What are the results of the Crimean War. Crimean War: briefly about the causes, main events and consequences
Causes of the Crimean War
The Eastern question has always been relevant for Russia. After the Turks captured Byzantium and established Ottoman rule, Russia remained the most powerful Orthodox state in the world. Nicholas 1, the Russian emperor, sought to strengthen Russian influence in the Middle East and the Balkans, supporting the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples for liberation from Muslim rule. But these plans threatened Great Britain and France, who also sought to increase their influence in the Middle East region. Among other things, Napoleon 3, the then Emperor of France, simply needed to switch the attention of his people from his own unpopular person to the more popular war with Russia at that time.
The reason was found quite easily. In 1853, another dispute arose between Catholics and Orthodox Christians over the right to repair the dome of the Bethlehem Church on the site of the Nativity of Christ. The decision had to be made by the Sultan, who, at the instigation of France, decided the issue in favor of the Catholics. The demands of Prince A.S. Menshikov, Ambassador Extraordinary of Russia on the right of the Russian Emperor to patronize Orthodox subjects Turkish Sultan were rejected, after which Russian troops occupied Wallachia and Moldavia, and the Turks responded to the protest by refusing to leave these principalities, citing their actions as a protectorate over them in accordance with the Treaty of Adrianople.
After some political manipulations on the part of European states in alliance with Turkey, the latter declared war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853.
At the first stage, while Russia was dealing with only the Ottoman Empire, it was victorious: in the Caucasus (battle of Bashkadiklyar), Turkish troops suffered a crushing defeat, and the destruction of 14 ships of the Turkish fleet near Sinop became one of the brightest victories of the Russian fleet.
Entry of England and France into the Crimean War
And then “Christian” France and England intervened, declaring war on Russia on March 15 (27), 1854 and capturing Evpatoria in early September. The Parisian Cardinal Cibourg described their seemingly impossible alliance as follows: “The war into which France entered into with Russia is not a political war, but a holy war, ... a religious one. ... the need to drive away the heresy of Photius... This is the recognized goal of this new crusade...” Russia could not resist the united forces of such powers. Both internal contradictions and insufficient technical equipment of the army played a role. Besides, Crimean War moved on to other directions. Turkey's allies in the North Caucasus - Shamil's troops - were stabbed in the back, Kokand opposed the Russians in Central Asia (however, they were unlucky here - the battle for Fort Perovsky, where for each Russian there were 10 enemies or more, led to the defeat of the Kokand troops) .
There were also battles in the Baltic Sea - on the Alan Islands and the Finnish coast, and in the White Sea - for Kola, the Solovetsky Monastery and Arkhangelsk, there was an attempt to take Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. However, all these battles were won by the Russians, which forced England and France to see a more serious opponent in Russia and take the most decisive actions.
Defense of Sevastopol in 1854-1855
The outcome of the war was decided by the defeat of Russian troops in the defense of Sevastopol, the siege of which by coalition forces lasted almost a year (349 days). During this time, too many unfavorable events happened for Russia: the talented military leaders Kornilov, Istomin, Totleben, Nakhimov died, and on February 18 (March 2), 1855, the All-Russian Emperor, the Tsar of Poland and Grand Duke Finnish Nicholas 1. On August 27 (September 8), 1855, Malakhov Kurgan was taken, the defense of Sevastopol became meaningless, and the next day the Russians left the city.
Defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856
After the capture of Kinburn by the French in October and the note from Austria, which had hitherto observed armed neutrality together with Prussia, the further conduct of the war by a weakened Russia made no sense.
On March 18 (30), 1856, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, which imposed on Russia the will of the European states and Turkey, which prohibited the Russian state from having a navy, took away the Black Sea bases, prohibited the strengthening of the Åland Islands, abolished the protectorate over Serbia, Wallachia and Moldova, and forced an exchange Kars to Sevastopol and Balaklava, and stipulated the transfer of Southern Bessarabia to the Moldavian Principality (pushing back the Russian borders along the Danube). Russia was exhausted by the Crimean War, its economy was in great disarray.
Crimean War 1853-1856, also Eastern War - war between Russian Empire and a coalition consisting of the British, French, Ottoman Empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in Crimea.
By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, and only direct military assistance Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued (see. eastern question). These factors led to the emergence of ideas among the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s regarding the separation of the Balkan possessions Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from Black Sea coast Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France Napoleon III, although he did not share the British plans to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.
During a diplomatic conflict with France over control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.
During the ensuing hostilities, the Allies managed, using the technical backwardness of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to successfully land an airborne corps in the Crimea, inflict a series of defeats on the Russian army, and after a year siege capture southern part Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the peace terms imposed by the Allies. The humiliating Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856, required Russia to return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia, the mouth of the Danube River and the Caucasus; the empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, proclaimed neutral waters; Russia stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea, and much more.
Results of the war
On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.
Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military vessels in peacetime), with a ban on Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have military fleets and arsenals there.
Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldova.
Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia granted to it by the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace of 1774 and the exclusive protection of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands.
During the war, the participants in the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent Russia from strengthening in the Balkans and deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.
The mid-19th century for the Russian Empire was marked by an intense diplomatic struggle for the Black Sea straits. Attempts to resolve the issue diplomatically failed and even led to conflict. In 1853, the Russian Empire went to war against the Ottoman Empire for dominance in the Black Sea straits. 1853-1856, in short, was a clash of interests of European states in the Middle East and the Balkans. Leading European states formed an anti-Russian coalition, which included Türkiye, Sardinia and Great Britain. The Crimean War of 1853-1856 covered large territories and stretched for many kilometers. Active fighting were carried out in several directions at once. The Russian Empire was forced to fight not only directly in the Crimea, but also in the Balkans, the Caucasus and the Far East. The clashes on the seas - the Black, White and Baltic - were also significant.
Causes of the conflict
Historians define the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 in different ways. So, British scientists main reason The war is considered an unprecedented increase in the aggressiveness of Nicholas Russia, which the emperor led to in the Middle East and the Balkans. Turkish historians identify the main cause of the war as Russia’s desire to establish its dominance over the Black Sea straits, which would make the Black Sea an internal reservoir of the empire. The dominant causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 are illuminated by Russian historiography, which argues that the conflict was prompted by Russia's desire to improve its shaky position in the international arena. According to most historians, a whole complex of cause-and-effect events led to the war, and each of the participating countries had its own prerequisites for the war. Therefore, until now, scientists in the current conflict of interests have not come to a common definition of the cause of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Conflict of interests
Having examined the causes of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, let us move on to the beginning of hostilities. The reason for this was the conflict between Orthodox and Catholics over control of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which was under the jurisdiction of the Ottoman Empire. Russia's ultimatum to hand over the keys to the temple caused a protest from the Ottomans, actively supported by France and Great Britain. Russia, not accepting the failure of its plans in the Middle East, decided to switch to the Balkans and introduced its units into the Danube principalities.
Progress of the Crimean War 1853-1856.
It would be advisable to divide the conflict into two periods. The first stage (November 1953 - April 1854) was the Russian-Turkish conflict itself, during which Russia’s hopes for support from Great Britain and Austria were not justified. Two fronts were formed - in Transcaucasia and Crimea. Russia's only significant victory was the Sinop naval battle in November 1853, during which the Turkish Black Sea fleet was defeated.
and the battle of Inkerman
The second period lasted until February 1856 and was marked by the struggle of the alliance of European states with Turkey. The landing of Allied troops in Crimea forced Russian troops move deeper into the peninsula. The only impregnable citadel was Sevastopol. In the fall of 1854, the brave defense of Sevastopol began. The incompetent command of the Russian army hindered rather than helped the city’s defenders. For 11 months, sailors under the leadership of Nakhimov P., Istomin V., Kornilov V. repelled enemy attacks. And only after it became impractical to hold the city, the defenders, leaving, blew up weapons warehouses and burned everything that could burn, thereby thwarting the plans of the allied forces to take possession of the naval base.
Russian troops attempted to divert the attention of the allies from Sevastopol. But they all turned out to be unsuccessful. Clash near Inkerman, offensive to the Evpatoria region, the battle on the Black River did not bring Russian army glory, but showed its backwardness, outdated weapons and inability to properly conduct military operations. All these actions brought Russia's defeat in the war closer. But it is worth noting that the allied forces also suffered. By the end of 1855, the forces of England and France were exhausted, and there was no point in transferring new forces to the Crimea.
Caucasian and Balkan fronts
The Crimean War of 1853-1856, which we tried to briefly describe, also covered the Caucasian front, where events developed somewhat differently. The situation there was more favorable for Russia. Attempts to invade Transcaucasia were unsuccessful. And Russian troops were even able to advance deep into the Ottoman Empire and capture the Turkish fortresses of Bayazet in 1854 and Kara in 1855. The Allied actions in the Baltic and White Seas and in the Far East did not have significant strategic success. And they rather depleted the military forces of both the allies and the Russian Empire. Therefore, the end of 1855 was marked by the virtual cessation of hostilities on all fronts. The warring parties sat down at the negotiating table to sum up the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856.
Completion and results
Negotiations between Russia and the allies in Paris ended with the conclusion of a peace treaty. Under pressure internal problems, the hostile attitude of Prussia, Austria and Sweden, Russia was forced to accept the demands of the allies to neutralize the Black Sea. The ban on establishing naval bases and fleets deprived Russia of all the achievements of previous wars with Turkey. In addition, Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Åland Islands and was forced to give control of the Danube principalities to the allies. Bessarabia was transferred to the Ottoman Empire.
In general, the results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. were ambiguous. The conflict pushed the European world towards a total rearmament of its armies. And this meant that the production of new weapons was intensifying and the strategy and tactics of combat operations were radically changing.
Having spent millions of pounds sterling on the Crimean War, it led the country's budget to complete bankruptcy. Debts to England forced the Turkish Sultan to agree to freedom of religious worship and equality of all, regardless of nationality. Great Britain dismissed the Aberdeen cabinet and formed a new one led by Palmerston, which abolished the sale of officer ranks.
The results of the Crimean War of 1853-1856 forced Russia to turn to reforms. Otherwise, it could slide into the abyss of social problems, which, in turn, would lead to a popular revolt, the result of which no one could predict. The experience of the war was used to carry out military reform.
The Crimean War (1853-1856), the defense of Sevastopol and other events of this conflict left significant trace in history, literature and painting. Writers, poets and artists in their works tried to reflect all the heroism of the soldiers who defended the Sevastopol citadel, and the great significance of the war for the Russian Empire.
Russia, the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Sardinia took part in the Crimean War. Each of them had its own calculations in this military conflict.
For Russia, the regime of the Black Sea straits was of paramount importance. In the 30-40s of the 19th century. Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded with Turkey. Through it, the straits were closed to foreign warships, and Russia received the right to freely transport its warships through them. In the 40s of the XIX century. the situation has changed. Based on a series of agreements with European states, the straits for the first time came under international control and were closed to all navies. As a result, the Russian fleet found itself locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military power, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its positions in the Middle East and the Balkans.
The Ottoman Empire wanted to regain the territories lost as a result Russian-Turkish wars late XVIII - first half of the 19th century V.
England and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive it of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula.
The pan-European conflict in the Middle East began in 1850, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic clergy in Palestine over who would own the Saints.
places in Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The dispute between the clergy escalated into a confrontation between two European states. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent between Russia and Emperor Nicholas I personally. A special representative of the Tsar, Prince A. S. Mesnshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to achieve privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right of patronage for Orthodox subjects of Turkey. The failure of A.S. Menshikov’s mission was a foregone conclusion. The Sultan was not going to give in to Russian pressure, and the defiant, disrespectful behavior of her envoy only aggravated conflict situation. Thus, a seemingly private, but for that time important, given the religious feelings of people, dispute about Holy Places became the reason for the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish, and subsequently the pan-European war.
Nicholas I took an irreconcilable position, relying on the power of the army and the support of some European states (England, Austria, etc.). But he miscalculated. The Russian army numbered more than 1 million people. However, as it turned out during the war, it was imperfect, primarily in technical terms. Its weapons (smoothbore guns) were inferior to the rifled weapons of Western European armies. The artillery is also outdated. The Russian navy was predominantly sailing, while the European navies were dominated by steam-powered ships. There was no established communication. This did not make it possible to provide the theater of military operations with a sufficient amount of ammunition and food. human replenishment. The Russian army could successfully fight the Turkish one, but it was not able to resist the united forces of Europe.
Progress of hostilities
To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops were sent to Moldova and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan declared war on Russia in October 1853. He was supported by England and France. Austria took a position of “armed neutrality.” Russia found itself in complete political isolation.
The history of the Crimean War is divided into two stages
First: the Russian-Turkish campaign itself was conducted with varying success from November 1853 to April 1854. Second (April 1854 - February 1856): Russia was forced to fight against a coalition of European states.
The main event of the first stage was the Battle of Sinop (November 1853). Admiral P.S. Nakhimov defeated the Turkish fleet in Sinop Bay and suppressed coastal batteries. This activated England and France. They declared war on Russia. The Anglo-French squadron appeared in the Baltic Sea and attacked Kronstadt and Sveaborg. English ships entered the White Sea and bombarded the Solovetsky Monastery. A military demonstration was also held in Kamchatka.
The main goal of the joint Anglo-French command was the capture of Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the Allies began landing an expeditionary force in the Evpatoria area. Battle of the Alma River in September
1854 Russian troops lost. By order of Commander A.S. Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol and retreated to Bakhchisarai. At the same time, the garrison of Sevastopol, reinforced by sailors of the Black Sea Fleet, was actively preparing for defense. It was headed by V. A. Kornilov and P. S. Nakhimov.
In October 1854, the Allies besieged Sevastopol. The fortress garrison showed unprecedented heroism. Particularly famous were admirals V.L. Kornilov, P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin, military engineer E.I. Totleben, artillery lieutenant general S.A. Khrulev, many sailors and soldiers: I. Shevchenko, F. Samolatov, P. Koshka and others.
The main part of the Russian army undertook diversionary operations: the battle of Inksrman (November 1854), the attack on Yevpatoria (February 1855), the battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the residents of Sevastopol. In August 1855 it began final assault Sevastopol. After the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, continuation of the defense was difficult. Most of Sevastopol was occupied by the allied troops, however, having found only ruins there, they returned to their positions.
In the Caucasian theater, military operations developed more successfully for Russia. Türkiye invaded Transcaucasia, but suffered a major defeat, after which Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell.
The extreme exhaustion of Allied forces in the Crimea and Russian successes in the Caucasus led to a cessation of hostilities. Negotiations between the parties began.
Parisian world
At the end of March 1856, the Paris Peace Treaty was signed. Russia did not suffer significant territorial losses. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from her. However, she lost the right of patronage to the Danube principalities and Serbia. The most difficult and humiliating condition was the so-called “neutralization” of the Black Sea. Russia was prohibited from having naval forces, military arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a significant blow to the security of the southern borders. Russia's role in the Balkans and the Middle East was reduced to nothing.
The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the situation international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The war, on the one hand, exposed its weakness, but on the other, demonstrated the heroism and unshakable spirit of the Russian people. The defeat brought a sad conclusion to Nicholas' rule, shook up the entire Russian public and forced the government to come to grips with reforming the state.
The Crimean War, called in the West Eastern War(1853-1856) - a military clash between Russia and a coalition of European states that came out in defense of Turkey. had little influence on external position Russian Empire, but significantly - on its domestic policy. The defeat forced the autocracy to begin reforms of everything public administration which ultimately led to the abolition of serfdom and the transformation of Russia into a powerful capitalist powerCauses of the Crimean War
Objective
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Rivalry between European states and Russia in the matter of control over the numerous possessions of the weak, collapsing Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
On January 9, 14, February 20, 21, 1853, at meetings with the British Ambassador G. Seymour, Emperor Nicholas I proposed that England share the Turkish Empire together with Russia (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. Edited by V. P. Potemkin)
*** Russia's desire for primacy in managing the system of straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean
“If England is thinking of settling in Constantinople in the near future, then I will not allow it... For my part, I am equally disposed to accept the obligation not to settle there, of course, as an owner; as a temporary guardian is a different matter" (from the statement of Nicholas the First to the British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853)
*** Russia's desire to include in the sphere of its national interests affairs in the Balkans and among the South Slavs
“Let Moldova, Wallachia, Serbia, Bulgaria come under Russian protectorate. As for Egypt, I fully understand the importance of this territory for England. Here I can only say that if, during the distribution of the Ottoman inheritance after the fall of the empire, you take possession of Egypt, then I will have no objection to this. I will say the same about Candia (the island of Crete). This island may suit you, and I don’t see why it shouldn’t become an English possession” (conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Seymour on January 9, 1853 at an evening with Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
Subjective
*** Turkey's weakness
“Türkiye is a “sick man”. Nicholas did not change his terminology all his life when he spoke about the Turkish Empire" ((History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437)
*** Nicholas I's confidence in his impunity
“I want to speak to you as a gentleman, if we manage to come to an agreement - me and England - the rest doesn’t matter to me, I don’t care what others do or will do” (from a conversation between Nicholas the First and British Ambassador Hamilton Seymour on January 9, 1853 at the evening at Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna)
***
Nicholas's suggestion that Europe is unable to present a united front
“the tsar was confident that Austria and France would not join England (in a possible confrontation with Russia), and England would not dare to fight him without allies” (History of Diplomacy, Volume One pp. 433 - 437. OGIZ, Moscow, 1941)
*** Autocracy, the result of which was the wrong relationship between the emperor and his advisers
“... Russian ambassadors in Paris, London, Vienna, Berlin, ... Chancellor Nesselrode ... in their reports distorted the state of affairs before the Tsar. They almost always wrote not about what they saw, but about what the king would like to know from them. When one day Andrei Rosen convinced Prince Lieven to finally open the Tsar’s eyes, Lieven answered literally: “So that I would say this to the Emperor?!” But I'm not a fool! If I wanted to tell him the truth, he would throw me out the door, and nothing else would come of it" (History of Diplomacy, Volume One)
*** The problem of "Palestinian shrines":
It became apparent back in 1850, continued and intensified in 1851, weakened in the beginning and middle of 1852, and again unusually worsened just at the very end of 1852 - beginning of 1853. Louis Napoleon, while still president, told the Turkish government that he wanted to preserve and restore all the rights and benefits confirmed by Turkey back in 1740 catholic church in the so-called holy places, i.e. in the temples of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. The Sultan agreed; but a sharp protest followed from Russian diplomacy in Constantinople, pointing out the advantages of the Orthodox Church over the Catholic Church based on the conditions of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace. After all, Nicholas I considered himself the patron saint of the Orthodox
*** France's desire to split the continental union of Austria, England, Prussia and Russia, which arose during the Napoleonic wars n
“Subsequently, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Napoleon III, Drouey de Luis, very frankly stated: “The question of holy places and everything that relates to it has no real significance for France. This whole eastern question, which is causing so much noise, served the imperial government only as a means of disrupting the continental union, which had paralyzed France for almost half a century. Finally, the opportunity presented itself to sow discord in a powerful coalition, and Emperor Napoleon grabbed it with both hands." (History of Diplomacy)
Events preceding the Crimean War of 1853-1856
During his short stay in London, the Emperor charmed everyone with his knightly courtesy and royal grandeur, and charmed Queen Victoria, her husband and the most prominent statesmen the then Great Britain, with whom he tried to get closer and enter into an exchange of thoughts.
Nicholas's aggressive policy in 1853 was due, among other things, to Victoria's friendly attitude towards him and the fact that the head of the cabinet in England at that moment was the same Lord Aberdeen, who listened to him so kindly at Windsor in 1844
Menshikov was greeted with extraordinary honor. The Turkish police did not even dare to disperse the crowd of Greeks, who gave the prince an enthusiastic meeting. Menshikov behaved with defiant arrogance. In Europe, they paid a lot of attention even to Menshikov’s purely external provocative antics: they wrote about how he paid a visit to the Grand Vizier without taking off his coat, how he spoke sharply to Sultan Abdul-Mecid. From Menshikov’s very first steps, it became clear that he would never give in on two central points: first, he wants to achieve recognition of Russia’s right to patronage not only of the Orthodox Church, but also of the Sultan’s Orthodox subjects; secondly, he demands that Turkey’s consent be approved by the Sultan’s Sened, and not by a firman, i.e., that it be in the nature of a foreign policy agreement with the king, and not be a simple decree
However, Nicholas issued a manifesto that he, like his ancestors, must protect Orthodox Church in Turkey, and that in order to ensure the implementation by the Turks of previous treaties with Russia, violated by the Sultan, the Tsar was forced to occupy the Danube principalities (Moldova and Wallachia)
The 4th and 5th infantry corps, numbering 81,541 people, were prepared to occupy Moldova and Wallachia. On May 24, the 4th Corps moved from Podolsk and Volyn provinces to Leovo. The 15th Division of the 5th Infantry Corps arrived there at the beginning of June and merged with the 4th Corps. The command was entrusted to Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich Gorchakov
But Stratford-Radcliffe forced Sultan Abdul-Mecid to reject the Vienna Note, and even before that he hastened to draw up, ostensibly on behalf of Turkey, another note, with some reservations against the Vienna Note. The king, in turn, rejected her. At this time, Nicholas received news from the ambassador in France about the impossibility of a joint military action by England and France.
The course of the Crimean War of 1853-1856. Briefly
headed by admirals Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin, who died during the siege
Peace terms
The return of Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, the transformation of the Black Sea into neutral: Russia and Turkey are deprived of the opportunity to have a navy and coastal fortifications here, the concession of Bessarabia (the abolition of the exclusive Russian protectorate over Wallachia, Moldova and Serbia)
Reasons for Russia's defeat in the Crimean War
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Russia's military-technical lag behind leading European powers
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Underdevelopment of communications
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Embezzlement, corruption in the rear of the army
“Due to the nature of his activity, Golitsyn had to learn the war as if from scratch. Then he will see heroism, holy self-sacrifice, selfless courage and patience of the defenders of Sevastopol, but, hanging around in the rear on militia affairs, at every step he was faced with God knows what: collapse, indifference, cold-blooded mediocrity and monstrous theft. They stole everything that other - higher - thieves did not have time to steal on the way to Crimea: bread, hay, oats, horses, ammunition. The mechanics of the robbery were simple: suppliers provided rotten goods, which were accepted (as a bribe, of course) by the main commissariat in St. Petersburg. Then - also for a bribe - the army quartermaster, then - the regimental and so on until the last spoke in the chariot. And the soldiers ate rotten stuff, wore rotten stuff, slept on rotten stuff, shot rotten stuff. Military units themselves had to purchase fodder from the local population with money issued by a special financial department. Golitsyn once went there and witnessed such a scene. An officer arrived from the front line in a faded, shabby uniform. The feed has run out, the hungry horses are eating sawdust, shavings. An elderly quartermaster with major's shoulder straps adjusted his glasses on his nose and said in a casual voice:
- We'll give you money, eight percent is okay.
- Why on earth? — the officer was indignant. - We are shedding blood!..
“They sent a newbie again,” the quartermaster sighed. - Just small children! I remember that Captain Onishchenko came from your brigade. Why wasn't he sent?
- Onishchenko died...
- May the kingdom of heaven be upon him! - The quartermaster crossed himself. - It's a pity. The man was understanding. We respected him, and he respected us. We won't ask for too much.
The quartermaster was not embarrassed even by the presence of an outsider. Prince Golitsyn approached him, grabbed him by the soul, pulled him out from behind the table and lifted him into the air.
- I’ll kill you, you bastard!..
“Kill,” the quartermaster wheezed, “I still won’t give it without interest.”
“Do you think I’m joking?” The prince squeezed him with his paw.
“I can’t... the chain will break...” the quartermaster croaked with his last strength. - Then I won’t live anyway... The Petersburgers will strangle me...
“People are dying there, you son of a bitch!” - the prince cried out in tears and disgustedly threw away the half-strangled military official.
He touched his wrinkled throat, like a condor’s, and croaked with unexpected dignity:
“If we had been there... we would have died no worse... And please, please,” he turned to the officer, “comply with the rules: for artillerymen - six percent, for all other branches of the military - eight.”
The officer twitched his cold nose pathetically, as if he was sobbing:
“They’re eating sawdust... shavings... to hell with you!.. I can’t come back without hay.”
- Poor troop control
“Golitsyn was amazed by the commander-in-chief himself, to whom he introduced himself. Gorchakov was not that old, a little over sixty, but he gave the impression of some kind of rottenness, it seemed that if you poked a finger at him, he would crumble like a completely rotten mushroom. The wandering gaze could not concentrate on anything, and when the old man released Golitsyn with a weak wave of his hand, he heard him humming in French:
I'm poor, poor poilu,
And I'm not in a hurry...
- What else is that! - the colonel of the quartermaster service said to Golitsyn when they left the commander-in-chief. - At least he leaves for positions, but Prince Menshikov did not remember at all that the war is on. He just made it all witty, and I must admit, it was caustic. He spoke about the Minister of War as follows: “Prince Dolgorukov has a threefold relationship with gunpowder - he did not invent it, did not smell it and does not send it to Sevastopol.” About commander Dmitry Erofeevich Osten-Sacken: “Erofeich has not become strong. I'm exhausted." Sarcasm at least! - the colonel added thoughtfully. “But he allowed a psalmist to be appointed over the great Nakhimov.” For some reason, Prince Golitsyn did not find it funny. In general, he was unpleasantly surprised by the tone of cynical mockery that reigned at headquarters. It seemed that these people had lost all self-respect, and with it any respect for anything. They didn’t talk about the tragic situation of Sevastopol, but they relished ridiculing the commander of the Sevastopol garrison, Count Osten-Sacken, who only knows what to do with priests, read akathists and argue about divine scripture. “He has one good quality,” the colonel added. “He doesn’t interfere in anything” (Yu. Nagibin “Stronger than all other commands”)
Results of the Crimean War
The Crimean War showed
The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern War, was one of the most important and decisive events of the mid-19th century. At this time, the lands of the western Ottoman Empire found themselves at the center of a conflict between the European powers and Russia, with each of the warring parties wanting to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.
The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean War, since the most important and intense fighting took place in the Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large areas of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. At the same time Tsarist Russia I had to fight not just with the Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.
Causes of the Crimean War
Each of the parties that took part in the military campaign had its own reasons and grievances that prompted them to enter into this conflict. But in general, they were united by one single goal - to take advantage of Turkey’s weakness and establish themselves in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But all countries took different paths to achieve this goal.
Russia wanted to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories to be mutually beneficially divided between the claiming countries. Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldova, Serbia and Wallachia under its protectorate. And at the same time, she was not against the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits, connecting two seas: the Black and Mediterranean.
With the help of this war, Turkey hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that was sweeping the Balkans, as well as to take away the very important Russian territories of Crimea and the Caucasus.
England and France did not want to strengthen the position of Russian tsarism in the international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw it as a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.
The French emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for his defeat in the military campaign of 1812.
If you carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in essence, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and aggressive. It’s not for nothing that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.
Progress of hostilities
The start of the Crimean War was preceded by several important events. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was resolved in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to begin military action against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.
The response from the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.
First period of the Crimean War: October 1853 – April 1854
By the beginning of hostilities, there were about a million people in the Russian army. But as it turned out, its weapons were very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smooth-bore guns against rifled weapons, sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with an approximately equal Turkish army, as happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not imagine that it would be opposed by the forces of a united coalition of European countries.
During this period, military operations were carried out with varying degrees of success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period of the war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading to the Turkish coast, discovered large enemy naval forces in Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 guns firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was captured.
Second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 – February 1856
The victory of the Russian army in the Battle of Sinop greatly worried England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight common enemy– Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force, several times larger than its army.
With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of military operations expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was intervention in Crimea and the capture of Sevastopol.
In the fall of 1854, a combined 60,000-strong corps of coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Evpatoria. And the very first battle on the Alma River Russian army lost, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisarai. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The valiant defenders were led by the famous admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was defended by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.
The heroic defense of Sevastopol continued for 349 days, and only in September 1855 the enemy captured the Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to the northern part, but Sevastopol never capitulated.
Results of the Crimean War
The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, there could no longer be any talk of continuing the war. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.
According to the Treaty of Paris, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was prohibited from having a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the country's southern borders were in danger.
As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, but lost its influence in the Balkans.
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