Describe minerals. Minerals and other natural resources of Russia

Minerals and rocks that are used or can be used in the national economy are called minerals ( mineral raw materials). This concept is relative, because over the years, more and more new products from the earth’s interior become minerals. For example, relatively recently the exceptional value of uranium minerals was discovered; mining of potassium salts and bauxite began... Minerals are divided in different ways. In one case, their physical condition: solid (ores, coals, marble, granite), liquid (oil, groundwater), gas (flammable gases, helium). In another case, their use is taken as a basis: combustible, ore, non-metallic minerals.

Clusters and deposits of minerals are called deposits. Large territories, where there are several deposits, - provinces fossils.

Scheme of the origin of ore deposits: 1, 2, 3-magmatic deposits; 4-contact (in places of contact of magma with the rocks into which it is embedded); 5, 6, 7-hydrothermal (associated with rising hot aqueous solutions); 8-volcanic deposits (formed during the solidification of magma that erupted onto the surface); 9-sedimentary (in modern reservoirs); 10-result of weathering of rocks remaining at the site of formation (eluvium); 11 - the result of weathering, transport and deposition of rocks by water flows (placers); 12-year-old buried placer.

Each geological era has left us deposits of various minerals. For example, sediments of the ancient, Precambrian era are rich in iron, nickel, and copper. And in modern river sediments there are placer deposits of gold, platinum, and diamonds. Therefore, before looking for deposits, geologists need to thoroughly study the geological structure of the area, determine the composition and age of the rocks common here, and the conditions of occurrence of the strata (tectonics).

Finding accumulations of useful minerals or rocks in the ground is half the battle. This completes the geological exploration work. Then follows new stage: deposit exploration. To do this, detailed studies of the quality of ore, the characteristics of its occurrence are carried out, and mineral reserves are calculated. After this, methods for mining and processing the ore are developed. And even when the mines are already working, processing plants(they purify and concentrate ore), geologists continue to study the deposit, clarify mineral reserves, and explore new areas.

Minerals.

Typically, mineral deposits located near the site are discovered first. earth's surface. And the richest, most concentrated ores are developed first. However, over time, such easily accessible and rich deposits are becoming fewer and fewer. Man, in search of underground storerooms, penetrates deeper and deeper into the depths.

The open-pit method of extracting minerals in quarries is more economically profitable than the mine method. Quarry of the Leninogorsk polymetallic plant in Kazakhstan.

Geological section of the Mikhailovskoye iron ore deposit (KMA). 1-cover rocks; 2-rich iron ores; 3-iron quartzites (poor iron ores).

Section of the developed vein deposit.

Exploration wells reach depths of 10 kilometers, and mines go more than 3 kilometers deep.

Low-grade ores, containing a relatively small percentage of useful components, are gradually moving into the category of mineral resources. (Before, they were not mined or used, i.e., they were not considered minerals.) This became possible after new, powerful mining machines appeared that processed entire mountains of rocks, and new enrichment methods made it possible to extract even small quantities chemical elements and connections.

There are special methods of mining (except open - in quarries and mines). They are called geotechnological. With their help, ore is mined in the depths. This is done by downloading hot water, solutions into formations containing soluble minerals. Other wells pump out the resulting solution. Even bacteria are used to dissolve or concentrate some ores (such as copper).

Nowadays, minerals are needed everywhere. Mineral raw materials are called food industry. Black and non-ferrous metallurgy runs entirely on mineral raw materials. For chemical industry its share reaches 75%. Most of the electricity is generated at thermal and nuclear power plants using coal, gas, fuel oil, and radioactive substances. Almost all transport (road, rail) runs on fossil fuel energy. The basis of the building materials industry is rocks. In addition, minerals are necessary for modern agriculture.

Mineral fertilizers are widely used: potassium salts, phosphate raw materials, limestones, dolomites.

The demand for minerals is constantly growing, and the extraction of mineral raw materials is increasing. Under natural conditions, mineral deposits are formed over many thousands and millions of years, and they are usually developed over decades. This forces us to use mineral resources with utmost frugality and to the fullest extent possible. Sometimes it is possible to restore reserves of certain minerals (say, soluble salts). But for now, the main task of subsoil protection is the rational exploitation of underground resources, their careful and most complete, comprehensive use.

Studying minerals and discovering new deposits is a very difficult task. It is solved on the basis of complex theoretical research, the use modern technology, economic calculations, scientifically based forecasts. Various specialists are involved in this matter.

To discover mineral deposits, you need specialized knowledge, carrying out complex, technically complex geological exploration work. And yet local historians can discover, or even more so study, deposits of certain minerals. First of all, local building materials (limestone, gravel and pebbles, coarse sands, rubble stone) and raw materials for local crafts (pure quartz sands, clays, etc.), as well as peat, bog ores, etc. A very interesting and important task - compile a collection of minerals in the area, indicating their properties and ways of use. Mineral resources may also include some industrial waste, such as slag used in construction.

It should be remembered that it is not always possible to correctly determine (by eye) the signs of a possible mineral deposit. For example, an oily film on the surface of a swamp is usually not associated with oil at all, and a single piece of ore can be brought from afar.

Finally, sometimes there are ancient wells, mines, and faces where our distant ancestors once mined minerals. These workings sometimes preserve stone tools or remains of iron tools. Such finds are extremely interesting for a local historian, but, of course, are rare. Ancient mine workings are found in Central Asia, in the Caucasus, Urals, Ukraine, western Belarus.

It is carried out with the aim of clarifying their genesis and industrial value. It is carried out using field and laboratory methods. Field research determines; position of mineral bodies in the stratigraphic section, their connection with igneous rocks, relation to the composition of the host rocks and geological structure; shape, structure and mineral composition of deposits. The main method of field research is geological mapping, drawing up geological maps and sections at scales of 1:500 - 1:50000. Laboratory research is related to the study of the substance of minerals and is divided into the study mineral composition, chemical composition and physical and technical properties of minerals.

Mineral aggregates that were formed throughout the history of development earth's crust under its inherent processes and physicochemical conditions. The substances necessary for the formation of such mineral aggregates came in magmatic melts, in liquid and gaseous aqueous and other solutions from the upper mantle, from rocks of the Earth's crust, or were carried away from the surface of the Earth. They were deposited when geological, geographical and physicochemical conditions changed, favoring the accumulation of minerals. The emergence of various minerals depended on a favorable combination of many factors - geological, physico-chemical, and for those that formed on the surface of the Earth, also on physico-geographical conditions. Accumulations of minerals in and on the surface of the Earth form mineral deposits. Geological structure of mineral deposits, morphology of mineral bodies, their structure and composition, as well as their total quantity and reserves are determined as a result of geological exploration (see).

Minerals were formed as a result of endogenous and metamorphogenic processes in the bowels of the Earth, as well as due to exogenous processes on its surface (Fig.).

As a result of exogenous processes, sedimentary, placer and residual mineral deposits arose on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary minerals accumulated at the bottom of ancient seas, lakes, rivers, and swamps, forming stratified deposits in the host sedimentary rocks (see Sedimentary deposits). Among them are mechanical, chemical and biochemical (organogenic) sediments. Mechanical sediments include gravel and clay. Chemical sediments include some limestones, dolomites, salts (see Potassium salts, Rock salt), as well as aluminum ores (bauxite), iron, manganese ores, and sometimes copper ores and other non-ferrous metals. Biochemical sedimentary deposits include, according to most scientists, oil and combustible gas, as well as coal, oil shale, diatomite, some varieties of limestone and other minerals. Placers were formed during the accumulation of chemically stable heavy valuable minerals (platinum, diamonds, tin and tungsten minerals) in coastal oceanic, sea and lake sands, as well as river sands.

Residual minerals are concentrated in the ancient and modern weathering crust (see) when easily soluble compounds are leached from them by groundwater and valuable minerals accumulate in the residue, as well as due to the redeposition of some of the mineral mass that occurs. Their representatives can be deposits of native sulfur, gypsum, kaolin, magnesite, talc ores, ores of nickel, iron, manganese, aluminum (bauxite), copper and uranium. Metamorphic processes produce metamorphosed and metamorphic minerals. Metamorphosed mineral deposits are formed due to changes in pre-existing endogenous and exogenous accumulations of minerals. These include the largest industrially important iron ore deposits of Precambrian age (for example, the Krivoy Rog iron ore basin, the Kursk magnetic anomaly, Lake Verkhnee, etc.), as well as manganese deposits in India and other countries. Metamorphic mineral deposits arise during the metamorphism of various rocks due to the rearrangement and concentration of some components that make up these rocks (some deposits of graphite and high-alumina minerals - kyanite, sillimanite).

Patterns of formation and placement of minerals in time and space. At successive stages of the development of the earth's crust, strictly defined formations of rocks and associated mineral complexes arose. The recurrence of such formations in the history of the development of the earth's crust led to recurrence in the formation of similar groups of minerals from the most ancient to the youngest stages of geological history, marked by metallogenic (or mineragenic) eras. The sequential regular placement of rock formations and associated mineral complexes determined their regular distribution within the earth's crust, outlining metallogenic (or mineragenic) provinces. Within ore provinces, ore regions are distinguished, which are divided into ore districts. On the territory of ore districts, ore fields or ore clusters are isolated with a set of deposits united by a common origin and geological structure. Ore fields consist of ore deposits spanning one or more ore bodies.

Determination of the conditions of formation and geological patterns of distribution of minerals - scientific basis for their searches and reconnaissance (see.

What are minerals and why are they called that? Have you ever thought about it?

They are useful because people create from them, which later serve for comfort, heating and safety. Fossils - because they are extracted from the depths of the earth.

No one knows the exact time when the first mining began. However, around 2600 BC, the Egyptians went to the Sinai Peninsula to mine mica and discovered and mined the more useful mineral copper.

To develop their state, the Romans built mines from Africa to Britain. Among them was the Rio Tinto mine in Spain, where many precious metals were mined:

gold and silver,
copper and tin,
lead and iron.

In the development of trade and military affairs, the extraction of various iron and precious ores played a large role.

I hope you've heard about the gold rush in the mid-19th century. South America? In addition to gold, diamond deposits were found there.

And in childhood, I hope everyone read a fairy tale about the mistress of the copper mountain. There, master Danila wanted to make a stone flower alive. The events in the fairy tale took place in the Urals, and the minerals from which he made his flower were found in the mountains.

What are natural resources?

The list of natural resources is very rich and varied.

All these riches of our land can be classified based on their main characteristics:

Hard, such as granite, types of coal, ores different metals, salt.
Liquids such as mineral waters, mercury, oil.
Gaseous, these include flammable and non-flammable gases.

Types of minerals will reveal their origin.

Combustible (sedimentary)
Ore (igneous)
Non-metallic (non-metallic)
Groundwater

It will be interesting for you to know that in addition to igneous rocks, there are also metamorphic rocks. I'll tell you a little about them. This very name - igneous rock - reveals to us the secret of its origin. The ordinary pumice that you have in your bathtub, as well as granite, basalts and liparites, are all of igneous origin.

What is metamorphic rock? This is even more interesting. Metamorphoses or changes in rock under the influence atmospheric pressure and temperatures environment led to the formation of new minerals such as marble, talc, chlorite, graphite and pace.

Metallic and non-metallic natural resources

As you probably already guessed, metal ones are those that contain metal, such as iron ore, manganese ore, tin ore and others. Non-metallic are the remaining hard rocks.

To make it clearer, I will show you the map and symbols natural resources around the world. It is quite difficult, and sometimes impossible, to estimate the world's mineral reserves in the earth's crust. Every year, according to scientists, approximately 120 billion tons of various fuels and raw materials are mined.

For the development of production and prosperity of any state, mineral resources play an important role. Their use is important in any sector of the economy, as a raw material or combustible material.

Did you know that in the beginning, mineral deposits were predicted by scientists based on scientific predictions and prospecting? only confirmed these predictions and discovered the exact locations of valuable raw materials, using advances in technology and instrumentation.

The development of mineral deposits has become much easier in our time, and mineral resources less and less.

With the advent of such human achievements as electricity and the creation of various types of special machines, the extraction of natural resources also accelerated. The following methods of developing mineral deposits have become widespread:

Open method - creating pits (cuts and quarries)
Closed method - used when great depth mineral deposits (mines and adits)
Well drilling
Marine method - mining below sea level.

The types of deposits depend on the types of natural resources, which can be classified into several main groups -

Metal
Non-metallic
Mineral
Flammable
Water

These names speak for themselves. All countries and states on our planet have different quantity natural resources. They are distributed unevenly throughout the huge planet.

This depends on many factors, including geographical location And geological structure land. We will not look for rock deposits or iron ore on the plain? Of course not, because their formation requires certain conditions.

What methods of mining exist today?

You know that minerals such as coal, gold and diamonds are mined in open pits. Develop a quarry using special equipment, delving deeper and deeper into the bowels of the earth. The extracted rock is transported to mining enterprises, where it is further processed. This is the most effective way production

The second mining method is an underground mine shaft or adit that has access to the surface of the earth, from where the rock is removed. Such mines have both horizontal and vertical workings, where hard rocks are drilled.

Rich mineral reserves: coal and natural gas, petroleum and minerals are located throughout the globe. And all this must be rationally used and extracted from the deep bowels of our earth, without harming nature and the environment.

Rational use of the natural resources of the earth in our time is simply vital, because their reserves are not limitless. Therefore, we must extract natural raw materials without loss, taking care, among other things.

Today there are more rational methods of extracting natural resources, which allow them to be extracted and processed with low costs and losses. They also allow the extraction of associated substances and raw materials, which are often contained in rock.

I hope you liked mine brief overview minerals located in the depths of our earth and you learned a lot of useful things for yourself. Write your feedback about my article in the comments. I will be interested to read them. And that's all for today. Let me say goodbye to you and see you again.

I suggest you subscribe to blog updates. You can also rate the article according to the 10 system, marking it with a certain number of stars. Come visit me and bring your friends, because this site was created especially for you. I am sure that you will definitely find a lot of useful and interesting information here.

Instructions

Minerals are rocks and minerals used in the sphere of material production and in the national economy. Currently, about 250 types of minerals are known. They are divided into:
- combustibles (coal, oil, natural gas, peat, oil shale);
- ore (ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals);
- non-metallic (clay, limestone, various salts);
- stone-colored raw materials (jasper, agate, onyx, chalcedony, jade);
- (diamond, emerald, sapphire, ruby);
- hydromineral (underground and mineral waters);
- mining chemical raw materials (apatites, barites, borates)

Minerals, by the will of man, are transformed into the most necessary things that provide safety, heat, transport, and food. They are necessary in modern world everywhere. Almost all of it is produced at stations operating on coal, gas, fuel oil, radioactive substances. Most transport runs on fossil fuel energy.

The basis of the construction industry is rocks. Ferrous and metallurgy also operates entirely on mineral raw materials, as does industry, where its share reaches 75%. Most metals are used as structural metals (ferrous, alloying, non-ferrous), in mechanical engineering, and in electronics. Ornamental stones, such as jasper and ruby, are used in jewelry. Diamond, due to its hardness and strength, is used for cutting hard materials, and when cut it is a diamond. The mountain mineral apatite is necessary for the production of phosphate fertilizers. Transparent barite crystals are used in optical instruments.

The mineral reserves of the earth's interior are not limitless. And although the process of formation and accumulation of natural resources never stops, the pace of this restoration is completely incommensurate with the rate of use of earthly resources.

Sources:

Minerals

Minerals are natural mineral formations of inorganic and organic origin used in the field of material production. Currently, more than 200 types of mineral resources are mined.

Classification of minerals

There are several classifications of mineral resources. By physical properties They distinguish solid mineral formations (various ores, coal, granite, salts), liquid (oil, water) and gaseous (gases, methane, helium).

Based on their origin, minerals are divided into sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous.

Based on the scope of use, a distinction is made between combustible resources (natural gas, coal, peat, oil), ore resources (rock ores) and nonmetallic resources (sand, clay, limestone, sulfur, potassium salts). Precious and ornamental stones are a separate group.

Mining

Modern searches for mineral resources are based not only on the use the latest technology and sensitive instruments, but also on scientific forecasts. A scientific forecast is based on knowledge of the connections between the geological structure and the conditions for the formation of minerals.

There are several ways to extract mineral resources. With the open method, rocks are mined in. This is a cost-effective method, but not an environmentally friendly method, as abandoned careers can cause education. Using the open-pit method, fossils located on the surface of the earth or lying shallow in the subsoil. Usually these are limestone, sand, chalk, peat, iron and copper ores, and some types of coal.

Solid minerals located at great depths are mined using underground mines. Most often this is how coal is obtained. The mine method is considered the most unsafe for the lives of workers.

Liquid and gaseous minerals (oil, groundwater, natural gas) are extracted using boreholes, sometimes using mines. A number of fields use a combination of extraction methods. The choice of method is determined mainly by the geological conditions of the occurrence of minerals and economic calculations.

New methods of extracting mineral resources are constantly being developed. But we must not forget that minerals are exhaustible, so it is necessary to spend them more economically and wisely.

To do this, we need to strive to reduce the loss of resources during their extraction, achieve a more complete extraction of all useful properties, pay more attention to the search for new, more promising deposits.

A huge amount of minerals have been found in Siberia, the deposits of which were formed as a result of various geological processes. The diversity of mineral resources is explained by the vast territory and complex history of the formation of this section of the earth's crust.

Hard and brown coal

Coal in most cases occurs in places where tectonic plates deflect. Two huge coal basins were found in Siberia: Lensky and Tunguska. Reserves coal in the first they amount to 2600 billion tons, and in the second, according to scientists, it is slightly less - approximately 1750 billion tons.

In total, about 80% of Russia's coal reserves are located in Siberia. On at the moment a minority of all coal deposits have been developed, since mining is impossible in some basins due to harsh conditions natural conditions Siberia.

Non-metallic fossils

Typically, Siberia's fossil resources include oil and natural gas. Oil fields in Siberia began to be developed recently. Thus, in the last few decades, the Markov oil field was discovered. Gas production is carried out in the Taas-Tumus field.

Western Siberia, in particular Khanty-Mansiysk and Yamalo-Nenets autonomous okrugs, produce more than 90% of all natural gas produced in Russia and about 75% of crude oil.

In addition to oil and gas, non-metallic minerals of Siberia include rock salt. Basically, salt deposits are located at the bottom ancient seas. For example, salt mining is carried out in Yakutia, near rivers such as the Lena and Vilyuya.

Diamonds

The first diamonds in Siberia were found in late XIX century. These minerals are located in places with increased volcanic activity. At first, diamantaires were not interested in them due to their small size. But in the 30s of the 20th century, Soviet geologist Alexander Burov discovered a fragment of a large stone, which made it possible to draw a conclusion about the diamond potential of Siberia.

Large diamond deposits in Siberia have been discovered quite recently. IN recent years Diamond mining began in Yakutia, in the basins of the Vilyuya and Olenyoka rivers.

Iron ores

There are huge deposits of iron ore in Siberia. The deposits of these minerals are among the most ancient. In this region you can find ores of metals such as tin, platinum, nickel, and mercury.

Gold

The gold reserves of Siberia have been known for several centuries. And gold mining has been going on for a very long time. The largest reserves of the metal are located in the Allah-Yun, Yan, Aldan, and Bodaibo regions.

When people begin to think about how much is made from, they are struck by the vast range of uses of this oily substance. It would seem that you poured gasoline into the car tank, bought motor oil - this limits the scope of its use. But many everyday things: lipstick, nylon stockings and even an aspirin tablet are made from oil.

Instructions

Oil is just organic matter, which is a host of molecules, by changing the structure of which, you can get an object with completely different characteristics. Like graphite under the influence high temperatures and pressure make diamonds, so the raw material for fuel is also the basis for the production of cosmetics, household items, clothing and even food. Chewing gum It has not been made from natural resins for a long time - this can only be found in pharmacies. Its main components are petroleum polymers. It is in vain that people who use chewing gum and throw it away on the street believe that any food will gradually dissolve. Chewing gum is not a regular food and can lie on the ground for years in the form of a dense lump.

There is no need to be afraid that paraffin and other components of lipstick are petroleum derivatives, because they are the ones that have replaced the harmful components that were once present in this women's accessory. Eye shadow, corrective pencils for eyes and lips, nail polish - all these cosmetics contain a piece of natural substance. And housewives cannot imagine their lives without one more product - plastic, because the housings are made of it household appliances, A plastic bags help carry heavy purchases from the store.

A complex chain of chemical transformations even makes it possible to obtain aspirin, an unsurpassed remedy for headaches and other types of pain, as well as a number of salicylic acids that are part of anti-tuberculosis and antibacterial drugs. Aniline, isolated from nitrobenzene, helped take a step forward in the fight against microorganisms. Diseases can be treated not only from the inside, but also from the outside - for this, doctors use prostheses made of medical plastic.

Women who study clothing labels have noticed that many items contain polyester, and some are made 100% of this synthetic material. Externally, it is similar to viscose and therefore is well suited for sewing dresses and blouses, as well as linings for jackets. Polyester clothing does not wrinkle and is durable, just like nylon tights. Petroleum products are found in abundance in the kitchen in the form plastic dishes and furniture, in the nursery - as dolls, tumblers, cubes and other toys. We can’t talk about their harmfulness or allergenicity, because absolutely all the food that is on store shelves is packaged with polyethylene, and some medicines with the inclusion of oil derivatives successfully help get rid of allergies.

Video on the topic

Gravel is one of the most inexpensive and popular building materials. It is mined in open quarries and has many undeniable advantages. In order not to confuse gravel with crushed stone, you need to know the difference between these stones.

Instructions

Gravel is fragments of rock. These are mainly granites, sandstones, limestones and diabases. Gravel is mined by open-pit mining in sand and gravel deposits. These stones come in different sizes and are inexpensive and in demand. building material. They are used as a filler in the preparation of concrete, in road construction, and for paving paths and areas in private households. After extracting the sand and gravel mixture, the sand is sifted out and the stones are sorted into the most popular fractions. In the construction of buildings and roads, this size is 20/40 mm.

How is gravel different from crushed stone? These two types of stones are often confused. However, there is a difference between them, and a significant one. Both of these products are inorganic bulk materials. But gravel is formed as a result of natural fractures of rocks, and crushed stone is a product of their artificial crushing. Gravel is predominantly round, and the shape of crushed stone is most often pointed.

All about gravel. These stones come in most different colors: blue-gray, dark gray, brown, black, yellowish and pinkish. Many of them are intricately combined and tend to change shade depending on the degree of air humidity or lighting. For this reason, gravel is a favorite of landscape designers, who use it to decorate gardens and farmsteads, improve flower beds, and create pedestrian paths. The shape of stones of any size is solid, they never have cracks.

In nature, there are three main fractions: small (1-3 mm), medium (3-7 mm) and large (7-12 mm). These stones contain many impurities - particles of clay, sand, dust and dirt. Depending on the deposit there are different types gravel: lake, mountain, sea, river, glacial, etc. Cleaner stones - sea and river. Their surface is smooth, so they are widely used in laying and filling roads.

In the construction of houses and buildings, preference is given to mountain gravel, since it has a rougher surface and, therefore, provides better adhesion in concrete mixtures. Small fractions of stones are one of the components in the production of certain types of roofing materials. Gravel has the first

All fossils are divided into many groups and subgroups based on different criteria. Each group accordingly has its own value for national economy. The economic potential of a country largely depends on the amount of different types of minerals and the country’s ability to wisely manage, sell or process them. It is important to know what types of minerals there are and at least several criteria for their classification.

Main groups of minerals

The wealth of the earth's interior is so huge and diverse that the classification may be unrealistic to remember, so it is worth highlighting three main groups of the mineral resources section:

metal ores;
combustible underground fossils;
construction minerals.

Metal ores

The largest group in the list of types of minerals is occupied by metal ores. This group is unique in its diversity: it consists of various types of ore, which necessarily includes metal, including gold, silver, zinc, iron and copper. Naturally, each ore contains different quantities metal, therefore they divide ores into poor and rich.

Iron ore is one of the the most important sources gland. Rich iron ore contains huge amounts of this substance and its extraction is very profitable. This ore is the basis for steel production. Its deposits are located mainly among volcanic rocks; thanks to eruptions and the movement of tectonic plates, new deposits of iron ore are formed.

Nickel ore, the mining and processing of which is also an important part of the national economy. Nickel mining is necessary because it is widely used for the production of stainless, heat-resistant steels.

Combustible minerals

Everything is simple here, this is the well-known oil and gas. Their deposits are often located under water, the Caspian Sea is especially rich in oil. These minerals are used by humans on the largest scale, and although in our globe There are many oil and gas deposits, scientists are already actively looking for an alternative, since in a few decades humanity risks exhausting all earthly reserves. Combustible minerals also include peat, hard coal and brown coal. Coal is actively used for the operation of power plants.

Construction minerals

The group is very diverse in its composition and is no less important than the previous two. This includes cheap limestone-shell rock, which has been the main building material for many centuries, and expensive granite and marble (the cost of rare varieties of the latter can be fabulous). This also includes clay and sand. Clay is a material that people have been using for thousands of years; it was from the remains of clay household items that scientists studied ancient civilizations.

It is impossible to learn what types of minerals there are without mentioning gems. They are mined all over the world, and the number of gems that humanity uses both in jewelry and in other industries is immeasurable.