a small group of warriors to a size that spanned lands from the Pacific Ocean to the Danube. Today - about one of the most dramatic series of conquests in history, as well as how the Mongols themselves destroyed their invincible power.
In the 12th century, various Turkic and Mongol-Tungus tribes roamed the steppes of Mongolia. One of these tribes were the Mongols. Around 1130, the Mongols became a powerful tribe, defeating neighboring nomads and forcing the Jin Empire of Northern China to pay tribute. However, fame is short-lived. In 1160, the Mongol kingdom was defeated by a neighboring barbarian tribe. The Mongol clans (divisions within a tribe) became disunited and fought among themselves for what little they had.
The ruler of the Mongolian Kiyat family was Yesugei, a descendant of the khan of the former Mongolian kingdom. In 1167, Yesugei and his wife had a son, Temujin, later named Genghis Khan. When Temujin was nine years old, his father was poisoned by Tatar leaders. The boy was too young to retain power, and his father's clans abandoned him. Temujin and his family moved to empty parts of the steppes and were forced to feed on roots and rodents in order to survive. Temujin experienced many adventures: thieves chased their horses, his family was captured. When Temujin was 16 years old, his family was attacked by the Merkids and his wife was taken away. Temujin could not do anything with an army of five people, so he turned to one of his father’s old friends, Tooril Khan from the Kereit tribe, and he called on another leader, Jamukha. Together they defeated the Merkids and Temujin got his wife back. Temujin quickly took advantage of the friendship with his powerful allies, especially Jamukha, also a Mongol, with whom he was sworn, and became a prominent figure in the steppe. Temujin and Jamukha took control of most of the Mongol clans, but this was not enough for Temujin.
According to the Secret History of the Yuan Dynasty, one day Temujin and Jamukha were riding ahead of their army. Temujin was preparing to move on, and Jamukha stopped to set up a tent. Temujin quarreled with Jamukha, and the Mongol army was divided in half. Soon a fight broke out between them. Having gotten involved in a quarrel over an insignificant trifle, Temujin lost and was forced to retreat. However, ten years later he regained his lost ground. From there he began the conquest of Mongolia, which lasted several years. Unfortunately, there are too many details to fit into this article. In short, by 1204, Temujin had conquered everything that stood against him. He defeated the Tatar tribe of Kereits of Tooril Khan, who later betrayed him, the tribe of Naiman, Merkids and the Mongol clans of Jamukha.
Mongol Empire after 1204
In 1206, Temujin held a large kurultai (meeting of the Mongol nobility) on the banks of the Onon River. There he took the title Genghis Khan. At the same kurultai, Genghis Khan determined the structure and established laws for his new empire. He maintained stability and interaction between different tribes within his state with the help of a military layer. The population was divided into groups responsible for equipping and feeding a certain number of warriors, ready for battle at any moment. Thus, the old tribal customs were abolished. In addition, he created a set of clear laws and created an effective administrative hierarchy. Genghis Khan created the most modern state among all the steppe peoples of his time. His Horde would soon become the most disciplined, the most powerful and the most feared army of all that roamed the steppes.
War in Northern China
He became the emperor of “all who lived in felt tents,” but he dreamed of conquering the world. First, he led his army against the Xi Xia Empire in western China several times. In 1209 he threatened the capital of Xi Xia, but the Mongols were satisfied with tribute after their camp was unexpectedly flooded. It should be noted that the Mongols preferred to plunder rather than capture cities. However, once the Mongols left, the Chinese empires stopped paying tribute, and raids soon turned into conquests.
In 1211, Genghis Khan recruited another 65 thousand people and marched against the Jin Empire in Northern China. With the help of the Ongguts, people who lived on the northern border of Jin, Genghis Khan easily overthrew the defenses and moved into Jin territory. He continued to plunder until he met a large force of about 150 thousand people, but he defeated them too. Genghis divided his army and launched an attack on Jin from several directions. He and his generals launched several attacks against the Jin, capturing the strategic Yuong Pass. Unfortunately, Genghis Khan was wounded during the siege and fled to Mongolia. Subsequently, the Jin Empire began to regain its Mongol-conquered territories. In 1213, when the Mongols found out about this, they returned. Genghis divided his army into three parts: the first under his own command and the other two under the command of his sons. Three Mongol armies devastated the Jin Empire, and by 1214 most of the area north of the Yellow River was in Mongol hands. The only exception was the city of Zhongdu, the capital of the Jin Empire. Like other nomadic armies, Genghis Khan's Mongol hordes were entirely cavalry, which made it impossible to capture fortifications. Genghis recognized this weakness and quickly captured Chinese engineers to study siege tactics. Despite this, Zhongdu withstood the Mongol attacks. Genghis Khan's army was weakened by the untimely delivery of supplies and thinned out by the plague epidemic, but he clenched his will into a fist and continued the siege. Reports describe that one in ten people were sacrificed to feed others. But the siege lasted so long that Genghis Khan decided to leave the camp. He appointed his general Mukhali as commander. In 1215, the Mongols finally entered the city, but by then the Jin capital had already been moved south to Kaifeng.
The first movement to the West - the conquest of Khorezm
Genghis Khan lost interest in the war in China and instead turned his attention to the west. In 1218 he went west and conquered the Karakitai empire. But a real problem arose - the huge Khorezm Empire. The first clash occurred when the Khorezm Shah attacked the Mongol ambassadors and burned their beards, thereby insulting them. Genghis Khan was furious, because he sent envoys to establish peace. He prepared the largest operation that had never happened before, gathering about 90-110 thousand people under his banner. The total number of troops of the Shah of Khorezm was two to three times larger, but Genghis Khan’s army had perfect discipline and, most importantly, the command system was absolutely effective.
In 1219, the sons of Genghis Khan and Ogedei set out to conquer the city of Utar, located east of Aral Sea. Meanwhile, Genghis Khan's general, Chepe, went southwest to protect his left flank during the operation. However, the main attack was led by Genghis Khan himself, who, together with General Subedei, passed through the Kyzyl-Kum desert and bypassed the troops of Khorezm. The plan was that the Kyzyl-Kum desert was considered impassable, providing an excellent opportunity to surprise the enemy. Genghis Khan and his army disappeared into the desert, and suddenly, out of nowhere, they appeared in the city of Bukhara. The city garrison was stunned and quickly defeated. Genghis then headed towards Samarkand, the capital of the Khorezm Empire. The magnificent city was well fortified and had a garrison of 110 thousand people, which significantly outnumbered Genghis Khan’s army. It was believed that the city would be able to hold out for months, but on March 19, 1220, its walls were breached in just ten days. After the fall of Samarkand, the Mongols captured most of the Empire. The destruction was quite significant. Cities were razed to the ground and the population was killed. In the city of Merv, the number of killed reached 700 thousand people. In Samarkand, women were raped and sold into slavery. The destruction was so great that the Khorezm Empire itself was almost erased from history. The conquest of Khorezm also created another event. After his defeat, the Khorezm Sultan Mohammed II fled to the west, and Subedei with 20 thousand soldiers rushed in pursuit. The Sultan died, but Subedei did not stop. He led his army north and defeated the vastly outnumbered Russian and Cuman armies on the Kalka River. Then he attacked the Volga Bulgars, and only after that he returned. According to the famous historian Gibbons, Subedai's expedition was one of the most daring in history, and it is unlikely that anyone could repeat it.
During the entire campaign, the Kharezm Sultan was never able to gather an army on the battlefield against the Mongols. He relied on city garrisons that outnumbered the Mongols besieging them. The defense turned out to be a failure. But well-organized resistance was provided to the Mongols by the son of Sultan Mohammed Jalal ad-Din, who, after the fall of Samarkand, gathered an army for defense on the territory of modern Afghanistan. In Parwan he defeated the army of Shigi-Kutuhu, stepbrother Genghis Khan, and this was the only defeat of the Mongols in the entire campaign. Genghis pursued Jalal ad-Din and lost his army on the Indus River. The defeat of Jalal ad-Din meant the strengthening of power in Transoxiana. However, the southern parts of the Kharezm Empire remained unconquered and later became a coalition of independent states. Legend has it that the Mongols from the vanguard saw a unicorn, and they were afraid to go further.
At the end of his sixth decade, Genghis Khan felt worse and worse. He sought out the legendary Taoist monk Changchun, who was rumored to possess the elixir of immortality. In fact, there was no elixir, but Genghis Khan highly appreciated the monk’s wisdom, and they began good friends. After this meeting, he decided to reconsider the management of his military campaigns. Unlike Attila the Hun and , Genghis Khan recognized the importance of a gradual transfer of power after his death. Even before the end of the conquest of Kharezm, he carefully weighed all options and chose his son Ogedei as his successor. Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia to finally establish the power hierarchy in his empire, and things were in perfect order. There was only one problem left: the Tangut empire of Xi Xia had been under the rule of the Mongols for a long time, but had not yet been annexed, but was simply subject to tribute. While Genghis Khan was at war, the Tanguts stopped complying with the conditions. Having discovered this, in 1226 Genghis Khan and his army captured the capital of Xi Xia.
Death of Genghis Khan
The conquest of Xi Xia was his last military operation. Soon, in August 1227, at the age of 60, Genghis Khan died. The cause of death has not been clarified; some researchers claim that he died from wounds after an unsuccessful hunt, others say that from malaria, there is even a version about damage caused by the Tanguts.
After his death, the Mongol Empire extended from the Yellow Sea to the Caspian Sea. No other empire in history has expanded so enormously in the lifetime of one man. Although Genghis Khan devastated vast areas, it is clear that his plans did not include mass genocide, as Hitler planned, although the number of deaths exceeded all conquest campaigns in history. Genghis Khan's dream was to conquer the whole world, and whenever nations capitulated, he tried to do without bloodshed. He was very respectful of those who came under his banner, and it often happened that he made friendships with enemies. In any case, Genghis Khan was a brilliant military strategist and an exceptionally gifted leader, making his personality one of the most intriguing in history.
After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire was divided into four uluses between his four “main” sons. Although these hereditary uluses were politically united into one empire, they subsequently served as the basis for future khanates. As already mentioned, Genghis Khan chose Ögedei as his successor. Two years after the death of Genghis Khan, Ogedei was officially proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire. Ogedei received the title khakhan ("Great Khan" or "Khan of Khans"), a title used by the rulers of the greatest steppe empires. However, Genghis Khan never officially used this title. However, Ogedei's rise was gradual.
The first thing Ogedei had to do was to subjugate the remaining parts of the Kharezmian empire, which Genghis Khan had destroyed earlier, in 1221, and later modern Azerbaijan arose in its place. Ogedei did this by 1231. The next goal was the final conquest of the Jin Empire. Genghis Khan had already seized a huge territory from it, and the temnik Mukhali, whom Genghis Khan appointed commander-in-chief of the theater of military operations in Northern China, added. But after the death of Muhali in 1223, the Jin began to desperately resist. In 1231, a large Mongol army led by Ogedei, the famous general Subedei, and Tolui (Ogedei's brother) set out for Jin. After a series of setbacks, the Mongols finally broke into the Jin capital Kaifeng in 1234 with the help of 20,000 Southern Song warriors, thus ending the vast, lumbering empire that had overseen the steppe for more than a century.
While Ogedei was conquering Jin, he had already ordered the construction of a capital for his empire. When the city, which was named Karakorum, was built in 1235, it became the largest city in Mongolia. (Karakorum had long been founded by Genghis Khan, but was more of an outpost than a capital). Although the city did not grow to an impressive size like the cities of China, cultures and crafts flourished in it, according to the European traveler Rubruk. Ogedei also introduced several government reforms, while improving the functioning of the postal system.
The Mongols had established contact with the Russians ten years earlier, in 1222, during the legendary expedition of Subedei, but they had not established any permanent government in these lands. When Genghis Khan died, the northwestern territories of the empire were given to his son, Jochi. One of Jochi's sons was Batu, who inherited the westernmost territories of the Yukha ulus. But Batu had little land, and most of it was not yet under Mongol control. At the kurultai of 1235, Batu announced his intention to bring these lands under the control of the Mongol Empire. This decision promised him an unprecedented scope of conquest, and for this it was necessary to travel five thousand miles! Subedei agreed to go with Batu, and in 1237 they gathered 120 thousand people ready to cross the frozen Volga.
During the winter, the Mongols crossed the Volga and hid in the forests. The first major city that stood in their way was Ryazan, which fell after a five-day siege. They then rode north and captured Kolomna, Moscow and defeated the Grand Duke of Suzdal, the most powerful in the northern part of Rus'. From there the Mongols moved to Novgorod, but they were stopped by impassable swamps. Novgorod was one of the largest Russian cities, and in order to avoid Mongol conquest, they were ready to make peace and pay tribute. After the failure in Novgorod, Batu and Subedei went south and attacked the city of Kozelsk, which stood to the death holding off the Mongols, and even successfully ambushed the Mongol vanguard - a feat that was rarely achieved by anyone. Kozelsk held out for seven weeks, and after it finally fell, the entire population was killed so brutally that the Mongols themselves called it the city of Grief. The last obstacle in Rus' was the great city of Kyiv, which is often called “the mother of all Russian cities.” Since Kyiv had influence in Eastern Europe, the Mongols even tried to take it without destruction. Prince of Kyiv Mikhail realized that the capture of Kyiv was inevitable. Unfortunately, he escaped, and his military leaders decided to resist. When the Mongols stormed the city, the only thing that survived was the Hagia Sophia.
With the fall of Kyiv, all of Rus' was defeated. This was the only successful capture of Rus' in winter in history. Many fled abroad and sought refuge in Hungary. Among them were Cumans and Kipchaks, nomads like the Mongols. When Batu Khan found out about this, he was furious because they were “his subjects” and therefore they were not allowed to escape. Whether this was the case or not, Subedei quickly planned a campaign against Europe. He decided to use a two-pronged invasion: a flank of 20 thousand people would be sent to Poland, and he himself (and Batu) would lead the main force of 50 thousand people. In March 1241, the forces of Subedei and Batu dissolved in the Carpathians and appeared out of nowhere on the other side. But instead of advancing further into Hungary, the Mongols for some reason left. Seeing this, the Hungarians turned up their noses and even kicked out the Cumans and Kipchaks, because they were very similar to the Mongols. Meanwhile northern army stormed Poland, devastated villages and took Krakow. On April 9, European forces led by Duke Henry of Silesia crossed Poland and challenged an army of twenty thousand battle-hardened Mongol warriors. The heavily armored European knights were inferior in speed to the Mongol horsemen and, of course, were defeated. Meanwhile, the Hungarian king Bela realized that the Mongols' retreat was a deceptive maneuver and that in fact they were already close. King Bela rode out with a force of 60-80 thousand men and met the army of Batu and Subedei on the opposite side of the Sajjo River. After an indecisive clash at the bridge, Subedai led his army south and crossed the river unnoticed. When Subedei appeared from the other side, the Hungarians were stunned. Soon Batu broke through the bridge, and the Hungarian army was surrounded.
Two major victories by two separate Mongol armies within a period of a few days demonstrate the talent of General Subedei. A month later, Poland and Hungary were defeated. A few days after the victory at the Sayo River (also known as the victory at Mohi), two Mongol forces linked up and defeated the remaining Hungarian forces, capturing Pest. The great and magnificent city of Gran surrendered on Christmas Day.
By the beginning of 1242, preparing to advance further into Europe, Batu unexpectedly received news from Mongolia that the Great Khan Ogedei had died. His situation became more complicated: his rival Guyuk received the title of Great Khan. Because Batu had conquered so much land, the Mongol Empire was in danger of serious political instability. To avoid trouble, he decided to stay in Rus' and establish control over it. As a result, the Mongol army completely withdrew from Poland and Hungary.
Europe was abandoned, and Batu returned to the north of the Caspian Sea. There he founded his capital, Sarai-Batu, and turned his inherited lands into a khanate, which was known as the Blue Horde. Batu's two brothers, Orda and Shiban, who also participated in the campaign, also founded their own khanates. The Khanate of the Horde, the White Horde, was located east of Batu's Blue Horde. Since Batu and Horde were members of the Golden Clan, both khanates were friendly and were called the “Golden Horde”. But the Khanate of Shiban has not been established for certain. Although the khans of the Golden Horde would continue to recognize the superiority of the Great Khan and remain part of the Mongol Empire for another four decades, in reality they maintained political independence.
Great Khan Guyuk
Guyuk received the title of Khakhan (Khan of Khans) in 1246. Tensions between Batu and Karakorum reached their highest point. Fortunately, Guyuk died in 1248, just two years after his accession. Guyuk's early death prevented a major civil war, but the weakening of the Mongol Empire was inevitable. A period of civil disunity ensued, which ultimately destroyed the Mongol Empire. Guyuk achieved little during his reign, not to mention the fact that he caused this disunity.
Mongol Crusaders - Great Khan Mongke
The next khan, Mongke, was elected in 1251. After he was elected Khakhan, Mongke announced his plans to continue the line of conquest that had been suspended during Guyuk's reign. The first was the conquest of the Song Empire, the last of the three Chinese empires not conquered by Genghis Khan. About the long conquest of the Song - below. As a second point, he planned to destroy the Assassins (Ismailis), who threatened the governors of the western provinces, and subjugate the Abbasid caliph. Thus, this campaign would go through Persia and Mesopotamia, and then into the Middle East.
The Mongols had already partially invaded the Middle East: in 1243, the Mongol warlord Baiju conquered Erzurum, a city belonging to the Seljuk Sultanate. However, further campaigns against Baghdad were canceled due to the instability of newly acquired Asia Minor and political problems in Karakorum. Nevertheless, the campaign proposed by Mongke was very large-scale and fully corresponded to its name - great. While Möngke Khan personally led the attack on Song, he assigned his brother Hulagu to lead the Mongol "Crusade".
Hulagu Campaign
In 1253, Hulagu set out from Mongolia to launch the biggest operation since Batu's invasion of Rus'. He had the most advanced army that had yet to fight in a war, with the latest siege weapon technology in the world and a group of experienced military leaders. Hulagu's expedition aroused great enthusiasm among the Christian communities, and Georgian and Alan volunteers joined him. By normal Mongol standards, Hulagu's army advanced slowly. She reached Persia only three years later. Hulagu made his way to Khurasan (a region in Persia), annexing the local dynasty in the area. The first of the main tasks was completed by the capture of the Hertskukh Assassin fortress on the southern side of the Caspian Sea. Hulagu then advanced west and captured Alamut, forcing Grand Master Assassin to surrender.
After capturing Alamut, Hulagu went for the main trophy - Baghdad. The Caliph from Baghdad turned out to be an incompetent military leader who stupidly underestimated the threat. When the caliph began to prepare for the siege, Hulagu was already under the walls. 20 thousand horsemen rode out to confront the Mongols. They were easily defeated and a siege was inevitable. Baghdad held out for a week, after which it eastern walls were destroyed. On February 13, 1258, the city surrendered and was swept away by Mongol troops: treasures were looted, magnificent mosques were destroyed, and the population was killed. (Interestingly, all Christian residents in the city were spared). Accounts indicate the murder of 800 thousand people. This may have been an exaggeration, as the city was eventually rebuilt and inhabited. However, there is no doubt that the greatest city in the Middle East has forever lost its glory. The fall of Baghdad was one of the greatest blows to Islam.
Salvation of Egypt
Hulagu then withdrew almost his entire army, leaving only a small force of 15,000 men for his general Kitbuki to oversee the conquered territory. Meanwhile, the Mamluks, expecting a huge army of the Mongols, gathered a large force of 120 thousand people. But Hulagu had already withdrawn his army. Thus, the Mamluks met with only 25 thousand (15 thousand Mongols and 10 thousand allies) Kitbuki at Ain Jalut. Finding themselves in a significant minority, the Mongols lost the battle, and this defeat has traditionally come to symbolize in an exaggerated manner the abrupt halt in Mongol expansion. In truth, in reality, it was precisely the same way that the death of Khan Ogedei saved Europe.
Death of Mongke, Civil War and Kublai Khan
The death of Mongke Khan in 1259 was a significant turning point in the history of the empire. In the West, Hulagu's campaign was interrupted. The political situation in the East became unstable and thus Hulagu had to settle down to claim his land. The Hulaguid Khanate in Persia became known as the Il Khanate. However, the problems did not end there. Hulagu's Baghdad campaign angered the Muslim Berke, khan of the Golden Horde. The place of the Great Khan was empty, and there was no one to reconcile Berke and Hulagu, and a civil war broke out between them. And again, the civil war forced Berke to abandon his plans to ruin Europe again.
In the east, two brothers fought fiercely for the throne of the Great Khan: a year after the death of Mongke Khan in 1259, Kublai Khan was elected khan at the kurultai in Kaiping, and a month later at the kurultai in Karakorum, his brother, Arig-Buga, was also elected khan . The civil war continued until 1264 (parallel to the civil war in the west), and Kublai defeated Ariga-Bugu, thus becoming the undisputed Khakhan. This civil war had a certain significance. During the war, Kublai Khan was in China, and Arig-Buga was in Karakorum. Kublai Khan's victory meant that China became more important to the Empire than Mongolia, becoming the symbol of the Mongols in the East.
For the Empire as a whole, these years of civil war meant the end of cohesion. In the west, the khanates were scattered; in the east, the Great Khan was interested only in China. Thus, it can be argued that the death of Mongke Khan in 1259 meant the end of the Mongol Empire (although in the hinterland the Mongol khanates continued to flourish). However, since Kublai Khan later became the Great Khan, some prefer to count the years of the Mongol Empire until the end of the reign of Kublai Khan, who nominally held sway over the other khanates.
Kublai Khan. Conquest of the Song
The conquest of the Song Empire, sometimes called the true Chinese dynasty as opposed to the Jurchen-based Jin Dynasty, began during the reign of Monjek Khan. The Song Empire was the most formidable and most geographically complex empire, held together by its rugged infrastructure and mountainous terrain. While Mongke Khan was fighting in the north, Kublai Khan (who had not yet become khan) marched through Tibet with a significant army and attacked the Song Empire from the south. However, his men were eventually exhausted and he had to leave. However, Möngke Khan was able to achieve success until he died of illness during the war. The death of Mongke Khan and the subsequent civil war between Kublai Khan and Arigh Bugha stopped recruitment for four years. In 1268, the Mongols were ready for another major attack. Kublai Khan assembled a large naval force and defeated the Song army of 3,000 ships. After the victory at sea, Xiang-Yan was captured in 1271, giving confidence in the end of the war. However, this war could not match the speed of the previous conquest. Finally, in 1272, a Mongol army led by Bayan, a general who had served under Hulugu, crossed the Yangtze River and defeated a large Song army. The tide favored the Mongols, and Bayan continued his string of victories, culminating in the capture of Yangzhou, the Song capital, after a tedious siege. However royal family Sun was able to escape. The final defeat occurred in 1279 at a naval battle near Guangzhou, where the last Song emperor was killed. 1279 marked the end of the Song Dynasty.
The victory in China was complete, and the Mongol Empire was at its zenith. However, much has changed in the lifestyle of the great khans. Unlike his grandfather, Kublai Khan traded the harsh nomadic life for the comfortable life of a Chinese emperor. He became increasingly immersed in the Chinese way of life, and the Mongolian government followed suit. In 1272, seven years before the defeat of the Song, Kublai assumed the Chinese dynastic title of Yuan, following the traditional path of legitimizing himself as the rightful ruler of China. As both the Chinese Empire and the Great Khanate, the Yuan Dynasty and the Mongol Empire often merged during Kublai Kublai's reign. In addition, having made China his empire, Kublai moved the capital from Karakorum to what is now modern Beijing. The new capital was named Ta-tu. The Mongol Empire experienced another dramatic event - albeit in a different way. Recall that Kublai made two naval invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281, both of which were severe and were destroyed by Kamikaze typhoons. Kublai also launched a series of campaigns into South Asia. In Burma, the Mongols were victorious, but eventually abandoned the campaign. In Vietnam, a temporary Mongol victory turned into defeat. The naval expedition to Java was also unsuccessful and they were forced to leave. Much more serious was the rebellion of Kaidu, under Ogedei rule, who formed a rebel khanate in Western Mongolia. Khubilai's authorities did not see the end of this civil war.
The final collapse of unity
Despite several military fiascoes that Kublai Khan suffered, there is no doubt that Kublai Khan's kingdom was the zenith of Mongol rule as a whole. Power stretched from China to Mesopotamia, from the Danube to the Persian Gulf - five times larger than Alexander's empire. Although much of the land was thoroughly destroyed during the conquests, it was subsequently gradually restored by the well-organized Mongol government. The economy flourished, trade spread throughout the gigantic empire. Despite the formation of khanates in other parts of the empire, the authority of the Great Khan Kublai Khan was recognized in all corners of the empire. Kublai enjoyed his position as one of the most powerful rulers of all time, being the Overlord of the Empire who ruled most of the world. The famous Italian traveler Marco Polo described Kublai Kublai as "the greatest ruler there will ever be."
Although Kublai Khan was still the ruler of the Mongols, he himself did not seem to worry about the rest of the empire outside his personal domains. Other khanates also began to develop their own administration. The Mongols lost their unity and no longer acted as a single state. Of course, disunity had been brewing for a long time, but once Kublai Khan died, the bubble finally burst. After Kublai Kublai's death in 1294, his successor received the title of Yuan Emperor, but not Great Khan of the Mongols. The Mongols lost the ruler of their entire empire, and thus it can be said that the death of Kublai Khan meant the end of the Mongol Empire. There is some irony in this, since the Mongol Empire disappeared immediately after its golden age. Although the Mongol Empire as a whole weakened, Mongol power remained in the form of several independent khanates.
Five Khanates
The Yuan Dynasty in the Far East (also the khanate of the Great Kublai Khan) continued its rule in China. However, after Khubilai there were no experienced rulers left. A series of internal unrest following natural disasters sparked a major rebellion. In 1368, the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown and was replaced by the Ming Dynasty under the rule of Ming Hong-wu.
The Il Khanate of Persia (founded by Hulagu in 1260) did not fare well in the beginning, struggling economically and suffering several more embarrassing defeats at the hands of the Mamluks. However, under Gaza, Il Khan regained military superiority and began an economic expansion that lasted until the reign of Abu Said, where Persia flourished during his reign. However, Abu Said had no successor; in 1335, the Il-Khanate ended in the same way as the Mongol Empire - collapse immediately after its golden age. The lands of the Ilkhanate were eventually annexed by Tamerlane to the Timurid Empire.
The Blue Horde in Rus' entered a period of good economic activity. The Khanate united with the Mamluks and officially became Muslim during the reign of Uzbek Khan. But, like the Il-Khanate, in the end, the line of the Blue Horde khans collapsed in the mid-14th century, leaving no successor. The state plunged into anarchy. Later it was reborn as the Golden Horde, but fell again. However, the story is too complex to trace all of it here. It should be noted that this area of the Mongol Empire is usually a source of confusion. Often the entire western quarter of the Mongol Empire is called the "Golden Horde". In fact, although the western quarters, including the White Horde, entered into a coalition with each other, they existed separately until the late unification by Tokhtamysh Khan. This region has several names. Its other name is Kipchak. The term "Golden Horde" appears in modern sources, for example in Carpini's account, which uses the term Aurea Orda ("Golden Horde").
The Chagatai Khanate grew directly from the ulus inherited by Genghis' son Chagatai. Chagatai developed steadily until Tamerlane destroyed its power. After Tamerlane's death, the Khanate remained an insignificant state until it was annexed in the 18th century.
Legacy of the Mongol conquests
The Mongol Empire looks like a gigantic political force that brought almost the entire continent of Asia under the control of one Great Khan. Governance in Mongolia was excellent and hence the entire continent became interconnected. During the Mongol Empire, safety was guaranteed when traveling throughout the empire. Thus, the empire created a huge economic boom and a great exchange of culture and knowledge throughout the world. , and the route from Europe to Asia was no longer considered impassable. Much of the knowledge reached Europe, including art, science, and gunpowder, which greatly contributed to the emergence of Western Europe from the dark ages. Similarly, in Asia we saw an exchange of ideas between Persia and China.
It is obvious that the Mongols were directly related to the political situation in the world. China was once again united under one ruler. Rus' was separated from the rest of Europe, but was no longer a divided feudal society. The Mongols are finished short story empire of Khorezm and led to the fall of the Abbasid Caliph, which dealt a big blow to Islamic culture. Although the Mongols left a huge trail of death and destruction, it is clear that the economic boom that followed them should not be overlooked. The only ones who clearly did not benefit from the Mongol conquest were Poland and Hungary, and this was because the Mongols left in a hurry and did not establish governments there to rebuild. In conclusion, the Mongol Empire is significant; good or bad, this is something that should not be forgotten.
Today, the Mongols and their great rulers are remembered in two different guises: as valiant heroes who conquered vast lands against all odds to build a mighty empire, or as ruthless conquerors who destroyed everything in their path. The latter is especially interesting because the way they are remembered is probably due to their epic victories rather than actual Mongol power, since other conquerors such as Caesar or Alexander the Great were just as brutal as Genghis Khan. In addition, in fact, the Mongols did not destroy everything on their way. Eventually, civilization was rebuilt and the world benefited greatly from the newly created world economy. In any case, the Mongols should be remembered as a significant player in world history. The significance of their conquests exceeds what any historical article can describe...
List of Great Khans
1206-1227 Genghis/Genghis Khan
1229-1241 Ogedei Khan (khakhan*) - son of Genghis Khan
1246-1248 Guyuk Khan (khakhan) - son of Ogedei
1251-1259 Mongke / Mongke Khan (khakhan) - cousin of Ogedei
After the death of Mongke, in 1260, two khans were elected through kurultai competition: Arig-Bug (Khubilai's brother), who ruled from Karakorum, and Kublai, who ruled from China. Kublai defeated Arigh Bugha in 1264 to secure sole leadership.
1264-1294 Kublai Khan (khakhan) - brother of Möngke, Hulagu and Arig-Bugi
After Khubilai, not a single ruler was elected khan.
* Khakhan (also Kagan, Khakan, meaning "khan of khans"): a title used by the khans of the greatest steppe empires, including the Mongol Empire. This name was officially used by all khans of the Mongol Empire, with the exception of Genghis Khan.
Regents (temporary rulers) during elections
1227-1229 Tolui - son of Genghis Khan, father of Kublai and Mongke
1241-1246 Dorgene-khatun - wife of Ogedei, mother of Guyuk
1248-1251 Ogul-Gaymysh - wife of Guyuk
Chronology
1167(?) Birth of Temujin (Genghis/Genghis Khan)
1206 Great Kurultai (meeting)
1206 Temujin receives the title "Genghis Khan"
1209-1210 Campaign against Xi Xia.
1211, 1213, 1215 Campaigns against the Jin Empire.
1214 Mongols besiege Jin capital Zhongdu (modern Beijing)
1215 Areas north of Huang come under Mongol control. The Jin capital moves south to Kaifeng.
1218 Conquest of the Karakitai. The Mongols attack Korea.
1220 Mongol caravans and ambassadors are killed by the Khorezmians. The war began against Khorezm (Persia). and Samarkand.
1221 Subedei begins an expedition around the Caspian Sea and to Rus'. Jalal ad-Din reigns in Persia and challenges the Mongols. Jalal ad-Din won the Battle of the Indus. The war with the Kharezm Empire ends.
1226 Final campaign against Xi Xia.
1227 Genghis Khan dies. The war with Xi Xia ends.
1228 Ogedei Khan ascends the throne and becomes Khakhan (Great Khan)
1235 First major invasion of Korea.
1234 The war against the Jin Empire ends.
1235 Construction of Karakorum, Mongol imperial capital
1237 Batu and Subedei begin the conquest of Rus'.
1241 The Korean War ends
1241 Batu and Subedei invade and conquer Poland and Hungary. European defeat at Liegnitz and Sayo. Death of Ogedei Khan
1242 Having learned of the death of Ogedei Khan, Batu leaves Europe to ensure his conquests in Rus'. Political circles of the Golden Horde Khanate, Batu - the first khan.
1246-1248 Reign of Guyuk Khan
1251 Election of the Mongol Great Khan (khakhan)
1252 Song invasion of southern China begins
1253 Hulagu begins his campaign into the Middle East.
1258 Hulagu captures Baghdad. Death of the last Abassid caliph.
1259 Death of Mongke Khan.
1260 Hulagu leaves Syria after learning of Mongke's death, thereby saving the Muslims from further invasion. The small army left behind is defeated by the Mamluks at Ain Jalut. Hulagu settles in Persia, creates the Il-Khanate and becomes the first Il-Khan.
1260 Disagreement regarding succession to the Mongol throne leads to civil war between two candidates, Kublai and Arigh Bugha.
1264 Kublai defeats Arig-Buga and becomes Khakhan.
1266 Kublai builds a new imperial capital, Ta-tu (modern Beijing)
1271 Marco Polo's journey begins.
1272 Kublai Khan adopts the Chinese dynastic name Yuan. Kublai becomes both the Khakhan of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Emperor of China.
1274 First invasion of Japan. The fleet is destroyed during a storm.
1276 Hangzhou, capital of the Song Empire, falls to the Mongols.
1277-1278 Mongols invade Burma, install puppet government.
1279 Death of the last Song Emperor during a naval battle.
1294 Death of Kublai. The Yuan Dynasty continues, but the Mongol Empire is deprived of the title of Khakhan. The name "Mongol Empire" disappears, as it is torn into four independent kingdoms.
1335 Death of Abu Said. The Ilkhanate could not leave a successor and was interrupted. The Il-Khanate ends.
1359 As in the Ilkhanate, the line of the Golden Horde ended, and the Khanate was unable to leave a successor. The Golden Horde becomes more of a puppet government.
1330. Tamerlane was born in Samarkand. Reunites Persia and defeats both the Russians and the Golden Horde. Creates the so-called Timurid Empire.
1368 The Yuan Law in China ceases to apply.
1370. Death in Karakorum of Togon Temur, the last Yuan emperor.
1405. Dies Tamerlane dies. The Timurid Empire, called the last great nomadic power, ends. Persia and the Golden Horde are again without a clear ruler. The Golden Horde is divided and exists as several separate states.
1502. Russians overthrew Mongol rule
Mongolian war machine
The Mongol (or Turkish-Mongol) army was probably the most disciplined, well-controlled and effective fighting force until the invention of gunpowder. Being “hunters all their lives,” the steppe nomads were skilled horsemen and bows in their hands turned into deadly formidable weapon. Unlike Roman legionaries or hoplites, who had to be trained in camps or academies, nomads were ready-made, experienced warriors. The nomadic warriors were well-known archers and marksmen, able to accurately hit targets while galloping on horseback. But the Mongol army was not just a steppe army.
When Genghis Khan came to power, he established rules of organization, discipline, equipment and trained warriors to fight as a group. Genghis Khan's army consisted of tens, hundreds, thousands and tens of thousands (darkness), each of the units had a commander elected by the soldiers. Military tactics was well worked out in preparation, and every warrior had to know exactly how to respond to the signals of the commanders, which were echoed by burning arrows, drums and banners. The Mongol horde had extremely high discipline. Failure to comply with technology and desertion in battle were punishable by death. The skill, discipline, tactics, and galaxy of the most talented commanders in history shocked all who fought against them. When the Western knights fought with the Mongol horsemen, they were completely destroyed, unable to do anything to oppose the Mongol horde. On the battlefield, the Mongols demonstrated many tricks. Being an all-cavalry army, the Mongols could easily impose a positional course of battle, organize feint retreats, could lure the enemy into a trap, and impose a fighting style that was difficult for the enemy to maintain due to the speed of the Mongols.
Siege engines and gunpowder obtained from the Chinese and Persians played an important role in the wars. Besides sieges, siege weapons were widely used on the battlefield. The Mongols mastered fast prefabricated catapults that could be transported on horseback and assembled directly on the battlefield. From the Chinese, the Mongols adopted the production of gunpowder weapons: smoke grenades (to cover the movement of troops) and incendiary bombs. They contributed to the Mongols' success in invading Europe. The Mongols' sensitivity and adaptation to advanced advances in science and technology meant that they were not only an army from the most traditionally skilled warriors, but also an army with the best technology the world has to offer.
Genghis Khan founded the largest empire in human history. According to the behests of the Great Khan, the Mongols lived until the middle of the 20th century, and many of them tend to honor his laws even today. His victories were glorified by hundreds of thousands of warriors, and his death was mourned by millions of subjects. But his state collapsed, and even his grave is unknown.
The only one preserved historical portrait Genghis Khan from a series of official portraits of rulers painted under Kublai Khan, museum.
On the banks of the Onon River, in the Deyun-Boldok tract, a boy was born into the Yesugeybagatur family from the Bordzhigin clan in the spring of 1155. He was named Temuchin in honor of the Tatar leader, captured the day before by Yesugei in a bloody battle. According to the Arab historian Rashid ad-Din, the newborn was clutching a blood clot in his fist, which, according to others, meant that the boy would become a great warrior.
LITTLE SLAVE
Temujin's father was a far-sighted leader - the boy was not even nine years old when he obtained consent for his marriage with eldest daughter leader of the Ungirates. According to legend, this tribe was the first among all the Mongols to decide to leave the tracts and develop the steppe expanses, “trampling the hearths and camps of their neighbors.”
In the meantime, Yesugei left Temujin with his fiancee’s family so that the boy could meet his future relatives and went home.
According to the “Secret Legend” (a Chinese translation of the genealogical history of the Genghis Khan family), Yesugei was poisoned by the Tatars on the way.
The leader of the Taichiut tribe decided to expel the Yesugei clan from their native lands. Yesugei's relatives, who remained loyal to him, tried to resist, but were unable to gather enough warriors. Their camps were destroyed, their cattle were stolen. Temujin was also captured. They put a block on the future Great Khan.
The boy was destined to become a slave forever, but on the way he managed to escape. Temujin hid from the soldiers looking for him in a small dam, spending several hours under water. He kept only his nostrils above the water, and patience allowed him to avoid recapture. The little fugitive was discovered by a shepherd from an insignificant tribe subject to the Taichiuts, but decided not to hand him over, but helped him escape. The shepherd's son Chilaun also fled with Temujin. Subsequently, Genghis Khan appointed him commander of one of the four detachments of his personal guard and gave him and his descendants the right to keep for themselves everything gained in war and hunting.
FUR COAT OR LIFE
Temujin was only eleven years old, but he was able to find his relatives in the steppes. A year later he married his betrothed Borta. The position of his family was such that the bride’s dowry was only a sable fur coat, albeit a luxurious one. Fleeing from his pursuers, Temujin had to ask for help from his father’s brother-in-law. Tooril ruled the Kereit tribe, the most powerful in the steppes in those years. He promised Temuchin protection and patronage. True, he did not hesitate to take that very fur coat as a gift.
Nevertheless, nukers who had strayed from their clans and simple shepherds who dreamed of becoming warriors began to flock to Temujin’s camp. The young leader did not refuse anyone. At the same time, Temujin became sworn brothers with Jamukha, a young relative of the leader of the strong Jadaran tribe. One old Mongol gave Temuchin his son Jelme into his service. Subsequently, this young man became one of the most talented commanders of Genghis Khan.
Soon it was time for the first serious battle. The Merkit tribe attacked Temujin's camp, taking his wife and other close relatives captive. With the help of Tooril and Jamukha, the young leader completely defeated the enemy on the Selenga River in Buryatia. He returned Borte, who soon gave birth to Temuchin’s son. This victory strengthened the authority of the young leader, and his army began to grow rapidly. Contrary to custom, he tried to end the battle with as little bloodshed as possible, joining the warriors of the defeated tribe.
Soon Temujin and Jamukha parted ways. Too many warriors of twin brother Jamukha preferred the camp of the future khan of all Mongols. Jamukha had to migrate far away in disgrace so that his warriors would not run away completely. In 1186 Temujin created his first ulus. In his army there were three tumens (30,000), and under his hand were already famous military leaders: Subede, Jelme and Boorchu.
GREAT KHAN
Jamukha collected three tumens and moved towards Temujin. A battle took place in which the future great khan suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, it was during an overnight stay after a lost battle that Temuchin dreamed of the borders of his future power.
In 1200, Temujin was able to take revenge on his longtime offenders, the Techiuts. In a short battle they were defeated, many surrendered. During the battle, the leader was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow. The warrior who shot him was captured. Temujin asked if he wanted to enter his service. Subsequently, this warrior became one of the best commanders of Temujin under the name Jebe (arrowhead).
The next three years were decisive. Temujin successively defeated the most powerful Mongol tribes that still challenged his rule over the steppe. Together with each of them, his brother Jamukha fought against Temujin, stung by his successes. Neither the Tatars, nor the Kereits, nor the Naiman could stop the rise of Temujin, although he almost died in the battle with the latter. Their leader Tayankhan was famous for his caution, if not cowardice. Having 45,000 horsemen at hand, he constantly improved his position and waited until his army was defeated piece by piece. During the defeat of the Naiman, Subedei, Jelme, Jebe and Kublai especially distinguished themselves - “ four iron dogs ", as Temujin called them.
In 1205 his rivalry with Jamukha came to an end. He fled to the Kipchaks and again tried to attack Temujin. But the Kipchaks were defeated, and Jamukha was given his own nukers, who were counting on a reward.
However, Temujin ordered their execution, and offered freedom to his longtime brother-in-arms. A brother brother (anda) was considered more than a relative in the Mongolian tradition. A brother could raise a weapon against his brother, and a son against his father. This was par for the course. To be sworn to as brothers - no. Nevertheless, Temujin was ready to forgive Jamukha, but he refused, saying that there can only be one khan. He asked for a dignified death (without bloodshed). Temujin's warriors broke Jamukha's back. Temujin never had any more brothers-in-arms.
COMMANDER
Genghis Khan was not so much an outstanding military leader on the battlefield - in the Mongolian steppes almost any leader could be called such. The fighting techniques did not differ either. We can safely say that Genghis Khan did not offer anything radically new. He was, rather, a remarkable strategist: he knew how to distribute forces, which made it possible to wage war on several directions, and was not afraid to trust his military leaders, which made it possible to separate forces.
Using the mobility of the Mongol cavalry, Genghis Khan confused the enemy, attacked him from all directions, and, in the end, the enemy found himself facing a united army of the Mongols. Another trump card of Genghis Khan's army was reconnaissance - an activity despised by other steppe tribes.
At the same time, Genghis Khan never made mistakes when choosing his assistants. Each of them could act independently and achieve success (unlike, for example, Napoleonic marshals). The only thing Genghis Khan demanded from his subordinates was strict adherence to orders. Mongol warriors were forbidden to take booty during battle or pursue a fleeing enemy without the permission of their commanders.
REFORMER
The Universe Shaker turned his enemies into his friends.
In the spring of 1206, at the source of the Onon River, at the all-Mongol kurultai, Temujin was proclaimed great khan over all tribes and received the title “ Genghis Khan" Came into force and new law- Yasa. It was mainly devoted to the military side of the life of nomads.
Loyalty and courage were considered good, and cowardice and betrayal were considered evil. The enemy of the Mongols, who remained loyal to their ruler, was spared and accepted into their army.
Genghis Khan divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people from among the close and distinguished nukers as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors, thus Genghis Khan's army approached 100,000 horsemen.
In addition, he introduced the beginnings of feudal relations. Every hundred, thousand, tumen, along with nomadic lands, was given into the possession of a noyon. In case of war, it was he who was responsible for providing troops to the khan. Small noyons served large ones.
EMPIRE FROM SEA TO SEA
Within the framework of the united Mongolia, Genghis Khan's power was enormous, but neither he nor his warriors could stop.
At first, all Siberian peoples were subjugated and subject to tribute. Then the Mongols turned their gaze to the south. In a year, the Tangut state was conquered, which it could not cope with for 300 years.
The Jin Empire didn't last much longer. The Mongols invaded China with four armies, destroying everything in their path. According to the calculations of Jin officials, at the beginning of the war the Chinese could field almost one and a half million warriors, but these hordes could not only win a single major victory, but even stop the advance of the Mongols into the metropolitan areas.
In 1214 it was all over - the emperor concluded a shameful peace. Genghis Khan agreed to leave Beijing to him, but only because he understood that it was too large territory With many cities, the Mongols cannot be held back. After the truce, the Jin people decided to continue the fight and paid for it: as soon as the imperial court left Beijing, Genghis Khan decided to end China, which was done in two years. Yasa helped the Mongols defeat the huge empire: many Chinese generals ran over to them along with their troops. The laws of Genghis Khan described in detail what threatens those who try to resist the tumens " Shaker of the Universe».
Usually, when they saw an enemy city, the Mongols hung a pennant on a pole near the military leader’s yurt. White meant that the khan was merciful and ready to take the oath if no resistance was offered. Yellow was supposed to warn that the city would be plundered, even if it capitulated, but the inhabitants would remain alive. The red pennant warned the besieged that they would all be killed.
However, only Genghis Khan’s heir, Ogedei, was able to finally achieve submission from China.
The Great Khan himself turned his gaze to the west. The huge power of Khorezm Shah Muhammad fell under the blows of his armies. Here the Mongols no longer accepted military defectors, trying to leave behind scorched earth. Only skilled artisans were taken captive - in 1220 the new capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, was founded. Genghis Khan understood well that a state that was too large could not survive for long. By the way, the uprisings of the conquered peoples began during his lifetime, and for the last three years of his reign he rushed around the outskirts of his power, forcing the tributaries to submit. And his commanders continued reconnaissance raids to the west right up to the borders of the Russian principalities.
Death overtook the Great Khan during the siege of the Tangut capital Zhongxing in the early autumn of 1227. " Secret story“narrates that the garrison had already begun to surrender, and the ruler of the Tagnuts arrived at Genghis Khan’s headquarters with gifts. But the Great Khan suddenly felt unwell. Then he ordered the hostages to be killed, and the city to be taken and razed to the ground. After the order was carried out, Genghis Khan died.
INHERITANCE
After the death of Genghis Khan, his empire was inherited by his third son, Ogedei, who was appointed successor by Genghis Khan himself.
His relationship with his eldest son Jochi went wrong: he declared that Genghis Khan was “mad in his attitude towards people and lands,” and in every possible way delayed the campaign against the Circassians and Russian principalities.
In addition, over Jochi and his descendants all his life hung “ Merkit curse“- he was born immediately after his mother’s release from captivity, and therefore there were many doubts about Temujin’s paternity, although the khan himself recognized Jochi.
In 1225, Genghis Khan ordered an army to be sent against his eldest son, since he did not follow his father’s orders and did not appear at the council when Genghis Khan fell ill. Khan was informed that Jochi, who said he was ill, was actually hunting. However, the punitive campaign did not take place - Jochi actually died of illness.
The second son of Genghis Khan, Chagatai, was considered a very learned man for the Mongols and was known as the best expert on Yasa in the steppe. But he didn’t really like leading troops. As a result, Chagatai never formally took the khan's throne, but enjoyed authority and power even greater than Ogedei.
GENGISH KHAN'S GRAVE
The burial place of Genghis Khan remains one of the most curious historical mysteries.
The mausoleum in Ejen Khoro is just a memorial. The khan's body was transported to Mongolia, presumably to the place where he was born. According to customs, he should have been buried there. What happens next is shrouded in mystery. According to one version, a river mouth was built over the khan’s grave; according to another, trees were planted. According to the third, the funeral escort, in order to hide the position of the grave, killed all the travelers they met. Then the slaves who dug the grave were killed, then the soldiers who killed the slaves, and so on. Medieval historians noted that a generation after the death of Genghis Khan, no one in Mongolia knew the true place of his burial. So, quite possibly, there is no secret: the Mongols did not accept noisy veneration of the graves of their ancestors.
LINE OF DESTINY OF GENGIGI KHAN
| 1155 |
Birth of Temujin. |
| 1184 |
Temujin, together with his brother-in-arms Jamukha and Tooril Khan, defeated the Merkits. 1st victory of the future " Shaker of the Universe». |
| 1186 |
Temuchin created his first ulus. |
| 1205 |
Temujin united almost all the Mongol tribes and destroyed his last enemy - his twin brother Jamukha. |
| 1206 |
At the kurultai, Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan (“ Great Khan") of all Mongol tribes. The conquest of Asia began. |
| 1213 |
The beginning of the conquest of Northern China. |
| 1218 |
Defeat of the Karakitai. The first clash between the Khorezmshahs. |
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