The reforms of Peter the Great are a topic of extreme importance today. Peter is a symbol of the urgent social need for change, and for drastic, fast and at the same time successful changes. Such a need, even a necessity, still exists today. And the experience of the transformations of those years may turn out to be invaluable for today's reformers in Russia. They can avoid the excesses that Peter made in an effort to lift the country off its knees.

We present to your attention a table of the reforms of Peter 1. This includes the main reforms of the emperor, the approximate time of their implementation, short summary and results.

Public Administration Reform

1699-1721

Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
System public administration has become more perfect. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715 and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
Large quantity judiciary and persons who carried out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms

since 1699

The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721 g.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

Almost the entire reign of Peter 1

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. The kopeck becomes the main coin. Transition to poll tax.
Increase in treasury revenues several times. But firstly, it was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population, and secondly, most of this income was stolen.

Reforms of Peter the Great

During his reign, reforms were carried out in all areas of the country's government. The transformations covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, and the political system.

Basically, the reforms were aimed not at the interests of individual classes, but at the country as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries in military and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence. In general, the process of state reform was associated with external factor– the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with the internal process of modernization of the country.

Military reform of Peter 1

Since 1699

The essence of the transformation: Introduction of conscription, creation of a navy, establishment of a Military Collegium that managed all military affairs. Introduction using the “Table of Ranks” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, and corporal punishment was widely used to maintain it. Introduction of military regulations. Military-industrial enterprises were created, as well as military educational institutions.

Reform result: With reforms, the emperor was able to create a strong regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. In the army, units were created: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Was won large number military victories. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by various historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Public administration reforms of Peter 1

(1699-1721)

The essence of the transformation: Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards, with a specific scope of activity and powers.

Reform result: The state management system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Provincial (regional) reform of Peter 1

(1708-1715 and 1719-1720)

The essence of the transformation: Peter 1, at the initial stage of the reform, divided Russia into eight provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were under the control of governors in charge of the troops stationed in the province. And also the governors had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces, which were governed by governors, and they, in turn, were divided into districts, under the leadership of zemstvo commissars. Governors lost administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.

Reform result: There has been a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost their influence.

Judicial reform of Peter 1

(1697, 1719, 1722)

The essence of the transformation: Formation by Peter 1 of new judicial bodies: Senate, Justice Collegium, Hofgerichts, lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (similar to a jury trial) was abolished, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

Reform result: many judicial bodies and persons who carried out judicial activities (the sovereign himself, governors, voivodes, etc.) added confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings; the introduced possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created fertile ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, they established the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law, in accordance with the case being examined.

Church reform Peter 1

(1700-1701; 1721)

The essence of the transformation: After Patriarch Adrian died in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was essentially liquidated. 1701 - the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. The Emperor restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. 1721 - The Spiritual Regulations are adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the sovereign.

Reform result: Church reform led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many of the bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church was no longer able to pursue an independent spiritual policy and had partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reform of Peter 1

The essence of the transformation: Many new (including indirect) taxes were introduced, monopolizing the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (minting a coin of less weight and reducing the silver content in it) of a coin. The kopeck became the main coin. Introduction of a poll tax, replacing household taxation.

Reform result: Increase in state treasury revenues several times. But first: it was achieved due to the impoverishment of the bulk of the population. Second: for the most part, these incomes were stolen.

Results of the reforms of Peter 1

The reforms of Peter 1 marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy.

The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of government administration and served as the main lever for modernizing the country. Russia has become a Europeanized country and a member of the European community of nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements began to appear in technical training and science. The emergence of authoritarian rule is taking place, the role of the sovereign and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state have increased enormously.

The price of Peter 1's reforms

Repeatedly increased taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the race for ranks and positions has turned into a national disaster.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.

Instead of the emerging civil society in Europe with market economy, Russia by the end of the reign of Peter 1 was a military-police state with a nationalized, monopolized feudal economy.

Weakening contact between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The cost of the transformations turned out to be prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the monarch did not take into account either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or the national traditions, nor with the memory of ancestors.

Seminars classes.

TOPIC No. 1

Russia on the path of modernization inXVII – XIXcenturies

1. Reforms of Peter I: goals, content, result. The price of Peter's reforms.

At the turn of the XVII – XVIII centuries. The transformations that took place in Russia covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, and the political system. In many ways, these transformations are associated with the activities of Peter I. His merit lay in the fact that he correctly understood the complexity of the tasks that faced the country and began to implement them purposefully.

Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The purpose of the reforms was Russia's acquisition of the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence. In general, the process of reforming the country was associated with an external factor - the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with an internal one - the process of modernization of the country.

Military reform.

The new military system was created according to Western European models. The main and highest unit in the infantry was the regiment. Artillery has finally become an independent branch of the military with a clear organization. Engineer troops were created (as part of the artillery). To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established. Has been installed unified system training in the army and navy, military educational institutions have been opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers.

Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, to maintain which corporal punishment was widely used. A hierarchy of ranks and ranks has been introduced in the army and navy.

The military reforms of Peter I had positive influence on the development of Russian military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy Russia covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy.

Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. However, there were attempts at reforms here too (new crops, new breeds of livestock, etc. were introduced)

The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century, about 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, purchased peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor.

The reforms also covered the sphere of small-scale production and contributed to the development of crafts and peasant crafts. Craft schools were introduced at manufactories. A guild system was introduced in the cities. All artisans, led by an elected headman, were assigned to workshops depending on their specialty, where they became masters, apprentices and apprentices.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The expansion of trade relations with foreign countries was encouraged in every possible way. Much attention was paid to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget necessary for waging war, active internal and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes:

more and more new sources of income were sought (banya, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards);

direct taxes were also introduced (recruitment, dragoon, ship and “special” taxes);

considerable income was brought in by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in it;

introduction of the poll tax, which replaced household taxation.

Reorganization of public administration(test task 7)

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate. A radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church service, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 highest church hierarchs appointed by the Tsar. A chief prosecutor (I.V. Boldin) was appointed to oversee the activities of the Synod. All property and finances of the church, the lands and peasants assigned to it, were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Prikaz, subordinate to the synod.

Social policy.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords into a single class. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services (14 ranks).

In 1724, an attempt was made to eradicate beggary in Russia in one day. All the sick and crippled were ordered to be re-registered and sent to almshouses set up at monasteries, and those able to work were to be returned to their original place.

Reforms in the field of education and culture.

State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, engineering. Navigation and Artillery schools, an Engineering School, and a Medical School appeared. Publishing has developed.

The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg.

On January 1, 1700, a new chronology was introduced in Russia according to the Julian calendar (before this, chronology was carried out from the creation of the world according to Gregorian calendar). As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe.

There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society (barber shaving, European clothing, wearing uniforms by military and civilian officials).

Decree of 1718 on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women.

The result of Peter's reformsI.

Peter's reforms marked the formation absolute monarchy.

The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of public administration and served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical training and science. Authoritarian rule is becoming established, the role of the monarch and his influence on all spheres of life of society and the state are growing enormously.

The price of Peter's reformsI.

Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

The desire to catch up with Europe in economic development Peter tried to implement it with the help of accelerated “manufacturing industrialization”, i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of serf labor. Main feature The development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military orders, which saved them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia, by the end of Peter’s reign, was a military-police state with a nationalized, monopolized feudal economy.

The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious, social ideas that were accepted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. A split arose between the top and bottom of society.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. Abolition Zemsky Sobors, which eliminated the people from political power and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

Weakening contacts between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The cost of the transformations was prohibitively high: when carrying out them, the tsar did not take into account the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, nor with national traditions, nor with the memory of his ancestors.

Managed to deduce Russian state out of the shadows - thanks to his reforms, Russia became one of the leading powers in the arena of world life. This happened after the introduction of changes that affected almost all aspects of life (especially affected

First of all, we touched upon the transformation of central management. As a result, the Boyar Duma was abolished and replaced by the Near Chancellery, which in 1708 was renamed the Council of Ministers.

The next item on the list of reforms was the creation (in 1711) of which became the highest government agency. He took part in legislative, administrative and judicial matters.

Reforms of Peter the Great 1718-1720s. cumbersome and clumsy laws were abolished and collegiums were introduced - initially there were 11 of them: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, which was in charge of foreign policy affairs; The Military College, which controlled all the country's ground forces; The Admiralty Board, which disposed navy; The Berg College dealt with the mining industry; The College of Justice subordinated the civil and criminal courts, etc.

The one signed in 1714 by Peter the Great was also important. The reforms were as follows: according to this document, the estates of the nobles were now equal to the boyar estates, and the introduction of this decree was aimed at eliminating the boundaries between the clan and noble nobility. Moreover, now there was no difference between boyar and noble land. A little later, in 1722, Peter adopted the Table of Ranks, which finally erased the boundaries between the new and old aristocracy and completely equalized them.

In 1708, to strengthen the apparatus of power and increase its influence, the Regional Reform was introduced: the country was divided into eight provinces. Its logical conclusion was management: more and more cities appeared, and accordingly, the country’s population grew (by the end of the reign of Peter the Great, an average of 350 thousand people lived in large towns). And the composition of the urban population was complex: the main part were small artisans, townspeople, traders and entrepreneurs.

Under Peter the Great, the process of transforming the church was completely completed - the reforms of Peter the Great turned it into an important government agency, subordinate to the highest secular authorities. After the death of Patriarch Adrian, the tsar forbade holding elections for a new patriarch, citing the unexpected outbreak of the Northern War. He was appointed at the head of the patriarchal throne. After the Northern War, Peter abolished the patriarchate completely. Management of all church affairs and issues was entrusted to the Theological College, then renamed the Holy Government Synod, which completely turned the church into a powerful support of Russian absolutism.

But the great transformations and reforms of Peter the Great brought with them many problems, the main of which were the tightening of serfdom and the development of bureaucracy.

Reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I- transformations in the state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All government activities Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: -1715 and -.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. Except government reforms At the first stage, extensive reforms were carried out with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, at a general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest government agency. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but they required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 boards were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:

• The Collegium of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
• Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
• Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
• The Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
• The chamber board is the collection of state revenues.
• The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenses,
• The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.
• Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
• Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).
• Manufactory Collegium - light industry (manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
• The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). She worked in civil and criminal court.
• The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the king, and decisions were approved by him, we can say that Russian Emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authority were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.
• The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of a hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Army and Navy reforms

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet began necessary conditions victories in the Northern War of 1721. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first conscription yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were required to send one recruit to lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32 Lithograph from a 19th century book.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class. In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, which strictly defined the service, rights and responsibilities of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,560 in the cavalry, 75 thousand in the infantry, 14 thousand in the garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Church reform

Religious politics

The era of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were subject to burning at the stake. The “schismatics” were allowed to practice their faith, subject to recognition of the existing state order and payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of faith was granted to foreigners coming to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

Financial reform

Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of ​​mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to, including about 90 that were large manufactories.

Autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated in any way by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.

Class politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, there was new structure society in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

1. Decree on Education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.
2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
3. Decree on sole inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.
4. “Table of Ranks” () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through seniority through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying rent to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (the Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX century, when this category was finally established as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts, relating to the serf peasantry itself, were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of trade in serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Created under Peter new category dependent farmers - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessions. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only one big city there was Moscow, which before the reign of Peter was the capital. Although Russia was much inferior in terms of urban and industrial development Western Europe, but during the 17th century. there was a gradual increase. Social policy Peter the Great, which concerned the urban population, was aimed at ensuring the payment of the poll tax. For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or bore a monetary obligation in the share that fell on him according to the social scheme.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 in the Byzantine era became 1700 AD, and New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.

After returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I waged a struggle against the external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the ban on beards is most famous), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

Changes have occurred in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704 on public celebrations, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas developed among the nobility, which was radically different from the values ​​and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.

Peter I in 1709. Drawing from the mid-19th century.

Education

Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-class primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.