Why China was called "China" and "The Celestial Empire".

When we have time to think, we begin to look for answers to seemingly simple questions. For example, why was China called “China” and not something else? A fifth of our entire planet lives in this densely populated state. As to why this country is named this way, there are several very interesting theories, each of which may well turn out to be true.

Historical theory

Previously, modern China was divided into two parts: northern and southern. In its northern part there was a state founded by the Kitami tribes, and it was called “Liao”. The southern part at that time belonged to the Mongols. Where the indigenous Liao tribes came from is not known for certain to this day. If you believe some sources, then they also owe their origin to the Mongols. But there is other information that they originated from the Tungus-Manchu tribes. Subsequently, residents of nearby states began to call it that northern territories- "China". In principle, this theory could be the answer to the question of why China was called "China". But how did this name come to us in Slavic speech? After all, the name of this country sounded completely differently in different dialects: Catai, Hetai, Khitan and China.

Etymological theory

IN English language the name "China" appeared in the twelfth century and it was written like this: "Cathay" (now it is written differently - "China"). There is an interesting argument that China began to be called “China” after the Qin dynasty arose. And this word entered the Russian dictionary in the fifteenth century in the form it has now.

But it is worth recalling that only a small part of its territory was called “China,” and the name came to us after the Qin dynasty collapsed. In fact, not even all Chinese people know why China was called "China". This means that we can confidently say that there is no specific meaning in this word; this sometimes occurs in the history of titles and names.

Why is China called "The Celestial Empire"

The country with the largest population in the world actually goes by several names. The Chinese themselves call their country “The Celestial Empire,” while citizens of other countries call it “China” or “China.” If we consider the word “Celestial Empire” itself, then in Chinese it consists of two hieroglyphs - “Tian” and “Xia”. The first in translation means “day”, “sky”, and the second is translated as “foot”, “bottom”. So something similar to “Celestial Empire” comes out. The Chinese have long worshiped the sky and firmly believe that only their country is protected by it. And other people do not have heaven.

China also has another name - “Zhong Guo” - “the path of the earth.” This philosophy is quite understandable, because no one really invaded China or sought to conquer it. Therefore, it is understandable why the Chinese consider their country to be the middle of the world. And so, while we are wondering why China was called “China,” the inhabitants of this country are rapidly developing and occupying niches in international trade markets. So maybe they are actually the main inhabitants of the Earth, despite the fact that civilization has reached them, infecting them with opium and the communist system?

The Celestial Empire - this is what poets call China, the Middle Kingdom - this is what China was called in ancient times, the country of socialism under construction - this country was called in the 70s of the last century, the country great prospects and hardworking people - that's what they call China now!

First of all, this is due to the ancient religion, in which Heaven was considered the highest deity. Beijing has ancient temple Heaven, there the emperor consulted Heaven only in extremely difficult state situations. It was a gorgeous ceremony - it lasted two weeks, with the participation of many priests, officials and troops, more than 100 thousand people, not counting horses and war elephants.
Well, the entire huge country, led by Heaven, was naturally called the Celestial Empire.
The greatest power in Asia for its long history changed many names. The Chinese usually called their cultural universe Tianxia - the Celestial Empire, sometimes Syhai - “(countries between) the four seas.” The state was named after the reigning dynasty, whose name was chosen according to some ancient kingdom, chosen as a model (Tang - in honor of the inheritance of the mythical wise ruler Yao, Song - in honor of one of the most cultural kingdoms), or with special meaning: Yuan - Main, Min - Light, Qing - Pure. If we were talking about China as a country, in contrast to all other countries and regardless of who reigns, then they said: Zhongguo - the Middle Country, Zhonghua - the Middle Blooming, Huaxia - the Blooming Xia (one of ancient dynasties) . The Chinese call themselves Zhongguoren - people of the Middle State, or Hanren - Han people, after the most famous dynasty of antiquity.

Celestial Empire (Chinese 天下, Pall. tianxia) - Chinese term, which was used to designate the territory over which the power of the Chinese emperor extended.

Since the time of Dong Zhongshu, the emperor was considered in Confucian ideology as the representative of heaven on Earth. According to the Confucian worldview, the entire celestial world was considered the territory under his control. The main sanctuary of the imperial capital was called the Temple of Heaven.

Similar ideas about the local monarch as the ruler of "all that is under heaven" existed in Japan, as well as during some periods of history in Korea and Vietnam, since the proximity of strong Chinese states made it possible to control these countries sporadically, asserting at least the symbolic supremacy of the Chinese emperors .

The famous Chinese economic miracle became one of the top news stories of the late 20th century. The event acquired sensational proportions also because the Chinese, the authors and performers of this phenomenon, are the largest nation. It makes up one fifth of the inhabitants of the entire planet.

The rapid economic and demographic growth of the People's Republic of China still surprises the whole world and makes us increasingly interested in this mysterious country. Its unique culture has very deep roots and occupies a very special place even among East Asian countries.

Where did the name “Celestial Empire” come from?

Exclusive right to heaven

Experts believe that the prerequisite for this is the country’s somewhat isolated geographical location: on the one hand, China is separated from the whole world by mountain ranges, and on the other, by the Yellow, East China and South China Seas. Residents of this territory for a long time did not feel significant outside influence. Perhaps only in the form of raids by nomads from the north.

It is not surprising that the ancient Chinese once considered themselves the center, the “navel” of the Earth, the only territory that is under the sky. They imagined the sky in the form of a round disk located exclusively above their place of residence. According to their beliefs, other people, strangers and barbarians, were deprived of this miracle of grace. Therefore, they called their lands the Celestial Country.

The name "Celestial Empire" in Chinese sounds like "TianXia". The word consists of two hieroglyphs - “Tian” (translated as “sky”, “day”, “light”) and “Xia” (translated as “bottom”, “foot”).

The very idea of ​​the cult of heaven was born during the period Bronze Age and belongs ancient people China - Han. The state founded by the Han was called “Shang” and was quite developed.

It revered ancestors and believed that the most worthy of them settled in heaven after death. From there they supervise life on earth and help their descendants. The Zhou tribe, which conquered these lands later, preserved the basic tradition of heaven worship, making only some adjustments.

Confucianism and the "Mandate of Heaven"

The very popular ancient Chinese philosophy of Confucianism, which is now very popular, relied on the same postulate of the chosenness and guiding role of heaven. The ruler was endowed with exclusive rights thanks to the so-called “mandate of heaven.”

The mandate belonged to the imperial family by right of inheritance and was supported by the ideas of virtue and justice. The ruler had to be guided by them in his decisions.

It is noteworthy that, according to this teaching, the ruling dynasty could lose power precisely because of the loss of virtue. For example, literary works that period is strongly emphasized positive features clans that seized power, portraying them as heroes. Representatives of the overthrown dynasties were portrayed as individuals mired in immorality.

According to this idea of ​​celestial supervision, state building was organized in concentric circles, as on the disk of the sky. The center of the world and the entrance to heaven was located directly above the emperor's palace. Next were the circles of close nobles, then lower officials, then commoners.

The farthest from the center were all the other countries known to the ancient Chinese, the lands of strangers and savages. They were considered vassals of the ruler of the Celestial Empire.

Temple of Heaven in Beijing

The veneration of the sky as the highest abstract governing force carried over into the new era. Even the Temple of Heaven was built by the Ming Dynasty in the early 15th century. It is located in the territory of modern Beijing. The temple has a round shape, the tiles on its roof are covered with blue glaze, matching the color of the sky.

Architectural forms and their arrangement are full of symbolism: the number of columns, pillars and tiers correspond to the seasons, months, and the number of hours in a day. At the initiative of UNESCO, this temple is included in the list of objects world heritage humanity.

Why is China more often called China in the modern world?

Today, almost the entire Western world uses the name China to refer to this country. European languages this toponym was inherited from Latin.

There are several versions of its origin:

1. China was called Cina (in English version- China, in Greek - Sinai (Sinae)) after the name of the ruling Qin dynasty (221-206 BC). The period of her dominance saw the flourishing of China's trade with ancient states. Presumably, Chinese merchants, since the time of the Great Silk Road, called themselves “Qin people.” In the records of that time they were recorded as representatives of Cina.

1. According to another theory, the name comes from what existed in this territory in 481-221 BC. e. kingdom of Jing.
2. There is also an opinion that in the 16th century AD this name was brought by the Russian traveler Afanasy Nikitin, who discovered porcelain of the highest quality in China. Porcelain also had the name China.

What other names does China have?

China is called the Celestial Country by poets and writers. Europeans and Americans call China, Slavic peoples call it China. How many other names does this state have and what do the Chinese call themselves?

The Russian name “China” comes from the name of the nomadic tribes “Khitan”. They inhabited the northern part of China. It was these that the conquerors of Siberia and the Far East were the first to encounter in the 17th and 18th centuries.

It is very rare and this is not official name like Huaxia. It is also depicted in two hieroglyphs. Hua means “lush”, “flourishing”, and “Xia” in this context is deciphered as the name of the ancient Chinese ruling dynasty, Xia.

By analogy with the “Celestial Empire,” the name “Zhong Guo” was born. It means "Midland". All the territories that did not have the highest patronage of heaven were located around Tian Xia. Accordingly, the favor of heaven concerned only the central, middle lands.

The modern official name of the state combines several historical options and sounds like this: the People's Republic of China (PRC), in English - People's Republic of China (PRC). The name "China" is used in everyday life, read as "zhong guo" , which means “middle state”.

Video: origin of Chinese names

Piebald Horde. History of "ancient" China. Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

9.9. About the name "China". Why is modern China called China in Russian?

Probably, the name CHINA is closely related to the word SCYTHIA or SKITIA ( F-T transition due to the double reading of fita). No wonder it still exists in Moscow ancient name CHINA TOWN. This is what our ancestors called the second belt of military fortifications around the Moscow Kremlin. Kitai-Gorod existed in Moscow until the 20th century. Its powerful walls were dismantled only at the beginning of this century, after 1917.

ON THE. Morozov rightly noted that the name CHINA ITSELF was preserved ONLY IN RUSSIA, in Moscow. Of course, today we also call modern China “China,” but NOBODY CALLS it that except us. And the Chinese themselves DO NOT call themselves that. And in Russian, East Asian China began to be called “China” only after the 17th century. In the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th–17th centuries” the word CHINA as the name of the state is NOT present at all. Until the 18th century, the state of China in Rus' was called not “China”, but “THE KINGDOM OF BOGDOY”. Chinese Emperor were called BOGDIKHAN, and the Chinese were called “MANZY”.

The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron - a source of the 19th century - reports:

“The great empire of eastern and central Asia is known among its inhabitants under names that HAVE NOTHING IN COMMON WITH EUROPEAN (CHINA, China, Chine). In official acts, it is usually named according to the nickname of the reigning dynasty (with the addition of the word dai - great; for example, under the current dynasty - Dai-ching-go...); then a whole series of literary and poetic names are used: Tian-xia (Celestial Empire), Si-hai ("4 seas" an echo of the ANCIENT CONCEPT that China is surrounded on ALL SIDES (! - Author) seas), Zhong-hua-guo (Middle Flowering State), Zhong-yuan (Middle Plain), etc. In conversation, the name Zhong-guo (Middle State) is usually used. The inhabitants of China call themselves ZHUN-GUO-ZHEN (people of the Middle State) or HAN-ZHEN (Han people...), and the inhabitants southern China, unlike the northern ones, are also called MAN TZU... The Russian name of China COMES FROM THE NAME OF THE KITAN DYNASTY”, article “China”.

It is extremely interesting that according to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, China was surrounded by seas FROM ALL SIDES. And, as we now understand, this is correct. Because the " Ancient China"- this is in fact the Great Russian Medieval Empire, the chronicles of which were brought to China by the Manjurs and subsequently formed the basis of the supposedly purely local ancient Chinese history. And the Great Empire was truly surrounded by seas on ALL SIDES. Because it occupied ALL EURASIA. But it cannot be said about modern China that it is surrounded by seas FROM ALL SIDES. This is simply not true.

As for another Chinese name for China - “MIDDLE EMPIRE” - it also suits modern China very poorly. Take a look at the map. What is modern China in the middle of? It is located not in the middle, but AT THE VERY EDGE of the Eurasian continent, in its southeastern corner. On the other hand, from medieval EUROPEAN geography we know that the CITY OF JERUSALEM used to be placed IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WORLD. The first maps were drawn like this - a circle with Jerusalem in the center. See our study of ancient geographical maps in the previous book of this series, “Caliph Ivan,” chapter 5. But Jerusalem, also known as Troy, as we know, was located on the Bosphorus and was the capital of the ancient Roman kingdom, which collapsed in 1204, see our books “Forgotten Jerusalem” and “The Beginning of Horde Rus'”. Therefore, most likely, the “original Chinese” name “Middle Empire” is indeed a VERY OLD name. But not local Chinese, but brought to China on the pages of European chronicles. The Chinese removed it from there, took it for themselves and carefully preserved it.

In old European and Chinese documents, the KARA-CHINESE state pops up from time to time, it is also the state of Prester John. According to our reconstruction, this is - Ancient Rus', which in the 14th century AD. e. expanded sharply due to victorious wars of conquest and turned into the Great = “Mongol” Empire. Moreover, it was called “Mongolia” by a foreigner, from the Greek “megalion”, great. The Russians themselves called their state the Russian kingdom or simply GREAT RUSSIA. A trace of this name remains to this day in the words Velikorossiya and Great Russians.

The Great Russian Medieval Empire had many names. Both internal and external. On different languages she was called by different names. Among them was apparently the name SCYTHIA or “CHINA”. These are just two different pronunciations of the same word. Maybe it was the name of only one of the parts Great Empire.

That is why Moscow still retains the old name KITAI-Gorod.

In general, CHINA IS AN OLD RUSSIAN WORD. Today it is no longer used, but until the 17th century it was common in our language.

According to the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th–17th centuries, the word KITA means something braided, tied in a bun, in a braid, p. 141. In particular, KITA meant a braid, a tourniquet, a SULTAN OF FEATHERS. A 17th-century author writes: “The caps [the Janissaries] had WHALES,” p. 141. THUS, KITA MEANED A PART OF WARRIOR EQUIPMENT. The word KITA - with the same meaning - exists in other Slavic languages, for example, in Polish as KITA, p. 141.

Let us note that the word KITA subsequently meant part of military uniforms, for example, Russian. HUSSARS wore WHALES - high plumes on their caps. The name “sultan”, which is familiar today, is a later name for the whale, which back in the 17th century was called in the old way - WHALES. What can be seen, for example, from the following words of a source of the second half of the 17th century: “The horse is riding, the saddle on it is HUSAR... the chaprak is sewn with gold, WHILE, the same feather,” p. 141. Here, when describing military equipment, “a whale from the same feather” is mentioned, in particular.

Even on the modern monument to Bohdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv you can see KITU - a plume of feathers on a TURBAN. The tall sultan-KITU on a turban was worn by Turkish warriors, for example, the famous Janissaries.

From the book Empire - I [with illustrations] author

4. 2. 8. About the name China The traditional dating of these supposedly Chinese events that were now discussed is approximately 1130 AD. But taking into account the century shift already discussed above, they fall into the middle of the 13th century AD. This is the correct dating. At this time, Byzantium

From the book Empire - I [with illustrations] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

6. 9. Why China is called China We have already said above that China is an old Russian word that was common in our language until the 17th century. China is Kitia or Skitia - a variant of the word Scythia. More on this below. The word whale also meant something woven, tied in

author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

52. 1. Is it true that the country of Serov, that is, Serkland, is modern China? This is what E. A. Melnikova says about this. “Seres, Serir, Serki - sulfur, serki. The ethnonym Seres, according to most researchers, comes from the Chinese word meaning “silk,” p. 215. Either, –

From the book Empire - II [with illustrations] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

54. 1. Scythia was called Kitia, that is, China. China is one of the old names of Ancient Rus'. So, as we see, China is one of the old names of Ancient Rus'. From here we immediately see how the word China could have arisen, which initially meant Scythia, that is Great Rus' –

From the book Who's Who world history author Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich

From the book Who's Who in Russian History author Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich

From the book Reconstruction of World History [text only] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

11.3.2. WHY IS BEIJING CALLED BEIJING Let's start with the fact that the modern Russian word “Beijing” very inaccurately reflects the true name of this city. At the end of the 17th century it was called PEZHIN in Russian. This can be seen, for example, from the report of the Russian embassy N. G. Spafaria in

author Vasiliev Leonid Sergeevich

Modern China: miscalculations and achievements As for China, this country, after the first few years of restoring its economy and carrying out the necessary reforms in the 50s of our century (help from the USSR played a huge role here, although this same help also led to the introduction of

From the book History of the East. Volume 2 author Vasiliev Leonid Sergeevich

Contemporary China: problems of development Having become convinced that the economic principles of Marxist socialism, with its denial of private property and depriving people of interest in work, lead to a dead end - and this was clearly and indisputably revealed during the gigantic

From the book Rus'. China. England. Dating of the Nativity of Christ and the First Ecumenical Council author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

From the book Book 2. The Rise of the Kingdom [Empire. Where did Marco Polo actually travel? Who are the Italian Etruscans? Ancient Egypt. Scandinavia. Rus'-Horde n author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

23.1. Is it true that the country of the Serovs, that is, Serkland, is modern China? This is what E.A. says about this. Melnikova. “Seres, Serir, Serki - sulfur, serki. The ethnonym SERES, according to most researchers, comes from the CHINESE word meaning “silk”, p. 215.Or, -

From the book Folk Traditions of China author Martyanova Lyudmila Mikhailovna

Modern China Geographical location Modern China is called the People's Republic of China (PRC). The country ranks 1st in terms of population, which is 1.3 billion people. This is approximately a quarter of the world's population. China is in

From the book Book 1. Empire [Slavic conquest of the world. Europe. China. Japan. Rus' as a medieval metropolis of the Great Empire] author Nosovsky Gleb Vladimirovich

5.3. Why Beijing is called Beijing Let's start with the fact that the modern Russian word “Beijing” very inaccurately reflects the true name of this city. At the end of the 17th century it was called PEZHIN in Russian. This can be seen, for example, from the report of the Russian embassy N.G. Spafaria to China,

From the book Volume 6. Revolutions and national wars. 1848-1870. Part that by Lavisse Ernest

From book General history in questions and answers author Tkachenko Irina Valerievna

3. Why did China remain a “closed” country for so long and how did its “opening” happen? Since the establishment of the Manchu Qin dynasty in China, a policy of isolating the country began to be pursued. Contacts between the Chinese and foreigners were considered dangerous by the authorities. But huge

From the book Goodbye Poverty! A Brief Economic History of the World by Clark Gregory

13. Why England and not China, India or Japan? The people of this island of Japan are good-natured, courteous beyond measure, and valiant in war; They administer justice strictly without any partiality towards those who break the law. The Japanese are governed in the most enlightened manner.

Probably, the name CHINA is closely related to the word SCYTHIA or SKITIA (F-T transition due to the double reading of fita). It is not for nothing that Moscow still retains the ancient name CHINA-TOWN. This is what our ancestors called the second belt of military fortifications around the Moscow Kremlin. Kitai-Gorod existed in Moscow until the 20th century. Its powerful walls were dismantled only at the beginning of our century, after 1917.
ON THE. Morozov rightly noted that the SELF-name CHINA was preserved ONLY IN RUSSIA, in Moscow. Of course, today we also call modern

China, but NOBODY CALLS it that except us. And the Chinese themselves DO NOT call themselves that. And in Russian, East Asian China began to be called “China” only after the 17th century _ In the “Dictionary of the Russian Language XI-

1. centuries” the word CHINA as the name of the state is ABSOLUTELY ABSENT. Until the 18th century, the state of China in Rus' was called not “China”, but “THE KINGDOM OF BOGDOY”. The Chinese emperor was called BOGDIKHAN. and the Chinese - “MANZA”.

The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron - a source of the 19th century - reports:
“The great empire of eastern and central Asia is known among its inhabitants under names that HAVE NOTHING IN COMMON WITH THE EUUPEAN (CHINA, China, Chine). In official acts, it is usually named according to the nickname of the reigning dynasty (with the addition of the word dai - great; for example, under the current dynasty - Dai-ching-go...); then a number of literary and poetic names are used: Tian-xia (Celestial Empire), Si-hai (“4 seas” is an echo of the ANCIENT CONCEPT that China is surrounded on ALL SIDES (! - Author) by seas), Zhong-hua-guo (Middle flourishing state), Zhong-yuan (Middle Plain), etc. In conversation they usually use the name Zhong-guo (Middle State) ... The inhabitants of China call themselves ZHUN-GUO-ZHENB (people of the Middle State) or HANB-ZHENB (Han people...), and the inhabitants of southern China, unlike the northern ones, are also called MAN-ZI... The Russian name of China COMES FROM THE NAME OF THE KITAN DYNASTY,” article “China”.
It is extremely interesting that according to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, China was surrounded by seas FROM ALL SIDES. And, as we now understand, this is correct. Since “ancient China” is actually the Great Russian Medieval Empire, the chronicles of which were brought to China by the Manchus and subsequently formed the basis of the supposed
purely local ancient Chinese history. And the Great Empire was truly SURROUNDED BY SEAS OF CD ON ALL SIDES. Because it occupied ALL EURASIA. But it cannot be said about modern China that it is surrounded by seas FROM ALL SIDES. This is simply not true.
As for another Chinese name for China - “MIDDLE EMPIRE” - it also suits modern China very poorly. Take a look at the map. What is modern China in the middle of? It is located not in the middle, but AT THE VERY EDGE of the Eurasian continent, in its southeastern corner. On the other hand, from medieval EUROPEAN geography we know that the CITY OF JERUSALEM used to be placed IN THE MIDDLE OF THE WORLD. The first maps were drawn like this - a circle with Jerusalem in the center. See our study of ancient geographical maps in the previous book of this series, “Caliph Ivan,” chapter 5. But Jerusalem, also known as Troy, as we know, was located on the Bosphorus and was the capital of the ancient Roman kingdom, which collapsed in 1204, see our books “Forgotten Jerusalem” and “The Beginning of Horde Rus'”. Therefore, most likely, the “original Chinese” name “Middle Empire” is indeed a VERY OLD name. But not local Chinese, but brought to China on the pages of European chronicles. The Chinese removed it from there, took it for themselves and carefully preserved it.
In old European and Chinese documents, the KARA-CHINESE state, also known as the state of Prester John, comes up from time to time. According to our reconstruction, this is Ancient Rus', which in the 14th century AD. expanded sharply due to victorious wars of conquest and turned into the Great = “Mongol” Empire. Moreover, it was called “Mongolia” by a foreigner, from the Greek “megalion”, great. The Russians themselves called their state the Russian kingdom or simply GREAT RUSSIA. A trace of this name remains to this day in the words Velikorossiya and Great Russians.

The Great Russian Medieval Empire had many names. Both internal and external. It was called differently in different languages. Among them was apparently the name SCYTHIA or “CHINA”. These are just two different pronunciations of the same word. Perhaps this was the name of only one part of the Great Empire.
That is why Moscow still retains the old name CHINA-City,
In general, CHINA IS AN OLD RUSSIAN WORD. Today it is not used in English, but until the 17th century it was common in our language.
According to the Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th-17th centuries, the word KITA means something braided, tied into a bun, into a braid, p. 141. In particular, KITA meant a braid, a tourniquet, a SULTAN OF FEATHERS. A 17th-century author writes: “The caps [the Janissaries] had WHALES,” p. 141. Thus, KITA MEANED PART OF WARRIOR EQUIPMENT. The word KITA - with the same meaning - exists in other Slavic languages, for example, in Polish as KITA, p. 141.
Let us note that the word KITA subsequently meant part of military uniforms, for example, Russian. HUSSARS wore WHALES - high plumes on their caps. The common name today is “sultan” - a later name for the whale, which back in the 17th century was called in the old way - WHALES. What can be seen, for example, from the following words of a source of the second half of the 17th century: “The horse is riding, the saddle on it is HUSAR... the chaprak is sewn with gold, WHILE, the same feather”, p. 141. Here, when describing military equipment, “a whale from the same feather” is mentioned, in particular.
Even on the modern monument to Bohdan Khmelnitsky in Kyiv you can see KITU - a plume of feathers on a TURBAN. The tall sultan-KITU on a turban was worn by Turkish warriors, for example, the famous Janissaries.

" direction. Accordingly, the exact translation is "Central Country" or "Central State".

The term " zhongguo" is not used consistently in Chinese history. It had varied cultural and political connotations depending on the era.

The name China is used for China in Central Europe, particularly in Portuguese, Spanish, English, German and Romanian languages. In Polish we use Chiny. The name Kina is used predominantly in Northern Europe, particularly in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and in the Serbo-Croatian language. In Greece the name is used Κίνα .

Story

China is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. It stands on a par with the civilizations of the Sumerians of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indians of the Indus and the Egyptians of the Nile. The peculiarity of Chinese civilization is that it developed in isolation from other civilizational centers. Her achievement was, first of all, the logographic writing system that is used today in East Asian countries.

Prehistoric period

Archaeological finds show that ancient people of the species Homo erectus inhabited the territory of modern China between 2.24 million - 250 thousand years ago. In the Zhoukoudian area near Beijing, the remains of the so-called Sinanthropus were found, which date back to 550-300 thousand years ago. Sinanthropus knew how to make simple stone tools and make fire.

Approximately 70,000 years ago new people modern look Homo sapiens populated the Chinese Plain, displacing Sinanthropus and their descendants. The earliest osteological evidence of the existence of modern people in China (human remains from the Liujiang site) dates back to the 67th millennium BC. e.

Chinese statehood has a very long story. Legends, the origin of which historians date back to the third millennium BC, brought to us the names of the first three rulers and five emperors of China.

According to modern historiography, the first dynasty of China was the Xia. Some Chinese scientists believe that evidence of its existence comes from excavations of urban settlements and graves near Erlitou in Henan Province. This archaeological culture dates from 2070 to 1600 BC. e. Workshops for the production of bronze vessels, ceramics, and stamps with simple hieroglyphs were found in the settlements. Most Western scholars deny the existence of this dynasty.

Ancient states in China

The first historically reliable dynasty is considered to be the Shang Dynasty (another name for Yin), which controlled the territories of the Yellow River plain in Eastern China between the 18th and 12th centuries BC. e. It was destroyed by one of the Western vassal families, who founded the Zhou dynasty, which ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC. e. The central power of the new dynasty weakened due to the increasing political and economic power of appanage rulers, who created in the middle of the 8th century BC. e. series formally independent states. From the 5th to the 2nd centuries BC. e. these states constantly fought among themselves, but in 221 BC. e. were united by Qin Shi Huang into a single empire. The new Qin dynasty lasted several decades, but it was the one that shaped China as an imperial entity.

The period of dominance of the Han Dynasty lasted from 206 BC. e. to 220 years. During this period, the formation of the Chinese as a single ethnic community began.

Medieval states in China

After the disintegration of China in the 3rd-6th centuries due to attacks by nomads from the north, the empire was unified by the Sui dynasty in 580. 7th-14th centuries, the reign of the Tang and Song dynasties, are considered the “golden age” of China. It was during this period that most of the scientific discoveries and achievements in culture. In 1271, the Mongol ruler Kublai Kublai declared the beginning of a new Yuan dynasty. In 1368, as a result of the anti-Mongol rebellion, a new ethnically Chinese Ming dynasty began, which ruled China until 1644.

Qing Empire

The last imperial dynasty of China was the Qing dynasty, which was started by the Manchu conquerors of China. It was overthrown by revolution in 1911.

Like most Chinese regimes, Qing rule was authoritarian. Harsh methods were often used to ensure stability of power. During the reign of the Manchu Qing dynasty, ethnic Han Chinese were forced to wear long braids like the Manchus as a sign of loyalty to the new dynasty.

In the 18th century, technologically powerful China pursued an active policy of conquering the peoples of Central Asia, whom the Chinese had long considered “barbarians.” However, in the 19th century, he himself became a victim of the “barbarians of the West” - the colonial policies of Western Europe and the United States. The most destructive role for the civilization of China was played by the Opium Wars, as a result of which by 1860 China finally became economically dependent on Great Britain and France.

Republican China

On January 1, 1912, with the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the Republic of China (another name for the Republic of China) was created. Sun Yat-sen, leader of the National Party Kuomintang, was proclaimed the first president. He was soon removed from this position former general Qing troops Yuan Shikai, who proclaimed himself the new emperor, however his empire died with him.

After Yuan Shikai, China found itself de facto fragmented into a number of provincial governments, although de jure the international community recognized only the Beijing government as central. In 1927, the Kuomintang party under the command of Chiang Kai-shek was able to unify the country. The capital was moved to the city of Nanjing. Since the nationalists seized power and created a one-party government, a powerful opposition emerged in the country - the communists. The struggle between government troops and the Red partisans continued, which weakened China and slowed down democratic reforms.

The Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945 briefly united nationalists and communists against a common enemy. But after the surrender of Japan in 1945, the state treasury of the Republic was empty. This caused mutual accusations between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party, which led to civil war. The Communist victory forced the government of the Republic of China to move to the island of Taiwan, where it still exists today.

"Two Chinas"

With victory in civil war The Communist Party of China declared itself the successor to the Republic of China and on October 1, 1949, founded a new state, the People's Republic of China (PRC).

In 1997, the PRC regained the territory of Hong Kong from Great Britain and in 1999 the territory of Macau from Portugal.

Modernity

Although the government of the Republic of China has not renounced its claims to China, Tibet, and Inner Mongolia, it increasingly identifies itself as the government of the island of Taiwan. The political circles of the Republic of China are in a constant dialectical struggle regarding the issue of declaring the independence of the island. The PRC considers Taiwan an integral part of its state, and therefore is constantly trying to oust representatives of the Republic of China from various international organizations, increasing his isolation.

Today, 23 states, including the Vatican, continue to recognize the Republic of China as official China. In contrast, most governments around the world view the PRC as the legitimate representative of China.

Territory

Historical divisions of China

Administrative units top level China varied depending on the ruling dynasty or government. These units include, first of all, territories and provinces. Among the lower level units there were prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commands, counties and districts. Modern administrative units include cities at the subprefecture level, cities at the district level, settlements and urban communities.

Most Chinese dynasties located their residence in the heart of China, its ethnically Chinese part - the Yellow River Valley. These dynasties expanded their possessions into the foreign territories of Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, Tibet, Vietnam and Korea. Although the last Manchu Qing dynasty, to which the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China consider themselves heirs, included most of the above-mentioned lands in China, China itself has certain ancient borders - the Great Wall of China in the north, the Tibetan Plateau in the west and the jungles of Indochina in the south.

In the east, along the coast of the Yellow and East China Seas, there are alluvial plains that are densely populated. To the north, on the edge of the Inner Mongolia plateau, grassy steppe can be seen. The south of China is covered with hills and low mountains. The Yellow River and Yangtze deltas are located in the central-eastern part. Most of the arable land is located along these rivers. The southern province of Yunnan is part of the so-called "Greater Mekong" subregion, which includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam.

In western China, there is a large alluvial plain in the north, and a limestone plateau covered with medium-sized hills in the south. This part of China is home to the Himalayas, with the world's tallest mountain, Mount Everest. The northwest is covered by deserts such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert, which are constantly expanding. For thousands of years, the mountains of Yunnan have served as a natural border that separates China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.

China's climate is varied. The northern zone, which includes Beijing, is characterized by very cold winters. The central zone, which includes Shanghai, is temperate. The southern zone, which includes Guangzhou, has a subtropical climate.

Due to frequent droughts and poor management, dust or sand storms often occur in the spring. The wind blows dust into east direction, to Taiwan and Japan. Storms sometimes reach the West Coast of the United States. Water, soil erosion and pollution environment China's problems are growing from internal Chinese problems into international ones.

Society

Demography

The population of China (PRC and Republic of China) is 1390 million people in 2012. This is one fifth of the total population of the Earth. Although there are more than 100 ethnic groups living in the PRC, the communist government recognizes only 56. The largest ethnic group China are Han Chinese(actually Chinese) - 91.9%. It is heterogeneous and is divided into a number of ethnographic groups, most of which are former self-sufficient ethnic groups assimilated by the Han Chinese.

"Conversational Chinese" or " baihua" is the written standard for Putonghua, which has been used officially since the 20th century. Before this, the standard written language was classical Chinese « wenyan", modeled on medieval Latin. This language is still compulsory for study in higher education.

Chinese languages ​​are based on hieroglyphic writing, while the Zhuang, Tibetan, Uyghur and Mongolian languages ​​have their own alphabets.

Religion

Thanks to the Cultural Revolution, 62% of the Chinese population (797.7 million people) call themselves atheists. However, for a large group of mainland Chinese, religion plays a very important role, especially Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism (in Lately and Catholicism - more than 50 million).

The PRC is an atheistic secular state, but it allows the following of religious practices that are recognized by the government. That is, there is an opportunity to exercise, albeit limited, the right to freedom of conscience. Taoism and Buddhism, along with the moralistic Confucian code, have been the main religious teachings of China for 2 millennia, so even the communist government cannot neglect this tradition.

In mid-February 2006, the Jubilee Campaign, a group of human rights experts from the United Kingdom, published a 140-page document consisting of secret documents illegally transferred by Chinese Ministry of Public Security officials to the Committee to Investigate Religious Persecution. Previously, evidence of the sadistic persecution of believers in the PRC leaked through information barriers quite often, but the document mentioned is the first time when stunned researchers had access to official documents, by which it became possible to judge the scope of the anti-religious activities of the neo-Maoists, their methodology and plans.

According to these documents, the Chinese government is engaged in a systematic study of “cults” that could become “a creeping threat to our safety and security.” They mean all religious organizations that are not registered by public security authorities, except for the fourteen that are registered and, according to the party leadership, “peaceful and safe.” In addition to local cults, the “creeping threat” included communities of Catholics and Protestants who decided not to join the “patriotic” religious organizations, which are controlled by the atheist government, illegal Buddhist and other religious groups. For this kind of “threat to the national security of the PRC,” believers - Christians, Muslims and others - risk being imprisoned for life or executed.

Culture

Calligraphy Mifu ( Song Dynasty)

Events XIX-XX centuries forced the Chinese to think about the need to abandon or preserve their own civilizational model. Westerners promised China a “bright future” subject to total Westernization and used Japan as an example. The policy of introducing democracy into traditional Chinese society has failed - partly due to the authoritarian "tradition" of governance, and partly due to internal and external wars.

Chinese society preserved medieval traditions until the beginning of the so-called " cultural revolution" Its goal was to reform the Chinese village, promote new communist values, and create a new advanced Chinese culture, “not limited by Confucian dogmas.” As a result of the “revolution,” many cultural figures were repressed, and most traditions were eliminated as “regressive practices” or “feudal relics.” The hieroglyphic writing was reformed, which made the texts of works written by their predecessors inaccessible to future generations. However, since the 1980s, the “cultural revolution” was stopped, and the communist government set a course for the formation of a “patriotic nation”, beginning the restoration of traditions.

In Taiwan, such cultural reforms were not carried out, respecting the traditions of writing and officialdom. A significant part of the budget of the Republic of China was spent on training specialists in the field of culture.

Writing system

Chinese characters have over 50 thousand characters. She changed and had different styles writing. The first signs appear on divination bones in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Calligraphy, the ability to beautifully write hieroglyphs, is considered the pinnacle of art in China. Majority sacred texts Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism are written by hand.

Printing has developed since the Song Dynasty. The academies of scholars who published and rewrote the classics were traditionally sponsored by the state. Members of the imperial family often took part in scientific councils.

Exams

One of the main features of traditional Chinese culture was state exams. They contributed to the cultivation of an educated elite, since a candidate who was well versed in the classical texts, regardless of social background, was able to occupy the rank of official. The latter had a high socio-economic status. People of humanitarian pursuits - writers, philosophers, scientists - were “first-class” people in China. The state fully supported them.

The science

China's technological discoveries were as follows:

Blast furnace (steel) Fireworks and rocket