What minerals are in solid state? Minerals (mineral raw materials)

The mining industry of Russia is the extraction of minerals

Despite the fact that the Russian Federation is very rich in mineral resources, little was known about them a hundred years ago. Active searches for deposits began in the 30s in the USSR.

The discovery of large volumes of deposits in the bowels of the earth on the territory of the Union made the country an undisputed leader. Russia inherited the bulk of the identified deposits, thanks to which it received the status of the country most endowed with mineral resources in the world.

According to the most conservative estimates of foreign and domestic experts, the value of mineral resources is $27 trillion. With the growing pace of technical progress, technologies are improved, production volumes increase, labor intensity decreases, and profits of mining companies increase.

Despite such impressive data and development prospects, the mining industry needs significant capital investments, which, first of all, should be directed to providing infrastructure for deposits, establishing transportation, and modernizing enrichment plants. Big problems in Russia with the raw material processing industry.

This results in a paradoxical situation when huge volumes of extracted resources are exported at a low cost, but the country imports processed products at a price several times higher than the cost of raw materials. When it is much more profitable and economically advantageous to establish processing plants within the country, and provide surplus production for export.

Basic information

In Russia, mining is carried out in almost all directions; the country is largely rich:


Map of mineral resources of Russia
  • natural gas;
  • petroleum products;
  • ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals;
  • precious metal ores;
  • rough diamonds;
  • peat slates;
  • deposits of natural salt;
  • ores containing precious and semi-precious stones;
  • ores containing radioactive metals;
  • mineral waters.

Federal legislation, preventing the formation of mining monopolies, promotes business development by providing licenses for the extraction of mineral resources, tax breaks and deductions. The main requirements put forward to enterprises in the industry are to ensure environmental and labor safety, as well as timely replenishment of the treasury with fees and taxes.

The largest enterprises in the mining industry in Russia are the following:


Forecast of demand and supply of diamonds on the world market until 2020
  • Rosneft;
  • Lukoil;
  • Tatneft;
  • Gazprom;
  • Kuzbassrazrezugol;
  • Evraz;
  • Atomredmetzoloto;
  • Dalur;
  • Alrosa;
  • Severalmaz.

Obtain a license for individual fishing to an individual it is also possible, however, this process is quite difficult, private entrepreneurs get out of the situation by concluding employment contracts with large enterprises. This situation is typical for the mining of gold, precious stones, and diamonds.

Mineral deposits in Russia

Mining production is geographically distributed throughout almost the entire territory of Russia. However, some patterns and places of greatest concentration of individual species have been identified.


Coal basins of Russia

The Pechera, Ural, and Bashkiria basins are rich in coal.

Ore minerals are concentrated in the Siberian platform; copper-nickel ores, platinum, and cobalt are actively mined here.

Potassium salt is concentrated in the Caspian lowland, in the territory of lakes Baskunchak and Elton. The Urals region is also rich in deposits of table salt.

Construction materials such as glass sand, gypsum, sand, and limestone are mined on the territory of the East European Plain.

The Baltic shield is rich in a variety of ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

Mining of minerals such as oil and gas is carried out in the lower reaches of the Volga and Ural rivers, on the territory of the northwestern Siberian plate. The largest gas field is located in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, as well as on Sakhalin Island.


The largest diamond quarry in Yakutia

Yakutia is rich in diamond ores, gold mines and coal.

Polymetallic ores lie in the depths of the earth in the Altai Territory.

Gold, tin, and polymetallic raw materials are mined in Kolyma, in the Sikhote-Alin mountains and spurs of the Chersky Range.

The main uranium mining is concentrated in the Chita region.

Copper and nickel occur in strata located in the Urals, Kola Peninsula. These ores are also rich in associated minerals - cobalt, platinum and other non-ferrous metals. Near the active fields of Eastern Siberia grew The largest city– the center of the Arctic – Norilsk.

Oil shale rocks are located in the European part of the Russian Federation, the largest deposit is St. Petersburg, which is part of the Baltic shale basin.

Peat is mined in 46 thousand deposits, the bulk of which are concentrated in the Northern Urals and Western Siberia. Total reserves are estimated at 160 billion tons. Some deposits have an area of ​​about 100 km 2.

Manganese in the Russian Federation is mined in 14 deposits, they are small in terms of deposit volumes, and the ore is of low quality, it contains a high content of carbonates, the beneficiation of such ore is difficult. The largest deposits are recorded in the Urals - Ekaterininskoye, Yurkinskoye, Berezovskoye.

Mining of minerals, such as aluminum ores - bauxite, is carried out in the Northern Urals - Tikhvinskoye and Onega deposits. In the Komi Republic, the Srednetimanskaya group of bauxite deposits has been recorded. The ore here is of high quality, and the volume of proven reserves is estimated at 200 million tons.

Lecture “Mineral deposits”

In terms of silver reserves, the Russian Federation ranks first in the world; the main deposits are found in complex ores that contain non-ferrous metals and gold - 73%. Copper pyrite ores in the Urals contain up to 30 grams of silver per ton. Lead-zinc deposits in Eastern Siberia contain 43 grams of silver per ton. Silver ores themselves are mined in the Okhotsk-Chukotka volcanic belt.


Precious and semi-precious stones such as:

  • emerald;
  • beryl;
  • jasper;
  • nephritis;
  • cornelian;
  • malachite;
  • rhinestone

mined in the Urals and Altai.

Lapis lazuli in Transbaikalia, carnelian and chalcedony in Buryatia and the Amur region, amethyst in the White Sea region.

Main mining methods


Methods of mining in Russia

Depending on the type of fossil raw material, the forms in which it is contained, and the depth of its occurrence, various ways production

In Russia, two methods are mainly used - open and underground. The open-pit or open-pit mining method involves developing deposits by extracting useful ore using excavators, tractors and other equipment.

Before development begins, blasting operations are carried out, the rock is crushed, and in this form it is easier to mine and transport. Open pit mining is suitable for minerals that lie shallow underground.

Quarries whose depth reaches 600 m can no longer be developed. This method produces 90% of brown coal, 20% of hard coal, and about 70% of non-ferrous and ferrous metal ores. Many building materials and peat are located on the surface of the earth; they are extracted using quarry methods with complete mechanization of production processes.

Mining minerals such as gas and oil are extracted from the depths of the earth using wells, the depth of which sometimes reaches several kilometers. Gas through the well rises to the surface under its own energy, in the depths of the earth it accumulates and is held by high pressure, and rushes to the surface, since it is several times lower there.

During the initial development of a well, oil may gush out for some time and rise to the surface in this way. When the fountain stops, further production is carried out using gas lift or mechanical methods. The gas lift method involves downloading compressed gas, thus creating conditions for lifting oil. The mechanized method is most often used; it involves the use of pumps:

Minerals are extracted from groundwater and surface water, such as gas and oil
  • electric centrifugal;
  • electric screw;
  • electric diaphragm;
  • hydraulic piston.

Mining by mine or underground method is used in the case of deep occurrence of useful rock. The mine is a tunnel, the depth of which sometimes reaches several kilometers. This method is labor-intensive and quite expensive.

To ensure safe working conditions, extensive infrastructure and expensive equipment are required. The operation of mines is associated with great risks; rock falls occur quite often in Russia. However, underground mining methods have a less detrimental effect on environment, compared to career ones.

Some minerals are extracted from groundwater and surface water, such as gold, lithium, copper. Gold-bearing sands can be found on the banks of mountain rivers, swamps, lithium is found in groundwater ah in the form of simple connections. Copper can also precipitate from some groundwater by dissolving sulfur-containing compounds.

Production volumes

Despite the general economic downturn in 2015, growth rates were recorded in the mining industry. The total volume of mineral production in Russia increased by 1.3% compared to 2014. This was largely influenced by the discovery and development of new fields; since 2011, more than fifty of them have been developed.

In terms of oil production, Russia ranks second in the world, second only to Saudi Arabia. About 530 million tons are produced per year. There has been a steady increase in production volumes in this industry.

New fields increase resource potential, so in 2015 the increase in oil reserves amounted to 600 million tons, which is 20% more than production. In total, more than 80,000 million tons lie in already discovered oil fields on the territory of the Russian Federation; according to this indicator, Russia is in 8th place in the world ranking.

Gas production in 2015 increased by 6.2% compared to the previous year and amounted to 642 billion cubic meters. According to experts, the proven volumes of gas in the country are 43.30 trillion tons, this figure indicates the unconditional leadership of Russia, Iran is in second place, its reserves are estimated at 29.61 trillion tons.

Gold production volumes in the first half of 2015 amounted to 183.4 tons, and Russia is also among the world leaders in this mineral resource.

Video: Diamond mining

As a child, I dreamed of becoming a geologist. I wanted to know everything about the riches of the geosphere. It seemed that it was in the depths of the earth’s crust that all the secrets of the universe were hidden. Unfortunately, this profession passed me by. But children's curiosity still simmers.

The concept of "Minerals"

PI is the natural resources of the Earth, which people extract from the depths of the earth's crust or from its surface. These include oil, sand, gas, etc.

The earth's crust is formed by rocks, which consist of minerals. Minerals are natural bodies that are made up of atoms and molecules. These include quartz, salt, diamond and others.

Classification of minerals

Igneous rocks are brought to the surface of the earth's crust along with magma. Such minerals and rocks differ in density. These include: iron, copper and other ores.

Sedimentary rocks are found on the surface of the earth. They were formed during the long-term accumulation of elements or as a result of the destruction of mountains. These include, for example, limestone, sandstone, crushed stone.

Organic sedimentary rocks are formed from the remains of plants and animals that accumulate over many years. These include: shell rock, oil, etc.

By physical condition PIs are distinguished:

  • hard (gold);
  • liquid (mercury);
  • gaseous (hydrogen sulfide).

Depending on their use and composition, PIs are divided into ore and non-ore (construction and combustible).


Use of oil in everyday life

I have always been interested in what such a much-discussed fossil as oil gives us. It turns out that most household items consist of it. For example, in my apartment there is a TV, a toothbrush, a computer and a printer, plastic bags, synthetic clothing... All these items are made of plastic and contain “black gold” in their composition.

When refining oil, it is divided into many fractions. From these parts, at various stages of processing, fuel, cosmetics, plastics, etc. are obtained.


Minerals are not limitless! We must protect our planet from unwise use of natural resources!

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Since I live in a region rich coal deposits, I couldn’t help but be interested in the question of how coal was formed. The information that I found turned out to be very interesting, so I’ll tell you not only about what are minerals, but I will also describe in detail the process of coal formation.


What does the term "minerals" mean?

This term refers to things that are valuable to humans. minerals and rocks. Based on the nature of their origin, it is customary to distinguish the following types of these resources:

  • sedimentary- this group includes fossil fuels, for example, coal and oil;
  • igneous- metals represent this group;
  • metamorphic- for example, marble or limestone.

What is coal

Almost until the 70s of the last century, this type of fuel had the status of the most common energy carrier, however, it was later replaced by other types. Despite this, it is widely in demand, primarily in metallurgy, as the main resource for the production of cast iron. Like most other types of energy carriers, it is a modified substance of organic nature - remains of ancient plants. This process took place over millions of years through the influence of various factors.


How coal was formed

Most of the extracted resource belongs to the formation 300-350 million years ago when huge masses of organic matter accumulated under conditions complete absence oxygen. This process can be described as follows:

  • was formed at the beginning peat layer usually in wetlands;
  • Over time, the layer increased, which means pressure increased to the bottom;
  • the enormous pressure pushed out oxygen, which ultimately led to the formation compressed peat- hard coal.

As a rule, the greater the depth peat layers, the higher the pressure, and therefore the higher the quality of the coal seam. The following main types of this fossil are distinguished:

  • brown- for its formation, a sediment layer of up to a kilometer was required;
  • stone- in this case, the original substance experienced a pressure of 3 kilometers of sediment;
  • anthracite- pressure over 7 kilometers of sediment.

However, this does not mean that high-quality fuel lies at great depths; on the contrary, tectonic processes caused the valuable resource to rise to the surface, making it accessible to extraction.

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What do gold and coal have in common? It would seem that gold is an expensive metal from which beautiful jewelry is made. A sign of luxury and grace. And coal is a hard mineral, black and dirty. It is used as fuel. But there is one thing general concept, which combines these two objects - both of thembelong to mineral resources. Now I will explain everything in detail.


Useful Finds

What can be found in the depths of our earth? Sometimes almost on the very surface, and sometimes very deep, natural minerals and rocks are hidden from our eyes. They belong to minerals. They are widely used by people in various fields activities. May differ in properties and conditions. There are:

  • gaseous(inert gases and natural combustibles);
  • hard(peat, salt, ores, coal);
  • in liquid state (mineral water and oil).

Since ancient times, people began extract and use minerals. The first attempts to extract them began with the ancient Egyptians. Over the centuries, more and more new types of minerals have been explored, and since the 18th century, their extraction has significantly accelerated, and new deposits have been discovered. The development of the world of modern technology contributed to this.


One of methods how minerals are mined - open, in quarries. As a result, ravines are formed. Coal is mined in the mines, the depth can reach up to 1200 m. Oil is obtained fountain and pump method.

Not all natural resources exist in unlimited quantities. There are those that are renewed, and there are those that can end in our nature at a certain moment (for example, coal, oil). Therefore it is necessary to choose correct approaches to the process of extracting natural minerals and using modern technologies in searching for places of origin.


The most ancient metal

The most ancient metal considered gold. It is quite rare, which is why its price is high. The largest gold deposits are located in South Africa, the USA, also in China, Peru and Australia. Mined his methods of washing, amalgamation and cyanidation. There are large deposits of gold in Russia. The period of the “Gold Rush” is known in history. When Alaska was sold by Russia to America and large deposits of this precious metal were discovered in it.

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At one time I read the fairy tales of P. P. Bazhov. They discovered beauty for me Ural mountains, rich in minerals, and especially with gems. I also wanted to have my own malachite box. Later I learned about the Ural village of Murzinka - a world-famous deposit of semi-precious stones.


The term minerals

Organic and mineral formations found in the earth's crust are called minerals. Physical properties and chemical composition allow a person to use minerals for their needs, that is, to bring benefits. Mineral resources form three groups: metallic (iron, copper, tin), combustible (peat and coal, oil and gas), non-metallic (salt, clay, apatite).

Non-metallic minerals also include minerals from the gem group. These are rare and therefore very expensive stones.

Russian land is rich in gems; in its depths there are 27 types of valuable stones. Most of the deposits are located in the Urals.

The Urals are a storehouse of minerals

- a treasure trove of minerals. And if the Periodic Table contains almost 120 elements, then 50 of them are mined in the Urals. This is where most of the useful elements so necessary for the life of our country. The most important of them are:

  • ore, since most of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are mined from it. Most of all ore reserves are located in the Urals;
  • oil and gold also mined in the Urals. Their reserves are not so large (20% of all sources of this raw material in the country), but they have not yet been depleted. Moreover, scientists are finding new deposits of these fossils;
  • rhinestone. Many local businesses are busy processing it.

Precious and colored stones are a special group of rare and valuable minerals. is rightfully proud of its bright green emeralds and golden topazes, red-green alexandrites and soft lilac amethysts.


The products of local lapidary craftsmen are famous throughout the world. Yes, the village Murzinka became famous for its mines of gems: amethyst and tourmaline, beryl and blue topaz, which brought Murzinka world fame. A unique find was found here - topaz blue color, named “Victory”, weighing more than 43 kilograms! Now this unique mineral is in the State Conservation Service of Russia. And the Ural alexandrites are recognized as the best in the world! This is the rarest mineral. Therefore, its search, extraction and transportation are carried out under the strictest control. And alexandrite is famous for the fact that changes its normal green color (under artificial light) to purple-pink. And of course, the calling card of Ural gems is malachite.


A lot of malachite was found in copper mines. There was a time when its production amounted to several thousand poods a year! A huge piece of malachite weighing 250 tons was found in 1835.

That's how they are Ural gems, who brought world glory to the Urals and Russia!

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I am from Kuzbass, and, in my opinion, this sounds proud. My region specializes in mining. All the men in my family practiced and continue to practice their booty. Until recently, I only knew about coal, because Kuzbass – the coal capital. My acquaintance with various mineral resources began a year ago, after my husband changed his job and, in addition to coal, began to mine other minerals. He brought the most beautiful specimens home, and at that moment I decided to get acquainted with the minerals in more detail.


Definition of minerals

Minerals are rocks, and minerals, which find their application in national economy . From my own experience, I would like to note that the most beautiful of minerals are minerals.

There are types of minerals:

  • gas, this group includes methane, helium and gases;
  • liquid– mineral waters, oil;
  • hard, the most large group and it includes coal, salts, granite, ores, marble.

How minerals are mined

There are two methods of mining. Open and closed. Open pit mining is carried out in open pits, from where, by the way, my husband brings interesting specimens.


The closed method produces coal in mines. This is very dangerous look mining, but in our region closed mining is the most common.


The most beautiful minerals I have ever encountered

Granite. A hard, dense rock used in construction.


Quartz. It has a very diverse range of colors from white to black. It is used in optics, radio equipment, and electronic devices.


Copper. Ductile metal, used in electrical engineering, in the production of pipes, and in jewelry alloys.

There are many minerals that are mined from the depths of the Earth. All of them are extremely important because they allow you to get the things you need for a comfortable life. They make it possible to heat homes, eat, move through space at high speed, make wonderful decorations, and much more. During research, scientists discover very Interesting Facts about minerals that allow you to learn more about the secrets hidden in the underground depths.

  1. Coal is the most common fossil used as fuel.. Few people know that from a 20-meter layer of peat under pressure only a 2-meter layer of coal is formed. If a similar layer of dead vegetation lies at a depth of 6 km, then the coal seam will be only 1.5 m deep.
  2. Malachite – semiprecious stone, from which stunning jewelry is made. The largest stone that was recovered weighed 1.5 tons. Having discovered such a treasure, the miners presented it to Empress Catherine II. Later, the stone became an exhibit at the St. Petersburg Museum of the Mining Institute.

  3. Obsidian – volcanic glass. This material has a high density. It is formed under the influence of very high temperatures during an eruption of magma. Archaeologists were able to find evidence that the first surgical instruments were made from this material.

  4. Today, every person knows what oil is and how it occurs. The first theory of the origin of this mineral suggested that oil is nothing more than whale urine. Black gold began to be mined by collecting it from the surface of reservoirs. Nowadays, oil is pumped out from the depths of the Earth using pumping stations.

  5. Scientists continue to present new interesting facts about metals. So, gold has been recognized as one of the most flexible metals. It is even used to make sewing threads. One ounce of gold can produce a thread about 80 km long.

  6. Iron ore has been used by humans for a long time. Archaeologists have been able to prove that The production of the first objects from iron ore dates back to the 1st-13th centuries. BC. The inhabitants of Mesopotamia were the first to use this mineral.

  7. Sodium chloride or salt is mined in the greatest number . Despite the necessity of this mineral for human life, only 6% of it is used as food. To sprinkle roads during icy conditions, 17% salt is used. The lion's share of this mineral is used by industry and accounts for 77% of all production.

  8. The queen of metals, platinum, has an extremely interesting history.. In the 15th century it was discovered by Spanish travelers who arrived on the shores of Africa. After studying this material, its refractoriness was discovered. For this reason, platinum was considered unusable and was valued below the value of silver.

  9. Silver has long been famous for its bactericidal properties.. Even the warriors of ancient Rome used it for treatment. If a person suffered serious wounds in battle, then healers covered the injury sites with silver plates. After such procedures, the wounds healed quickly and without any complications.

  10. Marble has been used since ancient times for finishing rooms and creating various decorative elements.. This is due to the amazing hardness of the material and its wear resistance. Marble retains its original appearance for 150 years even when exposed to temperature, moisture or sunlight.

  11. Diamonds are recognized as the hardest minerals mined from the depths of the earth. In this case, a blow delivered with a hammer with great force can split the stone into small pieces.

  12. Uranium is a metal that is considered one of the heaviest chemical elements . IN uranium ore contains a negligible amount of pure metal. Uranium has 14 stages of transformation. All elements that are formed during the transformation are radioactive. Only lead, which is the final stage of transformation, is considered safe. It will take about a billion years to completely convert uranium into lead.

  13. Copper is the only metal that does not produce sparks when rubbed, so copper tools can be used in places where there is increased danger fire.

  14. You can constantly learn a lot about soil. Thus, scientists studied a common mineral resource - peat. They identified peculiar threads in it that are extremely durable. This discovery found its application in light industry. The first products made from peat threads were introduced in Holland. Peat is an excellent preservative. It preserves the remains that fell into it thousands of years ago. This allows scientists to learn interesting facts about the skeleton of a person who lived long before our days, and to examine the remains of already extinct animal species.

  15. Granite is known as a durable building material. But not everyone knows that it conducts sound much faster than air. The speed of sound waves traveling through granite is 10 times greater than passing through air.

Natural mineral substances used in the national economy are called minerals, and their accumulations in the depths or on the surface of the Earth are called deposits. Minerals are solid, liquid and gaseous. Based on their area of ​​use, they are divided into five groups. The first group consists of fuel and energy mineral resources(coal, oil, natural gas, peat, oil shale, uranium). The second includes ores of metals: ferrous (iron), non-ferrous (copper, aluminum, zinc, tin), rare and noble (vanadium, germanium, etc.). The third group is chemical raw materials: sulfur, potassium salts, apatites, phosphorites, etc. The fourth group is building materials, ornamental and precious stones (granite, marble, refractory raw materials, jasper, agate, diamond, etc.). Fifth - hydromineral minerals (underground fresh and mineralized waters).

In the bowels of the Earth there is a very large amount of coal - its estimated reserves are, according to some sources, 15 trillion. t. There are very large deposits of iron ore in the depths. There are large reserves of oil shale, peat and natural gas. The scale of mining is indicated by the following fact: for each inhabitant of our planet, on average, about 5-6 tons are mined annually.

IN last years The demand for various types of minerals is increasing. From different places, geologists report the discovery of new and new mineral deposits. Advances in engineering and technology make it possible to extract valuable substances from the poorest ores and the most inaccessible deposits.

Mineral reserves of the subsoil are not unlimited. And although nature can restore its strength and in the depths of the Earth there is a constant process of formation and accumulation of mineral wealth, the pace of this restoration is incommensurate with the current rate of use of the earth's resources.

In just one day, in various furnaces and power plants around the world, as much mineral fuel is burned as nature has created in the depths over many, many years. long years. Today, the total reserves of many minerals have been calculated. Taking into account the rate of their production, the approximate time frame within which they can be exhausted has been determined.

For some types of minerals, these periods are short, so the attitude towards mineral wealth should be very careful.

It is necessary to introduce integrated use of mineral resources everywhere.

With this method of using minerals, everything that is raised from the bowels of the Earth is subjected to complex processing at mining and processing and mining and metallurgical plants using various mechanical and physical-chemical processes. And at each stage of processing, more and more new elements are extracted. Wastes from one process serve as valuable raw materials for another.

In the Soviet Union there are already many examples of this complex method of mining and processing minerals. At non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises, along with 12 main non-ferrous metals, another 62 elements are simultaneously extracted from ore. Thus, together with copper and aluminum, silver, bismuth, platinum, and platinum group metals are obtained. Sulfur and helium are being extracted as a by-product from natural gas deposits, and rare metals are being extracted from coal deposits. Even waste rock that has to be brought to the surface to open up valuable deposits can be used to make building materials.

Mineral beneficiation. Mineral resources extracted from the depths, as a rule, cannot be immediately sent to metallurgical furnaces or to thermal power plants. The coal is clogged with pieces of sandstone, limestone, and clay; ores are a solid mixture of minerals and a variety of substances. Even in rich iron ore there is rarely more than 50% pure iron, and in copper, lead, tin, and zinc ores there is only a few percent or fractions of a percent of these essential metals. The process of isolating the most valuable component from minerals and freeing them from various impurities is called enrichment.

The process of ore enrichment begins in powerful crushers, where massive steel rods, cones or balls are used to grind and crush fossils, turning large pieces into small ones.

The second stage is sorting the ground minerals by size. Crushed ore and coal are sifted on vibrating sieves and sieves with “windows” of different sizes. Large pieces are sent again for crushing, the rest goes to the final stage of enrichment.

At the final stage, grains of valuable minerals are separated due to their special, unique properties. If they are heavier than others, the so-called gravitational method is used. Minerals of different densities are also separated in a centrifuge, for example, diamonds are separated from their less valuable companions. Many metal ores are enriched by magnetic separation, using the ability of metals to be attracted to a magnet. Electrical separation is based on the different ability of minerals to conduct electric current.

Each mineral has its own special color, luster, shape, coefficient of friction, and interacts differently with acids and alkalis. All this is used in the enrichment of various minerals.

The most common enrichment method is flotation (from the French flotation - swimming) - based on the difference in the wettability of substances with water. Substances that are well wetted are called hydrophilic, and substances that are not wetted by water are called hydrophobic. Hydrophobic substances collect air bubbles around themselves and rise to the surface. The operation of the flotation machine is based on this property. In its large tanks, crushed ore is mixed with water, to which special substances are added - foaming agents. Air is forced through this mixture. A huge amount of foam is formed - tiny air bubbles. They stick to particles of copper, silver or lead, but do not stick to grains of impurities. The waste rock sinks, and the necessary particles, although they are heavier, float up along with the foam. The main advantage of flotation is that it allows you to isolate any minerals contained in the ore.

  1. Minerals

    Minerals- mineral formations of the earth's crust, the chemical composition and physical properties of which allow them to be effectively used in the field of material production.

    Accumulations of minerals form deposits, and in large areas of distribution - regions, provinces and basins. There are solid, liquid and gaseous minerals.
    Minerals are found in the earth's crust in the form of accumulations of various types (veins, stocks, layers, nests, placers, etc.).
    Everything related to the extraction of minerals is called mining.

    Types of minerals

    The following types of minerals are distinguished by purpose:

    Combustible minerals(oil, natural gas, oil shale, peat, coal)
    Non-metallic minerals- building materials (limestone, sand, clay, etc.), building stones (granite), etc.
    Ore(ores of ferrous, non-ferrous and noble metals)
    Gemstone raw materials(jasper, rhodonite, agate, onyx, chalcedony, charoite, jade, etc.) and precious stones (diamond, emerald, ruby, sapphire).
    Hydromineral(underground mineral and fresh waters)
    Mining chemical raw materials(apatite, phosphates, mineral salts, barite, borates, etc.)
    Signs of minerals

    Some examples of prospecting signs of minerals, without dividing into direct and indirect, are:

    Minerals are satellites of ore deposits (for diamond - pyrope, for ore gold - quartz and pyrite, for Nizhny Tagil type platinum - chromium iron ore, etc.)
    Their presence is in transported debris, boulders, etc., found on slopes, in hollows, stream beds, etc.
    Direct presence in rock outcrops, workings, core.
    Increased content of their indicator elements in mineral springs
    Increased content of their indicator elements in vegetation

    When exploring a discovered deposit, pits are laid, ditches, cuts are made, wells are drilled, etc.
    Guide to the topic:

  2. Fossil fuel​


    ​

    Fossil fuel- these are oil, coal, oil shale, natural gas and its hydrates, peat and other combustible minerals and substances mined underground or in an open pit. Coal and peat are fuels formed as the remains of animals and plants accumulate and decompose. There are several conflicting hypotheses regarding the origin of oil and natural gas. Fossil fuels are non-renewable natural resource, as they accumulated over millions of years.

    Consumption rates​

    During the 18th century, the amount of coal produced increased by 4000%. By 1900, 700 million tons of coal were mined per year, then it was the turn of oil. Oil consumption has been growing for about 150 years and reached a plateau at the beginning of the third millennium. Currently, the world produces more than 87 million barrels per day. (About 5 billion tons per year)

    Environmental impact​

    Enterprises of the Russian fuel and energy complex account for half of the emissions of harmful substances into the air, more than a third of polluted wastewater, and a third of solid waste from the entire national economy. Planning environmental measures in areas of pioneering development of oil and gas resources is becoming particularly relevant.

    Click to enlarge​

    Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2), the greenhouse gas that is the largest contributor to global warming. Natural gas, the main part of which is methane, is also a greenhouse gas. The greenhouse effect of one molecule of methane is about 20 times stronger than that of a molecule of CO2, so from a climate point of view, burning natural gas is preferable to releasing it into the atmosphere.

  3. Nonmetallic materials​


    ​

    Non-metallic materials- sedimentary rocks, the extraction of which is carried out in open pits. These include: sand, soil, crushed stone, building stone (granite, etc.), limestone, clay and other minerals and mineral substances (table salt, phosphorites, sulfur, etc.).

    Classification​


    The classification of non-metallic materials is carried out according to several indicators, divided into:
    dense and porous materials;
    natural (sand, crushed stone, gravel) and artificial (concrete, expanded clay);
    large (with a grain size of 5 mm) and small (no more than 5 mm).

    Sand​


    Sand- sedimentary rock, as well as artificial material consisting of rock grains. Very often it consists of almost pure quartz mineral (the substance is silicon dioxide).
    The word "sand" is often used in the plural ("sands"), but the plural form has other meanings.

    Natural sand​


    ​

    Natural sand- a loose mixture of grains with a particle size of 0.10-5 mm, formed as a result of the destruction of hard rocks.
    Natural sands, depending on their genesis, can be alluvial, deluvial, marine, lacustrine, or aeolian. Sands resulting from the activity of reservoirs and watercourses have a more rounded, rounded shape.

    Heavy artificial sand​


    ​

    Heavy artificial sand- a loose mixture of grains obtained by crushing hard and dense rocks. The shape of the grains of crushed sand is acute-angled, and the surface is rough.

    Types of sand​


    In trade, sand is classified according to its place of origin and processing:
    river sand
    river sand     is construction sand extracted from river beds, characterized by a high degree of purification and the absence of foreign inclusions, clay impurities and pebbles.
    Quarry washed sand
    Quarry washed sand    - This is sand extracted from a quarry by washing with a large amount of water, as a result of which clay and dust particles are washed out of it.
    Quarry seeded sand
    Quarry seeded sand    - This is sifted sand extracted from a quarry, cleared of stones and large fractions. Quarry seeded sand is widely used in the production of mortar for masonry, plastering and foundation work.
    Construction sand
    According to GOST 8736-93, construction sand is an inorganic bulk material with a grain size of up to 5 mm, formed as a result of the natural destruction of rocks and obtained during the development of sand and sand-gravel deposits without or using special processing equipment.

    Application​


    Widely used in building materials, for the reclamation of construction sites, for sandblasting, in the construction of roads, embankments, in residential construction for backfilling, in the improvement of courtyard areas, in the production of mortar for masonry, plastering and foundation work, used for concrete production , in road construction. In the production of reinforced concrete products, high-strength concrete, as well as in the production of paving slabs, curbs, well rings, coarse sand (Mk 2.2-2.5) is used. Fine construction sand is used to prepare covering mortars. In addition, sand is the main component in the manufacture of glass.
    Construction river sand is quite widely used in various decorative (mixed with various dyes to obtain special structural coatings) and finishing works of the finished premises. It also acts as a component of asphalt concrete mixtures, which are used in the construction and laying of roads (including for the construction of airfields), as well as in water filtration and purification processes.
    Quartz sand is used for the manufacture of welding materials for special and general purposes.

    Radioactivity of sand​


    Almost all sands belong to class 1 in terms of radioactivity (the specific effective activity of natural radionuclides in them does not exceed 370 Bq/kg, the only exceptions being crushed sands), that is, they are radiation safe and suitable for all types of construction without restrictions.

  4. Ore
    ​

    Ore- a type of mineral resource, a natural mineral formation containing compounds of useful components (minerals, metals) in concentrations that make the extraction of these minerals economically feasible. Economic feasibility is determined by ore conditions. Along with native metals, there are metal ores (iron, tin, copper, zinc, nickel, etc.). - the main forms of natural occurrence of these minerals, suitable for industrial and economic use. There are metallic and non-metallic ore minerals; the latter include, for example, piezoquartz, fluorite, etc. The possibility of ore processing is determined by its reserves. The concept of ore changes as a result of technological progress; Over time, the range of ores and minerals used expands. There are different types of ores.

    Etymology​

    The word “ore” in Indo-European languages ​​originally meant the root “red” (cf. Dan. Rød, English. Red, French. Rouge, Ice. Rauður, etc.) In Slavic languages This word originally came to mean iron oxide because of its red color.




    Types of ores​


    Ore is poor- this is ore in which the content of a useful component (metal, mineral) is on the verge of standard; such ore requires beneficiation.
    Ore rich- this is such an ore that it is economically feasible to use it directly, without preliminary enrichment. Rich ore is often called ore in which the content of useful components (metal, mineral) is 2-3 times higher than the standard one.
    Swamp ore- formed by the deposition of brown iron ore (limonite) at the bottom of swamps in the form of concretions (beans), hard crusts and layers, see Legume ore.
    Bean ore- this is an ore that has a bean-like structure, indicating the participation of colloidal, sometimes biochemical, processes in its formation; It can be of iron, manganese, aluminum (bauxite), sedimentary and eluvial origin. Most often this term is used in one of the varieties of brown iron ore (limonite) ores of sedimentary origin, usually deposited at the bottom of lakes (lake ores) and swamps (swamp ores); they consist of small round or bean-shaped formations, often concentrically shell-like in composition, loose or cemented by brown iron ore or clayey matter. Depending on the texture, bean ore, pea ore, and powdered ore are distinguished. Legume ores of sedimentary origin usually occur in the form of layers, interlayers and lenses. Legume ores of eluvial origin have an irregular, often pocket-like occurrence.
    Breccia ore- with brecciated texture; the ore mineral can form either cement or breccia fragments.
    Chipmunk ore- local, Siberian name for banded lead-zinc ore from polymetallic deposits of Eastern Transbaikalia. Characterized by frequent alternation of thin stripes of sulfide minerals and carbonates. It is formed by selective replacement of crystalline limestones and banded dolomites with sphalerite and galena.
    Boulder ore- consisting of boulders or fragments of a useful component (for example, brown iron ore, bauxite, phosphorite) and loose barren host rock.
    Ore disseminated- consisting of a predominant, empty (host) rock in which ore minerals are more or less evenly distributed (interspersed) in the form of individual grains, clusters of grains and veinlets. Often such inclusions accompany large bodies of continuous ores along the edges, forming halos around them, and also form independent, often very large deposits, for example, deposits of porphyry copper (Cu) ores. synonym: Scattered ore.
    Galmein ore- secondary zinc ore, consisting mainly of calamine and smithsonite. Characteristic of the oxidation zone of zinc deposits in carbonate rocks.
    Pea ore- a variety of Bean ores.
    Sod ore- loose, sometimes cemented, partly porous formations, consisting of clayey formations of limonite with an admixture of other iron oxide (Fe) hydrates and a variable amount of iron compounds with phosphoric, humic and silicic acids. The composition of turf ore also includes sand and clay. It is formed by subsoil waters rising to the surface with the participation of microorganisms in swamps and wet meadows and represents the second horizon of swamp and meadow soils. Synonym: meadow ore.
    Nodular ore- represented by ore nodules. It is found among sedimentary iron (limonite), phosphorite and some other deposits.
    Cockade ore(ringed) - with a cockade texture.
    Complex ore- an ore with a complex composition, from which several metals or useful components are extracted or can be economically extracted, for example, copper-nickel ore, from which, in addition to nickel and copper, cobalt, platinum group metals, gold, silver, selenium can be extracted , tellurium, sulfur.
    Meadow ore- a synonym for the term turf ore.
    Massive ore- a synonym for the term solid ore.
    Metal ore- ore in which the useful component is any metal used by industry. Contrasts with non-metallic ores, such as phosphorus, barite, etc.
    Mylonitized ore- crushed and finely ground ore, sometimes with a parallel texture. It is formed in crushing zones and along thrust and fault planes.
    Mint ore- accumulations of small cake-shaped concretions of iron oxides or iron and manganese oxides at the bottom of lakes; used as iron ore. Coin ores are confined to lakes of the taiga zone in areas of ancient eroded (destroyed) igneous rocks and widespread flat-undulating terrain with many swamps.
    Lake ore- iron (limonite) ore deposited at the bottom of lakes. Similar to swamp ores. Distributed in lakes of northern Russia. See legume ore.
    Oxidized ore- ore of the near-surface part (oxidation zone) of sulfide deposits, resulting from the oxidation of primary ores.
    Oolitic ore- consisting of small round concentric shell-like or radial-radiant formations, the so-called. oolites. A common structural type of iron ores, in which the ore minerals are silicates from the chlorite group (chamoisite, thuringite) or siderite, hematite, limonite, sometimes magnetite, often present together, sometimes with a predominance of one of these minerals. The oolitic composition is also characteristic of the ores of many bauxite deposits.
    Sedimentary ferruginous ore- . Sedimentary ferruginous rock
    Smallpox ore- a type of disseminated magnetite ores in syenite rocks in the Urals. Local term.
    Primary ore- not subject to later changes.
    Recrystallized ore- undergone transformation during the processes of metamorphism mineral composition, textures and structures without changing the chemical composition.
    Polymetallic ore- containing lead, zinc and usually copper, and as permanent impurities silver, gold and often cadmium, indium, gallium and some other rare metals.
    Banded ore- consisting of thin layers (strips) that differ significantly in composition, grain size or quantitative ratio of minerals.
    Porphyry copper ore (or porphyry copper)- formation of sulfide disseminated and veinlet-disseminated copper and molybdenum-copper ores in highly silicified hypabyssal moderately acidic granitoid and subvolcanic porphyry intrusions and their host effusive, tuffogenic and metasomatic rocks. The ores are represented by pyrite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, less commonly bornite, fahlores, and molybdenite. The copper content is usually low, on average 0.5-1%. In the absence or very low molybdenum content, they are developed only in zones of secondary sulfide enrichment, with a copper content of 0.8-1.5%. High molybdenum contents make it possible to develop copper ores of the primary zone. Due to the large size of the ore deposits, porphyry ores are one of the main industrial types of copper and molybdenum ores.
    Naturally alloyed ore- laterite iron ore with a higher than usual content of nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium and other metals, which impart increased quality - alloying - to the cast iron smelted from such ores and its processing products (iron, steel).
    Radioactive ore- contains metals of radioactive elements (uranium, radium, thorium)
    Collapsible ore- from which, by manual disassembly or elementary enrichment (screening, washing, winnowing, etc.), a useful component can be isolated in a pure or highly concentrated form.
    Ore scattered- synonymous with the term disseminated ore.
    Ore ore- 1. Normal average ore of a given deposit, 2. Ore in the form in which it comes from the mine workings before mining or beneficiation. 3. Ordinary ore as opposed to the concept of collapsible ore.
    Sooty ore- finely dispersed loose masses of black color, consisting of secondary oxides (tenorite) and copper sulfides - covellite and chalcocite, formed in the zone of secondary sulfide enrichment, and representing rich copper ore.
    Sulfur ore- a rock containing native or chemically bound sulfur and suitable as a raw material for the sulfur industry. The main sources of sulfuric ore are deposits of native sulfur (see Sulfuric rock). Sulfur ore is divided into 3 groups: poor - usually non-industrial, with a sulfur content of 8-9% or less; medium - with a sulfur content of 10-25%, requires preliminary enrichment; rich - with a sulfur content of more than 25%, does not require enrichment. Among other sources of sulfur, sulfide ores and industrial gases rank first.
    Solid ore- consists almost all (or most) of ore minerals, as opposed to disseminated ore. Syn. massive ore.
    Ore medium- with an average content of useful components. It should include ore, the content of the useful component in which is equal to or 10-50% higher than the standard content (standard).
    Secondary ore- syn. term supergene ore.
    Supergene ore- syn. term supergene ore.
    Ore (minerals) hypogene- formed by endogenous geological processes. It is contrasted with supergenic minerals and ores of exogenous origin. Syn. ore (minerals) endogenous.
    Supergene ore (minerals)- formed as a result of surface (exogenous) geological processes; is contrasted with hypogene ore, which has an endogenous deep origin. Syn: supergene ore, secondary ore.
    The ore is poor- with a very low metal content, usually non-industrial (off-balance sheet) at modern conditions development.
    Uranium resin ore- mineral, redundant synonym for uraninite
    Ore ore- pieces (pieces) of ordinary rich ore that does not require beneficiation.
    Endogenous ore- (ores) endogenous.

  5. Gemstone raw materials​

    Gemstone raw materials- jewelry, jewelry-ornamental and ornamental stones used for the production of jewelry and artistic products of applied value. Gemstone raw materials sometimes include collectible decorative materials.
    Technical conditions and standards determine the minimum size and grade of gemstone raw materials. High quality indicators are:
    transparency;
    bright clean color;
    beautiful drawing;
    absence of cracks and foreign inclusions;
    stone size.

    Jasper
    ​

    Jasper(Greek ἴασπις - variegated or speckled stone) - cryptocrystalline rock, composed mainly of quartz, chalcedony and pigmented with impurities of other minerals (epidote, actinolite, chlorite, mica, pyrite, oxides and hydroxides of iron and manganese), semi-precious ornamental stone. Some rocks traditionally classified as jasper are rich in feldspar; these are either gray quartz-feldspathic hornfels or acidic volcanic rocks (porphyry). Among the rocks classified as jasper, there are also almost quartz-free rocks rich in garnet (up to 20% andradite). In ancient times, jaspers meant transparent colored (mostly green) chalcedony.
    Thus, the chemical composition of jasper is approximately as follows: SiO2 80-95%; Al2O3 and Fe2O3 up to 15%; CaO 3-6% (etc.).
    Jasper is characterized by a wide variety of textures: massive, spotted, banded, breccia, filamentous, etc. The presence of many finely dispersed and unevenly distributed impurities determines the variety and variegation of the color of the rock. Single-color jaspers are rare.
    In ancient times, jasper was used to make signets and amulets that supposedly protected against visual impairment and drought. Nowadays, it is a popular material for artistic stone-cutting products, cabochons, and stone mosaics. When grinding and polishing, care is required: ribbon jaspers tend to disintegrate along the boundaries of the layers.
    In Russia, jasper was very popular under Catherine II, who developed stone-cutting and contributed to the creation of several large factories for processing jasper. Many works of stone-cutting art from that time are now kept in the Hermitage (“Queen of Vases”).

    Place of Birth​

    The most famous Russian deposits of ornamental jasper are located in the Southern Urals, in the region of Miass and Orsk (the Mount Polkovnik deposit), in Altai in the Zmeinogorsk region (Ridder jasper), in the basins of the Charysh and Bukhtarma rivers. There are also deposits in France, Germany, USA, and India.

    Varieties ​

    Jaspers have received numerous trade names depending on color, pattern, deposit or composition: agate jasper (or jasper agate); Egyptian jasper (“Nile flint”); ribbon jasper (used for gems); basanite (a black fine-grained jasper-like volcanic rock from North Carolina, USA, which is used as a touchstone for determining the assay of precious metals by the color of the trait); “bloody jasper”, landscape jasper (with landscape design); Nunkirchen jasper (grayish-brown, very fine-grained; named after a deposit in the Hunsrück mountains, Germany); jasper colored with Prussian blue, called German or Swiss lapis, serves as an imitation of lapis lazuli; plasma (dark green, uniformly fine-grained), prazem (green jasper or an ornamental stone from the quartz group - green solid quartz), silex (with brown and red spots), irnimite (blue jasper - a characteristic feature is blue veins and spots in cherry, orange, gray jasper-like rocks. Found in the northwestern spurs of the Taikan Range in the basins of the Ir and Nimi rivers (Khabarovsk Territory))

    Classification of jasper​



    Jasper​

    Homogeneous jaspers. They are widespread and represent sedimentary-metamorphic formations, practically unaffected by recrystallization processes. Among homogeneous jaspers, wax (reddish-gray-brown) jaspers predominate most. Examples: grayish-green jaspers of the Kalkan deposit, Kushkuldinskoe, brownish-red Anastasevskoe deposit, gray-blue Muldakaevskoe deposit, red (waxing wax) jaspers of the Crimea (Fiolent deposit).
    Banded. The peculiarity is the alternation of differently colored layers and stripes, ranging in thickness from a millimeter to several centimeters. Examples are Revnevskaya jasper (Altai, Mount Revnevaya), Kushkuldinskaya jasper.
    Variegated. They have the greatest variety of textures. Completely recrystallized rocks with grain size up to tenths of a millimeter, main composition: quartz, hematite and magnetite, garnet. The specific composition of jasper depends on the deposit. Examples: Orsk jaspers (Orsk, Mount Colonel).
    Types of textures:
    Breccia texture - vein quartz is developed, which cements the clastic material.
    Brecciform - there is no clear boundary between the clastic material and the cementing quartz.
    Fluid - formed by train-like segregations of magnetite, garnet, hematite among the quartz mass.
    Calico - the structure of such jasper is micrograined, sometimes glassy, ​​against its background there are developed vein formations of coarser-grained quartz, sometimes fine-fibered chalcedony.
    Concentric texture.
    Mottled texture.

    Jasper-shaped quartzites​

    Jasper-shaped quartzites- differ from jasper by greater recrystallization of the main mass, a coarser-grained composition and characteristic mineral impurities. They are characterized by strong fracturing and abundant admixture of ore minerals. Brightly colored massive quartzites with complex patterns are very similar to plain and spotted jaspers. The textures of quartzites are divided into: uniform, spotted, banded and unclear banded.

    Irnimit​

    Irnimite (lilac jasper)- represents bright blue veins and spots unevenly distributed in a cherry-gray, grayish-orange mass. It is characterized by abundant inclusions of alkaline amphibole and manganese minerals. Basic textures: Irnimite cherry rhodonito-like - formed by unevenly distributed intersecting veins of blue and brown-black color. Irnimite orange-gray- lighter heterogeneous color varying from bluish to orange-gray.

    Jasper-like rocks
    ​

    Jasper-like rocks- rocks of feldspathic-quartz composition, formed as a result of post-volcanic, regional-metamorphic and contact-metasomatic processes. They have a wide range of colors and textures, with strong carbonation or chloritization. Main jasper-like rocks:
    Jasper-like tuffs- fine-grained homogeneous formations, colored greenish, yellow, pink, brown and lilac-gray, as well as clearly striped varieties with alternating dark and light-colored stripes. An example of jasper-shaped tuffs of the Crimea - Routes.
    Jasper porphyry- igneous formations characterized by feldspathic composition and fine-grained groundmass. They have a porphyritic, fluid, sometimes banded texture and beautiful color. A typical example: “spear jasper” (Korgon deposit).

    Jasperoids​

    Jasperoids- post-volcanic siliceous formations, rock-forming mineral - chalcedony with a characteristic microfibrous, spherulitic composition. The typical composition of jasperoids is iron hydroxides and sometimes hematite. Pomegranate is completely missing. Varieties: Jasper agates- massive, differently colored rocks with a predominance of gray, yellowish and brownish tones. Something like an intermediate formation between jaspers and agates. Texture varieties: uniform, striped, spotted. Jasper-spherophyres- massive clear- or unclearly banded rocks (so-called yellow jasper). They differ from jasper agates in their more uniform structure and smaller spherulite size. The color is caused by limonite.

  6. Rhodonite
    ​

    Rhodonite(from ancient Greek ῥόδον - rose) - a mineral, manganese silicate, formed under special conditions at the contact of magma with sedimentary rocks rich in manganese. Isolations of pure, mineral rhodonite are small, and in stone cutting, rhodonite rock is used - Orlets, which consists of large quantities various manganese minerals. The color of the eagle is pink, cherry-pink or crimson, sometimes turning brownish. Despite its general opacity, this stone has a pleasant translucency, giving it depth and a special richness of tones. In the solid mass of the eagle there are unusually beautiful “nests”, bright red in color, reminiscent of ruby. Outwardly it is also similar to thulite.

    ​

    Rhodonite is an ornamental stone, in which, in addition to the mineral of the same name, there are black dendrites and veins of manganese hydroxides and oxides, brown areas of bustamite, fibrous inesite and other inclusions that give the stone a high decorative quality. The Hermitage houses many artistic objects made from rhodonite by Russian masters of the 19th century.

    Rhodonite was used to decorate the columns of the Mayakovskaya station of the Moscow metro.

  7. Agate
    ​

    Agate- the mineral, a cryptocrystalline variety of quartz, is a fine-fibrous aggregate of chalcedony with a layered texture and a banded color distribution. Jewelers also call agate varieties of chalcedony without obvious layering, but with various inclusions that create a specific pattern: moss agate, star agate and others.

    Name ​


    The famous ancient scientist Pliny the Elder believed that the name comes from the Achates River (ancient Greek Ἀχάτης) in Sicily (possibly modern Karabi or Dirillo), another interpretation is from the Greek “ἀγαθός” - kind, good, happy. Most often, the agate pattern resembles an eye. According to one of the ancient legends, this is the eye of a heavenly white eagle, which, after a battle with a black sorcerer, fell to Earth and became stone. And his eye continues to look at people, separating good deeds from evil. Agate is also called the Eye of the Creator.

    Origin of agates
    ​

    The agates formed slowly under conditions that allowed periodic chemical reactions associated with diffusion and supersaturation of silicon compounds. Agate zones can be up to 1.5 microns thick.

    Varieties
    ​

    • Bastion agate (the intersections of layers and healed secondary cracks form a pattern reminiscent of images of city landscapes or bastions)
    • Brazilian agate (with thin concentric layers);
    • Eye agate;
    • Blue agate (sapphirine)
    • Black agate (“magic agate”)
    • Moss agate (dendritic - with tree-like inclusions of iron or manganese oxides)
    • Woody agate
    • Disc agate
    • Star agate
    • Iridescent agate

      Place of Birth​

      Deposits are numerous, found in both igneous and sedimentary rocks.

      Known in large quantities in the Urals (Magnitogorsk, Kamensk-Uralsky), the Ola plateau (Magadan region), in Chukotka, in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Timansky Ridge, Kaninsky Ridge), in the Moscow region (in the Prioksky district, - Golutvin and near the village . Staraya Sitnya) - Russia. Also in Akhaltsikhe (Georgia), Ijevan (Armenia), Adrasman (Tajikistan), Minas Gerais (Brazil). Large placers are in Mongolia, Uruguay, India (Deccan Plateau). In Crimea, agates as a secondary deposit are distributed throughout the basin of the Alma and Bodrak rivers. The primary deposits of Crimea are the upper reaches of the Alma River and the Kara-Dag volcanic group.

  8. Onyx​


    ​

    Onyx(ancient Greek ὄνυξ - sadness) - a mineral, a chalcedony (fibrous) variety of quartz, in which minor impurities create plane-parallel colored layers. The banded variety of marble is often called Mexican onyx or Algerian onyx.

    Color - brown with white and black patterns, red-brown, brown-yellow, honey, white with yellowish or pinkish layers. Onyx is especially characterized by plane-parallel layers different color.

    Sardonyx is a parallel-banded variety of fiery carnelian, orange-red, sometimes almost red-black.

    History, cultural studies
    ​

    Onyx is one of the “Bible Stones”. It is known from the Bible that the breastplate of the High Priest, in which he worshiped Jehovah, was decorated with twelve colored stones, among which was onyx. By the way, the very name “confidant” is somewhat inaccurate. According to Rebbenu Bachya, the word Shoham in Exodus 28:20 means “Onyx” and is the stone on the richly embroidered robe of the Jewish priests in ancient times (Ephod), a gift from Joseph (there were two stones on the shoulders of the robe Shoham).

    Location​

    The best chalcedony onyx comes from the Arabian Peninsula, India, Brazil, Uruguay, and the USA; in Russia it is mined in small quantities in Chukotka, Kolyma, and the Primorsky Territory.

    It received its name from the ancient Greek city of Chalcedon (in Asia Minor).

    Stone discoveries​

    IN Ancient Greece The art of mining and processing gems has risen to unprecedented heights. At first, all the stones were of imported origin - sometimes entire wars were started for the sake of taking possession of rich semi-precious mines. That is why the opening in the city of Chalcedon on the coast was so significant. Sea of ​​Marmara a new precious stone, whose color palette seemed to contain all the richness of colors. The stone was called chalcedony, and this discovery marked the beginning of the creation of amazing stone jewelry - gems or cameos, carved three-dimensional images on stone cabochons. Usually blue, orange and red chalcedony were used for these purposes - in general, there are more than a hundred varieties of stone today, and each has its own name.

    charoitite).

    It has a very beautiful lilac color of various shades. The lilac color is usually attributed to manganese impurities.

    Place of Birth​

    The world's only deposit of charoite is located at the junction of Yakutia and Irkutsk region, on the watershed of the Chara River and the Tokko River. For the first time, blocks with purple minerals were found by geologist V. G. Ditmar in 1948, during a geological survey, and conditionally called them cummingtonite shale. The deposit itself was found in 1973 by Yu. A. Alekseev and Yu. G. Rogov. In the early 1970s, a comprehensive study of the deposit began. The deposit discovered by Soviet geologists is unique: not only have no commercial deposits of such rocks been found in the world, but deposits containing single grains of charoite have also not been discovered. The name of the new mineral was approved in 1977.

    The deposit is located in the northwestern part of the Aldan shield, at the southern end of the Udzhin-Vilyui paleorift. total area The distribution of charoite rocks is about 10 km2. The age of the rocks is 107 million years.

    Amazing mineral Chalcedony

    This mineral carries an amazing story. Rob Lavinsky of Arkenstone brought this unique mineral to market and wanted to sell it for $5,000. The sample that Lavinsky decided to sell, in his words, is Chalcedony from chrysocolla stalactites, measuring 9 x 7 x 6 cm. This mineral was originally found by Frank Valenzuela back in the 1960s in a mine in Arizona, USA.

    ​

    This mineral is a rock of quartz covered with chrysocolla stalactites. It is amazing in that part of it glows when the lights are off. A mineral is a natural substance that is solid and stable at room temperature. Chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica, consisting of very small aggregates of the minerals quartz and morganite. The standard chemical structure of Calcedonia (based on the chemical structure of quartz) is SiO2 (silicon dioxide). Calcedony has a waxy luster and can be translucent or transparent. It can have a wide range of colors, but most often they are found in white, gray, and blue-gray tones.



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