What did Copernicus do? Nicolaus Copernicus: brief biography and essence of teachings

(1473 —1543 )

Nicolaus Copernicus was born on February 19, 1473 in the Polish city of Toruń into the family of a merchant who came from Germany. He was the fourth child in the family. Primary education He received it, most likely, at a school located near his home at the Church of St. John the Great. Until the age of ten, he grew up in an atmosphere of prosperity and contentment. Carefree childhood ended suddenly and quite early. Nicholas was barely ten years old when the “pestilence” - a plague epidemic, a frequent guest and a formidable scourge of humanity at that time, visited Toruń, and one of its first victims was Nicolaus Copernicus the father. Concerns about education and future fate Lukasz Wachenrode, the mother's brother, took over the nephew.

In the second half of October 1491, Nicolaus Copernicus, together with his brother Andrzej, arrived in Krakow and enrolled in the Faculty of Arts at the local university. After its completion in 1496, Copernicus went on a long journey to Italy.

In the fall, Nikolai, together with his brother Andrzej, found himself in Bologna, which was then part of the Papal States and famous for its university. At that time, the law faculty with the departments of civil and canonical, i.e., church law, was especially popular here, and Nikolai enrolled in this faculty. It was in Bologna Copernicus developed an interest in astronomy, which determined his scientific interests. On the evening of March 9, 1497, together with the astronomer Domenico Maria Novara, Nicholas made his first scientific observation. After him, it became clear that the distance to the Moon when it is in quadrature is approximately the same as during a new or full moon. The discrepancy between Ptolemy's theory and the discovered facts amused me to think...

In the first months of 1498, Nicolaus Copernicus was confirmed in absentia as a canon of the Frombork Chapter, a year later Andrzej Copernicus also became a canon of the same chapter. However, the very fact of receiving these positions did not reduce the financial difficulties of the brothers; life in Bologna, which attracted many wealthy foreigners, was no different cheapness, and in October 1499 the Copernicians found themselves completely without means of subsistence. Canon Bernard Sculteti, who later met them several times in their life, came to their rescue from Poland.

Then Nikolai short time returns to Poland, but just a year later he goes back to Italy, where he studies medicine at the University of Padua and receives a doctorate in theology from the University of Ferrara. Copernicus returned to his homeland at the end of 1503 in full educated person He settled first in the city of Lidzbark, and then took up the position of canon in Frombork, a fishing town at the mouth of the Vistula. The astronomical observations begun by Copernicus in Italy were continued, albeit on a limited scale, in Lidzbark. But with particular intensity he developed them in Frombork, despite to the inconvenience due to the high latitude of this place, which made it difficult to observe the planets, and due to frequent fogs from the Vistula Bay, significant cloudiness and cloudy skies over this northern area.

The invention of the telescope was still far away, and Tycho Brahe’s best instruments for pre-telescopic astronomy did not exist, with the help of which the accuracy of astronomical observations was brought to within one or two minutes. The most famous instrument used by Copernicus was the triquetrum, a parallactic instrument. The second instrument used by Copernicus to determine the angle of inclination of the ecliptic, “horoscopes”, sundials, a type of quadrant.

Despite the obvious difficulties, in the “Small Commentary”, written around 1516, Copernicus had already given a preliminary statement of his teaching, or rather, his hypotheses at that time. He did not consider it necessary to provide mathematical proofs in it, since they were intended for a more extensive work on November 3 In 1516, Nicholas Copernicus was elected to the post of manager of the chapter's estates in the Olsztyn and Pieniżny districts. In the fall of 1519, Copernicus's powers in Olsztyn expired, and he returned to Frombork, but this time he was really unable to devote himself to astronomical observations to test his hypotheses. There was a war going on. with the crusaders.

At the height of the war, at the beginning of November 1520, Copernicus was again elected administrator of the chapter's estates in Olsztyn and Pienieżno. By that time, Copernicus turned out to be the eldest not only in Olsztyn, but in the whole of Warmia - the bishop and almost all members of the chapter, having left Warmia, were holed up in safe places Having taken command of the small garrison of Olsztyn, Copernicus took measures to strengthen the defense of the castle-fortress, taking care of installing guns, creating a supply of ammunition, provisions and water. Copernicus, unexpectedly showing determination and remarkable military talent, managed to defend himself from the enemy.

Personal courage and determination did not go unnoticed - soon after the truce in April 1521, Copernicus was appointed Commissioner of Warmia. In February 1523, before the election of a new bishop, Copernicus was elected general administrator of Warmia - this is the highest position he had to hold. In the autumn of the same year, after choosing a bishop, he is appointed chancellor of the chapter. Only after 1530 did Copernicus's administrative activities narrow somewhat.

Nevertheless, it was in the twenties that a significant part of the astronomical results of Copernicus accounted for. It was possible to carry out many observations. So, around 1523, observing the planets at the moment of opposition, that is, when the planet is opposite the Sun
point in the celestial sphere, Copernicus made important discovery he refuted the opinion that the position of planetary orbits in space remains stationary. The line of apses - a straight line connecting the points of the orbit at which the planet is closest to the Sun and most distant from it - changes its position compared to what was observed 1300 years earlier and recorded in " Almagest" by Ptolemy. But most importantly, by the beginning of the thirties, work on the creation of a new theory and its formalization in his work “On Appeals” celestial spheres"was basically completed. By that time, the system of the world structure proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Claudius Ptolemy had existed for almost one and a half millennia. It consisted in the fact that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, and the Sun and other planets revolve around it. Ptolemy’s theory did not allow to explain many phenomena, well known to astronomers, in particular the loop-like movement of planets across the visible sky. But its provisions were considered unshakable, since they were in good agreement with the teaching catholic church Long before Copernicus, the ancient Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. But he could not yet experimentally confirm his teaching.

Observing the movement of celestial bodies, Copernicus came to the conclusion that Ptolemy's theory was incorrect. After thirty years of hard work, long observations and complex mathematical calculations, he convincingly proved that the Earth is only one of the planets and that all planets revolve around the Sun. It is true that Copernicus still believed that the stars are motionless and are located on the surface of a huge sphere, at a great distance from the Earth. This was due to the fact that at that time there were no such powerful telescopes with which one could observe the sky and stars. Having discovered that the Earth and the planets are satellites of the Sun, Copernicus was able to explain the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky, the strange entanglement in the movement of some planets, as well as the apparent rotation of the firmament. Copernicus believed that we perceive the movement of celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion. When we are sailing in a boat on the surface of a river, it seems that the boat and we are motionless in it, and the banks are floating in the opposite direction. In the same way, to an observer on Earth, it seems that the Earth is motionless, and the Sun is moving around it. In fact, it is the Earth that moves around the Sun and makes a full revolution in its orbit during the year.

In the twenties, Copernicus gained fame as a skilled physician. He expanded the knowledge he acquired in Padua throughout his life, regularly becoming acquainted with the latest medical literature. The fame of an outstanding physician was well deserved - Copernicus managed to save many patients from severe and intractable ailments. And among his patients were all the contemporary bishops of Warmia, high-ranking officials of the Royal and Ducal Prussia, Tiedemann Giese, Alexander Skulteti, many canons of the Warmian Chapter. He often provided assistance and ordinary people. There is no doubt that the recommendations of his predecessors
Copernicus used it creatively, carefully monitoring the condition of patients and trying to understand the mechanism of action of the drugs he prescribed.

After 1531, his activity in the affairs of the chapter and its social activities, although back in 1541 he served as chairman of the chapter’s construction fund. Affected for many years life. 60 years is an age that in the 16th century was considered quite advanced. But Copernicus' scientific activity did not stop. He did not stop practicing medicine, and his fame as a skilled physician steadily increased. In mid-July 1528, being present as a representative of the Frombork Chapter at the sejmik in Torun, Copernicus met the then famous medalist and metal carver Matz Schilling, who had recently moved to Toruń from Krakow. There is an assumption that Copernicus knew Schilling from Krakow, more Moreover, on his mother’s side he was distantly related to him.

In Schilling's house, Copernicus met his daughter, young and beautiful Anna, and soon, compiling one of his astronomical tables, in the title of the column allocated to the planet Venus, Copernicus outlines the sign of this planet with an outline of ivy leaves - the Shilling family mark, which was placed on all coins and medals minted by Anna’s father... Being a canon, Copernicus had to observe celibacy - a vow of celibacy. But over the years, Copernicus felt more and more lonely, more and more clearly felt the need for a close and devoted being, and then he met Anna...

Years passed. They seemed to have become accustomed to Anna's presence in Copernicus's house. However, a denunciation followed to the newly elected bishop. During his illness, Dantiscus calls Doctor Nicholas and in a conversation with him, as if by chance, remarks that it would not be appropriate for Copernicus to have such a young and such a distant relative with him - he should find someone less young and more closely related.

And Copernicus is forced to “take action.” Anna will soon move into her own home. And then she had to leave Frombork. This has undoubtedly clouded recent years life of Nicolaus Copernicus In May 1542, Copernicus’s book “On the sides and angles of triangles, both plane and spherical,” with detailed tables of sines and cosines, was published in Wittenberg.

But the scientist did not live to see the time when the book “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres” spread throughout the world. He was dying when friends brought him the first copy of his book, printed in one of the Nuremberg printing houses. Copernicus died on May 24, 1543.

Church leaders did not immediately understand the blow to religion that Copernicus’ book dealt. For some time his work was freely distributed among scientists. Only when Copernicus had followers, his teaching was declared heresy, and the book was included in the “Index” of prohibited books. Only in 1835 did the Pope exclude the book of Copernicus from it and thereby, as it were, acknowledge the existence of his teaching in the eyes of the church.

Copernicus Nicholas (1473-1543) - an outstanding Polish astronomer, physician, mechanic, theologian, mathematician and economist. He lived and made discoveries during the Renaissance. He is the author of the heliocentric system of the world, Nikolai denied geocentric system the ancient Greeks and suggested that the central celestial body in the Universe is the Sun, and the Earth and other planets revolve around it. Thus, by changing the model of the universe, Copernicus laid the foundation for the first scientific revolution.

Childhood

Nicholas was born in the city of Toruń, Royal Prussia, on February 19, 1473. His father, Nicolaus Copernicus Sr., was a merchant from Krakow. Mom, Barbara Watzenrode, was of German descent.

More than five hundred years have passed, the borders of states and their names have changed, so there is still debate about which country the great astronomer was born in and what his nationality is. The city of Torun became part of the Kingdom of Poland just seven years before the birth of Copernicus. The nationality of the father is not known for certain.

His mother's roots provide every basis for the assertion that ethnically Nikolai was at least half German. Perhaps, due to his political-territorial affiliation, he considered himself a Pole. Only one thing is known for sure: Copernicus never wrote a single document in Polish language, only in Latin and German.

Nikolai was the fourth child in the family. Two girls and a boy were born before him. One of the sisters (Barbara), upon becoming an adult, became a nun; the second (Katerina) got married and left Toruń. She had five children, whom Nikolai loved very much. He cared for them until the end of his life, as if they were his own. Brother Andrzej became Nikolai’s faithful companion and comrade-in-arms; together they studied at universities and then traveled half of Europe.

Since the father was a merchant, the family lived in abundance. But this happiness did not last long. When the youngest of the children, Nikolai, was only nine years old, a plague epidemic broke out in Europe, which claimed tens of thousands of human lives. A terrible illness overtook the head of the family, Copernicus the Elder, as a result of which he died. All worries about the family now fell on Barbara's shoulders. It was difficult for the woman to cope with everything, and her brother Lukasz Watzenrode took her and her children into their care. In 1489, their mother also died, the children were left complete orphans in the care of their uncle.

Lukasz was a local Catholic bishop, he was considered a skilled diplomat and was entrusted with various delicate assignments of a political nature. My uncle was very well-read and intelligent, a doctor of canon law at the University of Bologna, a master's degree at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow. Lukash had a cool temperament, but he loved his youngest nephew Nikolai very much, gave him fatherly warmth and often spoiled him. In the younger Copernicus, the uncle saw his successor, so he instilled in him an interest in learning and a desire for education.

Education

Nikolai was fifteen years old when he graduated from school in his hometown, further education received at the Włocławsk Cathedral School. It was here that he began to take a keen interest in astronomy. This was facilitated by a teacher who had unusual surname Vodka. The teacher himself adhered to a sober lifestyle and asked his colleagues and students to call him Abstemius, which translated from Latin meant “abstinent.” Teacher Vodka was excellent at making a sundial. Communicating with him, Copernicus first thought about the fact that the Earth is mutually positioned in relation to the Sun.

In 1491, Uncle Lukasz made a patronage for his nephews Nicholas and Andrzej to enter the Jagiellonian University in Krakow. This establishment at that time was famous for its training programs in astronomy, mathematics and philosophy. The guys were admitted to the university to study at the art department. An approach to science from a philosophical perspective was encouraged here. The Copernicus brothers engaged in in-depth study of mathematics, theology, astronomy, medicine and theology. The educational institution had an intellectual atmosphere, which developed critical thinking among students.

At the University of Krakow, young Copernicus took up astronomy no longer at the level of idle interest, but rather seriously. He attended lectures by famous scientists.

In 1494, Nicholas graduated from the university, but did not receive any academic title. Together with his brother, he wanted to go to Italy to continue his studies. But there was no money for such a trip, and the brothers planned that Uncle Lukash, who by that time had become the Bishop of Emerland, would help them financially. However, the uncle said that he did not have any free money. He suggested that his nephews earn money by becoming canons in his diocese, and then use the funds received to go study abroad.

Copernicus worked for a little more than two years and in 1497 went to Italy. Uncle Lukash contributed to the fact that his nephew was given a three-year leave for study, was given a salary in advance, and was also elected in absentia as a canon to the diocese of Warmia.

Nikolai entered the oldest educational institution in Europe - the University of Bologna. He chose the Faculty of Law, where he studied canonical canon law. Students were taught ancient languages ​​(Nicholas was especially interested in Greek) and theology, and he again had the opportunity to study astronomy. The young Copernicus was also fascinated by painting; from then on, a painting has survived to this day, which is considered a copy of his self-portrait. In Bologna, Nikolai met and began to communicate closely with the Italian scientist Scipio del Ferro, whose discoveries marked the beginning of the revival of European mathematics.

But the decisive factor in the fate of Copernicus was a meeting with professor of astronomy Domenico Maria Novara de Ferrara. Together with his teacher, Nikolai made the first astronomical observation in his life, as a result of which they concluded that on the full moon and new moon the distance to the Moon in quadrature is the same. After this observation, Copernicus for the first time doubted the validity of Ptolemy's theory, according to which the Earth is the center of the Universe with celestial bodies revolving around it.

After studying at the University of Bologna for three years, Nikolai had to return to his homeland, since the period of leave granted to him for studying had expired. He again did not receive a diploma or title. Arriving at their place of service in the city of Frauenburg in 1500, they and their brother again asked to delay their return to work and be given leave to complete their studies.

In 1502, the Copernicus brothers' request was granted, and they again went to Italy to further study medical science at the University of Padua.

In 1503, at the University of Ferrara, Nicholas finally passed the exams and graduated from educational institution Doctor of Canon Law. Uncle Lukash allowed him not to return home, and Nikolai began practicing medicine in Padua, Italy.

Scientific activities

In 1506, Copernicus received a letter stating that his uncle’s condition had worsened (perhaps it was far-fetched). Nikolai left for his homeland. Over the next six years, he lived in the episcopal castle of Heilsberg, served as Uncle Lukash's confidant and secretary, and was also his attending physician. At the same time, he managed to engage in teaching activities in Krakow, conducted astronomical observations and developed a treatise on monetary reform.

In 1512, Uncle Lukash died. Nicholas had to move to a small town on the shores of the Vistula Lagoon, Frombork, where he was listed as a canon. Here he began to fulfill his church duties and continued to engage in scientific observations. He worked alone and did not use any outside help or consultation. There were no optical instruments yet, and Copernicus conducted all his research from the northwestern tower of the fortress, which was located near the wall of the monastery. Here he set up his observatory.

When new astronomical system clearly presented itself to his consciousness, Nikolai set to work on a book in which he decided to describe a different model of the world. He made no secret of his observations; he shared them with friends, among whom there were many like-minded people.

By 1530, Nicholas completed his first great work, “On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres.” In this work, he assumed that the Earth rotates around its axis within one day, and around the Sun within a year. For that time it was an unimaginably fantastic idea. Before this, everyone considered the stationary Earth to be the center of the Universe, around which stars, planets and the Sun revolve.

News quickly spread throughout Europe about a new outstanding astronomer. At first there was no persecution of the concept he proposed. Firstly, Nikolai formulated his ideas very carefully. Secondly, for a long time the church fathers themselves could not decide whether to consider the heliocentric model of the world a heresy. So Copernicus was luckier than his followers Galileo Galilei and Giordano Bruno.

Copernicus was in no hurry to publish his book, since he was a perfectionist by nature, and believed that he needed to double-check his observations several times. In total, he worked on the book for forty years, making changes, adjustments and clarifications, and preparing new astronomical calculation tables. Main work scientist published from afar in 1543, but he never found out about it because he was already in a coma on his deathbed. Some details of this theory were later corrected and refined by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler.

Copernicus was engaged not only in scientific, but also in practical activities:

• He developed a project according to which a new coinage system was introduced in Poland.
• During the Polish-Teutonic War, he became the organizer of the defense of bishops from the Teutons. After the conflict ended, he took part in peace negotiations, which resulted in the creation of the first Protestant state - the Duchy of Prussia.
• Designed new system water supply in the city of Frombork, thanks to which a hydraulic machine was built and all houses were supplied with water.
• In 1519, as a doctor, he devoted his efforts to eliminating the plague epidemic.

Since 1531, Nicholas devoted all his time only to the heliocentric system and free medical practice. Since his health was getting worse, Copernicus received a lot of help from like-minded people, friends and students.

Illness and death

In 1542, Copernicus became significantly worse and completely paralyzed his right side. In March 1543, he fell into a coma and remained in it until his death. On May 24, 1543, as a result of a stroke, the great scientist’s heart stopped.

For a long time his burial place was unknown. In 2005, archaeological excavations were carried out in the city of Frombork, as a result of which human remains were discovered - leg bones and a skull. The reconstruction of the skull, carried out using special methods, corresponded to the signs of Copernicus himself. It is known that the scientist had a broken bridge of his nose and a scar above his left eye; such marks were also found on the found skull. The examination also determined that the skull belonged to a man who died at the age of seventy. We conducted a comparative DNA analysis of the discovered remains and hair found earlier in one of Copernicus’s books (this rarity was kept in the library of a Swedish university). As a result, it was revealed that these are indeed the remains of the great astronomer.

In 2010 they were reburied in cathedral Fromborka. There are many monuments to Copernicus throughout Poland; the university in Torun and the international airport in Wroclaw bear his name. One of the monuments bears the inscription: “He who stopped the Sun, who moved the Earth.”

Name: Nicolaus Copernicus

Age: 70 years old

Activity: astronomer, mathematician, mechanic, economist, Renaissance canon

Marital status: wasn't married

Nicolaus Copernicus: biography

Nicolaus Copernicus is an outstanding Polish astronomer of the Renaissance, mathematician, theologian, and physician. The scientist refuted the theory put forward by the ancient Greeks, according to which the planets and the Sun revolve around the Earth, created and substantiated a new, heliocentric theory of the world order.

Nicolaus Copernicus was the fourth child in the family of a German woman, Barbara Watzenrode, and Nicolaus Copernicus, a merchant from Krakow. Over time, the borders of states and names have changed repeatedly, so the question of where, in what country the scientist was born, often arises. This happened in the Prussian city of Thorn on February 19, 1473. Today the town is called Toruń and is located on the territory of modern Poland.

Nicholas had two older sisters, one later became a nun, and the other got married and left the city. The elder brother Andrzej became Nikolai's faithful comrade-in-arms and companion. Together they traveled half of Europe, studying at best universities.

The Copernicians lived in prosperity and prosperity as long as the father of the family was alive. When Nicholas was nine years old, a plague epidemic broke out in Europe, claiming tens of thousands of lives. Became a victim terrible disease and Copernicus the Elder, and a few years later, in 1489, his mother also died. The family was left without a livelihood, and the children were orphans. Everything could have ended badly if not for Barbara’s uncle, Lukasz Watzenrode, a canon of the local diocese.

Being an educated man at that time, Luke had a master's degree from the Jagiellonian University in Krakow and a doctorate in canon law from the University of Bologna, and subsequently served as a bishop. Luka took upon himself the care of the children of his deceased sister and tried to educate Nikolai and Andrzej.

After graduation Nikolai local school In 1491, the brothers, under the patronage and funds of their uncle, went to Krakow, where they entered the Jagiellonian University to study at the Faculty of Arts. This event marked the beginning of a new stage in the biography of Copernicus, the first on the path to future great discoveries in science and philosophy.

Science

After graduating from the University of Krakow in 1496, the Copernicus brothers set off on a trip to Italy. Funds for the trip were initially planned to be obtained from his uncle, the Bishop of Emerland, but he did not have any free money. Luke invited his nephews to become canons of his own diocese and use the salary they received to go study abroad. In 1487, Andrzej and Nicholas were accepted into the position of canons in absentia, with a salary paid in advance and a three-year leave for study.

The brothers entered the University of Bologna at the Faculty of Law, where they studied church canon law. In Bologna, fate brought Nicholas together with an astronomy teacher, Domenico Maria Novara, and this meeting became decisive for the young Copernicus.

Together with Novara in 1497, the future scientist made the first astronomical observation in his life. The result was the conclusion that the distance to the Moon is the same in quadrature, during the new moon and the full moon. This observation first made Copernicus doubt the truth of the theory that everything celestial bodies revolve around the Earth.

In addition to studying works on law, mathematics and astronomy in Bologna, Nikolai studied Greek and was interested in painting. A painting that is considered a copy of Copernicus’s self-portrait has survived to this day.

After studying in Bologna for three years, the brothers left the university and returned to their homeland in Poland for some time. In the city of Frauenburg, at the place of service, Copernicus asked for a deferment and a few more years to continue his studies. According to some sources, during this period Nicholas lived in Rome and gave lectures on mathematics to noble dignitaries from high society, and Borgia helped Pope Alexander VI master the laws of astronomy.

In 1502, the Copernicus brothers arrived in Padua. At the University of Padua, Nikolai acquired fundamental knowledge and practical experience in medicine, and at the University of Ferrara he received a doctorate in theology. As a result of this extensive study, Copernicus returned home in 1506 as a well-rounded adult.

"Copernicus. Conversation with God." Artist Jan Matejko

By the time they returned to Poland, Nikolai was already 33 years old, and his brother Andrzej was 42 years old. At that time, this age was considered generally accepted for obtaining university diplomas and completing education.

Copernicus' further activities were connected with his position as canon. A brilliant scientist managed to make a career as a clergyman, while simultaneously studying scientific research. He was lucky that his works were completed only at the end of his life, and his books were published after his death.

Copernicus happily escaped the persecution of the church for his radical views and the teaching of the heliocentric system, which his successors and successors failed to do. After the death of Copernicus, the scientist’s main ideas, reflected in the work “On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres,” spread unhindered throughout Europe and the world. It was not until 1616 that this theory was declared heresy and banned by the Catholic Church.

Heliocentric system

Nicolaus Copernicus was one of the first to think about the imperfection of the Ptolemaic system of the universe, according to which the Sun and other planets revolve around the Earth. Using primitive astronomical instruments, partly homemade, the scientist was able to derive and substantiate the theory of heliocentric solar system.

At the same time, Copernicus, until the end of his life, believed that distant stars and luminaries visible from the Earth were fixed on a special sphere surrounding our planet. This misconception was caused by the imperfection of technical means of that time, because in Renaissance Europe there was not even a simple telescope. Some details of Copernicus's theory, in which the ancient Greek astronomers were of the opinion, were subsequently eliminated and refined by Johannes Kepler.

The main work of the scientist’s entire life was the fruit of thirty years of work and was published in 1543 with the participation of Copernicus’s favorite student, Rheticus. The astronomer himself had the good fortune of holding the published book in his hands on the eve of his death.

The work dedicated to Pope Paul III was divided into six parts. The first part talked about the sphericity of the Earth and the entire universe, the second told about the basics of spherical astronomy and the rules for calculating the location of stars and planets on firmament. The third part of the book is devoted to the nature of the equinoxes, the fourth - to the Moon, the fifth - to all planets, the sixth - to the reasons for changes in latitudes.

The teachings of Copernicus are a great contribution to the development of astronomy and the science of the universe.

Personal life

From 1506 to 1512, during his uncle’s lifetime, Nicholas served as a canon in Frombork, then became an adviser to the bishop, and then the chancellor of the diocese. After the death of Bishop Luke, Nikolai moves to Fraenburg and becomes a canon of the local cathedral, and his brother, who fell ill with leprosy, leaves the country.

In 1516, Copernicus received the post of chancellor of the Warmia diocese and moved to the city of Olsztyn for four years. Here the scientist was caught in the war that Prussia waged with the knights of the Teutonic Order. The cleric showed himself to be a surprisingly competent military strategist, managing to ensure proper defense and protection of the fortress, which withstood the onslaught of the Teutons.

In 1521 Copernicus returned to Frombrok. He practiced medicine and was known as a skilled healer. According to some reports, Nicolaus Copernicus relieved illnesses and alleviated the lot of many sick people, mostly his fellow canons.

In 1528, in his declining years, the astronomer fell in love for the first time. The scientist’s chosen one turned out to be a young girl, Anna, the daughter of Copernicus’s friend, metal carver Matz Schilling. The acquaintance took place in the scientist’s hometown, Toruń. Since Catholic clergy were forbidden to marry or have relationships with women, Copernicus settled Anna with him as a distant relative and housekeeper.

However, soon the girl had to leave first from the scientist’s house, and then completely leave the city, since the new bishop made it clear to his subordinate that the church did not welcome this state of affairs.

Death

In 1542, Copernicus's book On the Sides and Angles of Triangles, Both Plane and Spherical, was published in Wittenberg. The main work was published in Nuremberg a year later. The scientist was dying when his students and friends brought the first printed copy of the book “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres.” The great astronomer and mathematician died at home in Frombork, surrounded by loved ones on May 24, 1543.

Copernicus's posthumous fame corresponds to the merits and achievements of the scientist. Thanks to portraits and photographs, the face of the astronomer is known to every schoolchild; monuments stand in different cities and countries, and the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Poland is named in his honor.

Copernicus's discoveries

• creation and substantiation of the theory of the heliocentric system of the world, which marked the beginning of the first scientific revolution;
• development of a new coinage system in Poland;
• construction of a hydraulic machine that supplied water to all houses in the city;
• co-author of the Copernican-Gresham economic law;
• calculation of real planetary motion.

Ancient to explain the unevenness of movements.

Creating his heliocentric system, Copernicus relied on the mathematical and kinematic apparatus of Ptolemy’s theory, on the specific geometric and numerical patterns obtained by the latter. Thus, in Ptolemy’s model, all planets obeyed a general (albeit incomprehensible within the framework of geocentrism) law: the radius vector of any planet in the epicycle always coincided with the radius vector Earth - Sun, and the movement along the epicycle for the upper planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn) and according to the deferent for the lower ones (Mercury, Venus) occurred with a single annual period for all planets. In the Copernican model, this law received a simple and logical explanation.

The main and almost only work of Copernicus, the fruit of more than 40 years of his work, is "On the rotation of the celestial spheres"(lat. De revolutionibus orbium coelestium). The work was published in Nuremberg in 1543; it was printed under supervision best student Copernicus, Rhetica.

In the preface to the book, Copernicus writes:

Considering how absurd this teaching must seem, I hesitated for a long time to publish my book and thought whether it would not be better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, who transmitted their teaching only to friends, spreading it only through tradition.

In structure, Copernicus’s main work almost repeats the “Almagest” in a somewhat abbreviated form (6 books instead of 13). The first book (part) talks about the sphericity of the world and the Earth, and instead of the position about the immobility of the Earth, another axiom is placed: the Earth and other planets rotate around an axis and revolve around the Sun. This concept is argued in detail, and the “opinion of the ancients” is convincingly refuted. From a heliocentric position, he easily explains the reciprocal motion of the planets.

Copernicus gave the Earth three rotations: first - rotation of the Earth around its axis with angular velocity ω; the second (with speed ω′) - around axis mundi, which is perpendicular to the plane of the earth’s orbit and passes through its center; the third (with an oppositely directed speed ω′′) - around an axis parallel to the axis of the world and passing through the center of the Earth. The last two rotations form (with exact coincidence of ω′ and ω′′ in magnitude) a couple of spins, equivalent to the translational motion of the Earth around the Sun in a circular orbit.

The second part of Copernicus's work provides information on spherical trigonometry and rules for calculating the apparent positions of stars, planets and the Sun in the firmament.

The third talks about the annual movement of the Earth and the so-called precession of the equinoxes, which shortens the tropical year (from equinox to equinox) compared to the sidereal year (return to the same position relative to the fixed stars) and leads to a movement of the line of intersection of the equator with the ecliptic, which changes the ecliptic longitude of the star by one degree per century. Ptolemy's theory, in principle, could not explain this precession. Copernicus gave this phenomenon an elegant kinematic explanation (proving himself to be a very sophisticated mechanic): he suggested that the angular velocity ω′′ is not exactly equal to ω′, but differs slightly from it; the difference between these angular velocities is manifested in the precession of the equinoxes.

The fourth part talked about the Moon, the fifth about planets in general, and the sixth about the reasons for changes in the latitudes of the planets. The book also contained a star catalog, an estimate of the sizes of the Sun and Moon, distances to them and to the planets (close to true), and the theory of eclipses. It should be specially noted that the Copernican system (unlike the Ptolemaic system) made it possible to determine the ratios of the radii of planetary orbits. This fact, as well as the fact that in the description of the motion of the planets the first and most important epicycle was thrown out, made the Copernican system simpler and more convenient than the Ptolemaic one.

The Vatican's favorable attitude towards heliocentrism in the first half of the 16th century was also due to the fact that the observations of the Sun and Moon contained in the book of Copernicus were useful for the upcoming calendar reform. Pope Clement VII even listened to a lecture on the heliocentric approach in 1533, prepared by the scientist Cardinal Wigmanstadt. Although some bishops even then came out with fierce criticism of heliocentrism as a dangerous ungodly heresy.

Assumption I: The sun is the center of the universe and, therefore, motionless. Everyone believes that this statement is absurd and absurd from a philosophical point of view, and, moreover, formally heretical, since its expressions largely contradict the Holy Scriptures, according to the literal meaning of the words, as well as the usual interpretation and understanding of the Church Fathers and teachers of theology.

Assumption II: The Earth is not the center of the universe, it is not motionless and moves as a whole (body) and, moreover, makes a daily revolution. Everyone believes that this position deserves the same philosophical condemnation; from the point of view of theological truth, it is at least mistaken in faith.

Original text (Latin)

Propositio I: Sol est centrum et omnino immobilis motu locali. Censura: omnes dixerunt dictam propositionem esse stultam et absurdam in philosophia et formaliter hereticam, quatenus contradicit expresse sententiis sacrae Scripturae in multis locis, secundum proprietatem verborum et secundum expositionem et sensum SS, Patrum et theologorum doctorum.
Propositio II: Terra non est centrum mundi nec immobilis, sed secundum se totam movetur etiam motu diurno. Censura: omnes dixerunt hanc propositionem recipere eandem censuram in philosophia et spectando veritatem theologicam ad minus esse in fide erroneam..

The most famous consequence of this decision in the 17th century was the trial of Galileo (1633), who violated the church ban in his book “Dialogues on the Two Chief Systems of the World.”

Contrary to popular belief, the book of Copernicus itself " De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium"was formally banned by the Inquisition for only 4 years, but was subject to censorship. In 1616 it was included in the Roman Index of Forbidden Books with the notation "until correction". The required censorship amendments that the owners of the book needed to make to allow further use were made public in 1620. These corrections mainly concerned statements that implied that heliocentrism is not simply mathematical model, but a reflection of reality. Many copies of the first one survive (Nuremberg 1618 during the formal operation of the ban. The book was excluded from the Roman Index of Prohibited Books in 1835.

Other advances in astronomy

Copernicus was one of the first to express the idea of universal gravity. His book (Part I, Chapter IX) says:

I think that heaviness is nothing more than a certain desire with which the Divine Architect bestowed upon the particles of matter so that they would unite in the shape of a ball. This property is probably possessed by the Sun, Moon and planets; These luminaries owe their spherical shape to him.

Contrary to popular belief, Copernicus did not predict that Venus and Mercury had lunar-like phases.

Economy

Copernicus drew attention to a pattern known as the Copernicus-Gresham Law (also independently discovered by the English banker Thomas Gresham). According to this principle, money that is more stable in its exchange rate (for example, gold) will be forced out of circulation, as people will accumulate savings in it, and “worse” (for example, copper) money will participate in real circulation. It should be noted that this effect is observed only if the state has established a fixed exchange rate for gold to copper (or silver). In conditions of truly free exchange of gold for copper (silver) and back, no money is “good” or “bad” and, as a result, is not crowded out of the market by one another.

The teachings of Copernicus revolutionized the consciousness of people of the Middle Ages and became the beginning of the formation of a modern worldview. The religious picture of the world that dominated the Middle Ages began to give way to a scientific one. The works of Copernicus gave impetus to the development of astronomy, mathematics, and physics.

Origin

Copernicus's nationality is not precisely determined: some consider him German by his mother's origin, others consider him a Pole by his place of birth. During the life of the scientist, this issue was not fundamental. In writing he used German and the universal language of science of that time was Latin.

Childhood

The small homeland of Copernicus is the small town of Torne, which changed its territorial affiliation, becoming either Prussian or Polish. There were four children in the family; the elder brother became Nikolai’s ally and supported him until the end of his life. The Copernican family was wealthy, the children did not need anything. Another plague epidemic brought misfortune: the head of the family died. A few years later, the mother died. The mother's brother, Uncle Lucas, who later became a bishop, saved the orphans from poverty.

Study and career

Uncle tried to give better education to his nephews. The Copernicus brothers studied at the best universities in Europe. The path to obtaining an education was long; obtaining a diploma and scientific title at the age of 35–40 was considered the norm. The initial stage in Copernicus's studies was the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, where the future scientist studied art from 1491. After 1496, the brothers studied law at the University of Bologna. During this period, Nikolai became interested in astronomy thanks to his communication with Domenico Maria Novara, who taught this subject.

The result of the first observations was doubt in the dogmas of the generally accepted theory of Ptolemy. During this period of his life, Copernicus became interested in painting; his works have survived to this day, the most famous being a self-portrait, preserved as a copy. From 1502, Copernicus and his brother studied medicine and theology at the University of Padua, graduating four years later. Thanks to such a deep education, Nicolaus Copernicus became a comprehensively educated person with encyclopedic knowledge, and the path to science was open.

Under the influence of his uncle, Nikolai chooses a career as a clergyman, combining it with scientific research. First he became a canon, then he became the bishop's adviser and chancellor. His fate became a reflection of the Middle Ages. So, being the chancellor in the city of Olsztyn, he was appointed responsible for the defense of the city from the Teutons and coped with this task brilliantly. Nicolaus Copernicus practiced medicine a lot. During plague epidemics, he did not turn away from danger, but boldly fulfilled his duty.

Love

Copernicus, as a clergyman, could not start a family. There is information that already in mature age he fell in love with his friend's daughter Anna. The girl lived in his house for some time as a relative and au pair, but they still had to separate.

Scientific achievements

1. Heliocentric system
For more than forty years, Copernicus worked on his main discovery, which immortalized his name in the history of mankind. Using primitive instruments, many of which he made himself, and complex mathematical calculations, Copernicus refuted the teachings of Ptolemy. He proved that the Earth is one of the planets that revolve around the sun. His theory is still far from the modern understanding of the picture of the world, but it was a decisive step forward. The main work, “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres,” was published at the end of the scientist’s life. According to legend, Copernicus saw the first copy of his book before his death. However, real evidence refutes this fact - for several months before his death, the scientist was in a severe coma.

The main provisions of his theory:

• The Earth, like the other planets, moves around the sun.
• The earth rotates around itself, which explains the cycle of day and night.
• Planets move in circular orbits.
• The Earth is the center of gravity of the Moon.
• The sun is motionless.
• The distance between the Earth and the Sun is much less than the distance from the Earth to distant stars.

2. Discoveries in economics. Copernicus proposed a reform of the monetary system and studied the mechanisms of price formation.

3. Discoveries in mechanics. Created unique car, which supplied the entire city with water.

Death

In 1743, after a stroke, Copernicus died surrounded by loved ones. Nowadays, streets, a university, an airport, a crater, and a planet are named after him. Many monuments have been erected. His profile is immortalized on the Polish banknote. On the main square of the Polish city of Torun there is a monument on which is written: “He who stopped the Sun - who moved the Earth.”

The fate of Nicolaus Copernicus is unique for that time, full of dangers. He boldly faced danger and honestly fulfilled his duty. His achievements became an important stage in the development of all mankind.