Hydrosphere is the watery shell of the Earth. The hydrosphere consists of three parts: the oceans, land waters, and water in the atmosphere. Water on Earth exists in three states: liquid, solid, gaseous. Due to the fact that water moves easily, all parts of the hydrosphere are inextricably interconnected. The atmosphere contains water vapor, water droplets and ice crystals.

The continent is a huge landmass. An island is a relatively small piece of land washed on four sides. An archipelago is a group of islands lying close to each other. A peninsula is a part of land that is surrounded by water on three sides and connected to land on the fourth.

Parts of the World Ocean: sea is a part of the ocean, separated from it by land or underwater elevations and distinguished by the characteristics of its waters, currents, and inhabitants. A bay is a part of the ocean, sea, or other body of water that protrudes into the land. A strait is a relatively narrow body of water, bounded on both sides by the shores of continents or islands.

Properties of ocean water: salinity - the amount of minerals in grams dissolved in 1 liter of water. Expressed in ppm. In a liter of ocean water, 35 grams of various substances are dissolved, making it unsuitable for drinking. Fresh water contains less than 1 gram of dissolved solids. The temperature of the world's oceans varies. The ocean receives heat from the Sun. On the surface of the ocean heat in the shallow Persian Gulf (+ 35). The lowest is in the polar regions (- 1 – 2). Ocean water freezes at t – 2.

Swell - regular rows of long gentle waves without foamy crests. Tsunamis - giant waves of water covering the entire thickness of water arise from underwater earthquakes and underwater volcanoes. The waves travel in all directions from the point of origin at a speed of km/h and a height of 1 to 40 m, a length of km. length km.

Surf is a foamy wave of water running onto the shore. During a storm, the surf destroys the shore. Ebbs and flows are periodic concepts that do not depend on the wind and the lowering of the water level. Twice a day the water comes to the shore and 2 times retreats far average duration high and low tide 6 hours.

Warm t C is higher than the t C of the surrounding water. The Gulf Stream is 3 thousand km long. wide hundreds of km. speed 10 km/h Cold Cold t C below the t C of the surrounding water. t C is lower than t C of the surrounding water. Labrador t. Labrador t. from North. Ice. Ocean from the North. Ice. Ocean to Atlantic Ocean.

First, people learned about what was happening on the surface and in coastal waters, and then op First, people learned about what was happening on the surface and in coastal waters, and then sank into the depths. The wealth of the world's oceans is incalculable. Until now, in the depths of the ocean there remains a lot of unknown and even mysterious.

The hydrosphere of the earth is the water shell of the Earth.

Introduction

The Earth is surrounded by an atmosphere and a hydrosphere, which are markedly different, but complementary.

The hydrosphere arose in the early stages of the formation of the Earth, like the atmosphere, influencing all life processes, the functioning of ecological systems, and determining the emergence of many species of animals.

What is the hydrosphere

Hydrosphere translated from Greek means water ball or water shell earth's surface. This shell is continuous.

Where is the hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is located between two atmospheres - the gas shell of planet Earth, and the lithosphere - the solid shell, which means land.

What does the hydrosphere consist of?

The hydrosphere consists of water, which chemical composition differs and is presented in three different states - solid (ice), liquid, gaseous (vapor).

The Earth's water shell includes oceans, seas, bodies of water, which can be salty or fresh (lakes, ponds, rivers), glaciers, fjords, ice caps, snow, rain, atmospheric water, and fluid flowing in living organisms.

The share of seas and oceans in the hydrosphere is 96%, another 2% is The groundwater, 2% are glaciers, and 0.02 percent (a very small proportion) are rivers, swamps and lakes. The mass or volume of the hydrosphere is constantly changing, which is associated with the melting of glaciers and the sinking of large areas of land under water.

The volume of the water shell is 1.5 billion cubic kilometers. The mass will constantly increase, given the number of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Most of the hydrosphere is made up of oceans, which form the World Ocean. This is the largest and saltiest body of water on Earth, in which the salinity percentage reaches 35%.

According to the chemical composition, ocean waters contain all the known elements that are located on the periodic table. The total portion of sodium, chlorine, oxygen and hydrogen reaches almost 96%. The ocean crust consists of basalt and sedimentary layers.

The hydrosphere also includes groundwater, which also differs in chemical composition. Sometimes the salt concentration reaches 600%, and they contain gases and derivative components. The most important of them are oxygen and carbon dioxide, which is consumed by plants in the ocean during the process of photosynthesis. It is necessary for the formation of limestone rocks, corals, and shells.

Fresh waters are of great importance for the hydrosphere, part of which in the total volume of the shell is almost 3%, of which 2.15% is stored in glaciers. All components of the hydrosphere are interconnected, being in large or small rotations, which allows water to undergo the process of complete renewal.

Boundaries of the hydrosphere

The waters of the World Ocean cover an area of ​​71% of the Earth, where the average depth is 3800 meters and the maximum is 11022 meters. On the surface of the land there are so-called continental waters, which provide all the vital functions of the biosphere, water supply, watering and irrigation.

The hydrosphere has lower and upper boundaries. The lower one runs along the so-called Mohorovicic surface - earth's crust at the bottom of the ocean. The upper limit is located at the very upper layers atmosphere.

Functions of the hydrosphere

Water on Earth is important for people and nature. This manifests itself in the following signs:

• First, water is an important source of minerals and raw materials, since people use water more often than coal and oil;
• Secondly, it ensures connections between ecological systems;
• Thirdly, it acts as a mechanism that transfers bioenergy ecological cycles that have global significance;
• Fourthly, it is part of all living beings that live on Earth.

Water becomes the birthplace for many organisms, and then further development and formation. Without water, the development of land, landscapes, karst and slope rocks is impossible. In addition, the hydrosphere facilitates the transport of chemicals.

• Water vapor acts as a filter against the penetration of radiation rays from the Sun onto the Earth;
• Water vapor on land helps regulate temperature regime and climate;
• The constant dynamics of the movement of ocean waters is maintained;
• A stable and normal circulation is ensured throughout the planet.

• Each part of the hydrosphere participates in the processes that occur in the Earth's geosphere, which include water in the atmosphere, on land and underground. In the atmosphere itself, there is more than 12 trillion tons of water in the form of steam. The steam is restored and renewed, thanks to condensation and sublimation, turning into clouds and fog. In this case, a significant amount of energy is released.
• Waters located underground and on land are divided into mineral and thermal, which are used in balneology. In addition, these properties have a recreational effect on both humans and nature.

Hydrosphere – the water shell of the Earth, including oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, groundwater and glaciers, snow cover, as well as water vapor in the atmosphere. The Earth's hydrosphere is 94% represented by salty waters of the oceans and seas, more than 75% of all fresh water is conserved in the polar caps of the Arctic and Antarctica (Table 1).

Table 1 – Distribution of water masses in the Earth’s hydrosphere

Part of the hydrosphere	Volume of water, thousand km 3	Share in the total volume of water, %
World Ocean	1 370 000	94,1
The groundwater	60 000
Glaciers	24 000
Lakes		0,02
Water in the soil		0,01
Atmospheric vapors		0,001
Rivers		0,0001

Water on Earth is present in all three states of aggregation, but the largest volume is in the liquid phase, which is very significant for the formation of other features of the planet. The entire natural water complex functions as
a single whole, being in a state of continuous movement, development and renewal. The surface of the World Ocean, which occupies about 71% of the earth's surface, is located between the atmosphere and the lithosphere. The diameter of the Earth, i.e. its equatorial diameter is 12,760 km, and the average depth of the ocean in its modern bed– 3.7 km. Consequently, the thickness of the layer of liquid water on average is only 0.03% of the Earth's diameter. In essence, it is the thinnest film of water on the surface of the Earth, but, like an ozone protective layer, it plays an extremely important role in the biosphere system.

Without water there could be no man, animal or flora, since most plants and animals consist mainly of water. In addition, life requires temperatures in the range from 0 to 100 ° C, which corresponds to the temperature limits of the liquid phase of water. For many living creatures, water serves as a habitat. Thus, main feature The hydrosphere is the abundance of life in it.

The role of the hydrosphere in maintaining a relatively constant climate on the planet is great, since, on the one hand, it acts as a heat accumulator, ensuring the constancy of the average planetary temperature of the atmosphere, and on the other–Due to phytoplankton, it produces almost half of all oxygen in the atmosphere.

The aquatic environment is used for fishing and other seafood, collecting plants, mining underwater deposits of ore (manganese, nickel, cobalt) and oil, transporting goods and passengers. In production and economic activity people use water for cleaning, washing, cooling equipment and materials, watering plants, hydrotransportation, and providing specific processes, such as generating electricity
and so on.

An important circumstance inherent in the aquatic environment is that infectious diseases are mainly transmitted through it (approximately 80% of all diseases). The simplicity of the flooding process compared to other types of burial, the inaccessibility of the depths for humans and the apparent isolation of water have led to the fact that humanity actively uses the aquatic environment to dump production and consumption waste. Intense anthropogenic pollution of the hydrosphere leads to serious changes in its geophysical parameters, destroys aquatic ecosystems and is potentially dangerous to humans.

The environmental threat to the hydrosphere has confronted the international community with the task of taking urgent measures to save the human habitat. Their peculiarity is that not a single state, even with the help of strict measures, is able to cope with the environmental threat. Therefore, international cooperation in this area is necessary, the adoption of optimal environmental strategy, which includes a concept and program of joint actions of all countries. These measures must comply with the principles of modern international law.

2. ECOLOGICAL – ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF HYDROSPHERE

Analysis of the bioeconomy of seas and oceans includes several methodological aspects of determining the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of biological resources, the conditions for their use in the national economic complex. The results of this analysis are the basis for developing or improving the economic and organizational system for managing the rational use of biological resources. The controlled bioeconomic system of the oceans includes many determining and resulting ecological and economic indicators, parameters of their relationships and interdependencies. The level of controllability of a bioeconomic system is determined mainly by the knowledge of processes and phenomena at each hierarchical level (international, interstate and regional), the presence of interstate agreements on the rational use of sea and ocean resources and their protection.

Rational use of hydrosphere biological resources in general terms can be considered as a system social events legal, economic, economic and scientifically regulated nature, determined by the need for the systematic maintenance and reproduction of commercial biological resources, as well as the reliable protection of natural conditions and their aquatic habitat.

Over the past century-long history of economic management, humanity has formed an understanding of the need careful attitude to the use of natural resources. In recent decades, various assessment approaches have been intensively developed to create a system of program measures for the protection of land, water, forests and other resources.

With an integrated approach to the study of the economics and ecology of the development of the resources of the World Ocean, program planning for rational environmental management should be used. Currently, the World Ocean with its resources acts as a scientific and production basis for ensuring large-scale rational use of living resources of the hydrosphere. The most significant section in the development of biological resources of the World Ocean is their bioeconomic assessment (especially fish resources).

Bioeconomic assessment of hydrosphere resources is sometimes carried out using an inventory. However, it should be noted fundamental difference use of bioeconomic cadastre in Russian Federation from its use in some other countries. In our country, the adopted land legislation contains a special section “State Land Cadastre”, which states that in order to ensure the rational use of land resources, the cadastre must contain a set of necessary information on the natural, economic and legal status of lands, soil grading and economic assessment of lands.

A distinctive feature of the bioeconomic cadastre from the land cadastre is that its compilation, processing of hydrological, physical and chemical characteristics, as well as the species composition of living resources of the hydrosphere are more strictly centralized in official documents. The formation and use of the bioeconomic cadastre of the hydrosphere is at high level, allowing the widespread use of information data processing systems and the creation of data banks.

In a general sense, under bioeconomic cadastre implied a significant set of documents in which the necessary information about specific types of aquatic biological resources and their habitat, natural, legal and economic-organizational conditions for their economic use is systematized in an orderly form at a national or regional level.

The main objectives of the bioeconomic cadastre are to generalize and bring closer to objectivity the available information on the distribution, habitat conditions and reserves of specific species of the hydrosphere, on the conditions of economic activity and exploitation in the interests of maximizing the satisfaction of society's needs for food and non-food products. The bioeconomic cadastre acts as an advisory and sometimes as a directive document that provides the functions of national economic management related to the development, use, protection and reproduction of aquatic biological resources.

The bioeconomic cadastre of seas and oceans functionally provides the following main activities:

1) accounting and environmental - economic forecasting of reserves, distribution and condition of specific types of biological resources in national and international waters;

2) environmental - economic forecasting and planning of the activities of the domestic fishing and other industries in relation to the rationally permissible withdrawal of biological resources in terms of volume, species composition and other indicators, regions and seasons of formation of fishing aggregations, etc.;

3) comprehensive planning of the activities of other sectors of the national economy that have a certain impact on the state and dynamics of the number of biological resources of the hydrosphere;

5) development and implementation of long-term programs of environmental and reproductive measures at the regional, national and international levels;

6) implementation of measures for economic and mathematical modeling of bioeconomic processes of the hydrosphere;

7) determination of the amount of mutual settlements for the use of biological resources by national and foreign organizations;

8) determination of the amount of damage, as well as compensation by sectors of the national economy for biological resources of the hydrosphere;

9) development of integrated environmental - economic programs for the long-term use of resources by region and individual economic tasks related to the development of the World Ocean, etc.

The practical needs of the development and implementation of bioeconomic inventories require their implementation and classification according to certain criteria depending on the spatial and geographical distribution of the aquatic environment and biological resources and depending on their international legal status. Under these conditions, objective social needs arise for the development of environmental— economic assessment of natural resources in general and biological resources in particular.

In the studied object of hydrosphere biological resources there must certainly be an initial supply of them that is not equal to zero, while for artificially created resources (seaculture, etc.) this rule is not so necessary.

With regard to stocks of biological resources, two approaches to constructing a bioeconomic cadastre are possible. They are associated with the minimum or maximum state of stocks at the time of making a decision on the reproduction of resources of the seas and oceans and their protection.

Of great importance for constructing a bioeconomic inventory of the hydrosphere is the study of the properties of these reserves, taking into account persistence, mobility, renewability, inclusion in consumption, reactivity and uniqueness.

Storability manifests itself in the fact that the reserves of biological resources of the hydrosphere in terms of volume or composition can only exist for a certain time, after which they either break up into smaller reserves, or are completely lost for use, or require some kind of cost to increase, etc.

Mobility manifests itself in the possibility of redistributing reserves or concentrating the production of biological resources hydrosphere.

Recoverability - This is a complete or limited bringing of the stock to the desired level. Under certain environmental conditions, the supply of biological resources may not be restored at all.

Inclusion in consumption as a property is manifested in the ability of biological resources to be used without certain conditions or in the presence of such conditions, for example, appropriate environmental conditions, the level of development of fishing technology, etc.

Reactivity involves studying the reaction of the influence of individual factors on the reserves of biological resources in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Uniqueness or ordinaryness is expressed in varying degrees of dispersion and availability of hydrosphere bioresources.

Modern data on the mineral, energy and chemical resources of the World Ocean are of significant practical interest for the national economy, especially the mineral wealth of the shelf subsoil - oil, natural gas, sodium, etc. Therefore, the marine environment can be considered as a “nature - production” object where processes take place creation of material resources for society and their reproduction.

Under shelf of seas and oceans should be understood underwater extensions of the continent towards the sea with a depth of 20 to 600 m. The width of the shelf can be on average about 40-1000 km, and the area - about 28 million km 2 (19% sushi).

For example, industrial production oil production in the Caspian Sea began back in 1922, and now more than 18 million tons of oil are produced here annually. In 1949, offshore drilling began off the coast of Brazil in the Gulf of Makapkan, and now more than 60 countries are drilling the seabed and 25 of them are extracting oil and natural gas from the depths of the sea. World oil production in 1972 amounted to 2.6 billion tons, and according to forecasts in 2000 it will be 7.4 billion tons. About 40 billion tons of oil were extracted from the bowels of the earth throughout the history of mankind, and until 2000 150 billion tons will be produced.

In 1975, international oil concerns produced products worth approximately $40 billion, and the total value of marine mineral raw materials extracted in 1976 was estimated at $60–70 billion. For decades, coal has been extracted from land-based mines. subsoil of the seabed in England, Japan, Canada, Chile. Significant coal deposits are hidden in the depths of the shelf off the coast of Turkey, China, and. Taiwan, off the coast of Australia. The largest iron ore deposits on the seabed are concentrated off the eastern coast of the island. Newfoundland, where total ore reserves reach 2 billion tons. Total world fame have marine placers in Australia, where they discovered gold, platinum, rutile, ilmenite, zircon, and mangancite. In the USA, more than 900 kg of platinum is mined annually from sea placers, in South West Africa- about 200 thousand carats of diamonds. Currently, 1/3 of the world's salt production, 61% of magnesium metal, and 70% of bromine are obtained from sea water. Fresh drinking water is becoming increasingly important.

Nowadays, more than 500 million people get sick every year from the consumption of poor-quality water by the population of some areas of the globe. In the near future, freshwater resources on land will increasingly need to be replenished by desalinating seawater. However, water desalination is a very energy-intensive production, so it becomes necessary to find ways to use additional marine resources for this purpose. With the exception of oil and natural gas production, the energy resources of the seas are underutilized. Therefore, the relatively high cost of desalinated water is sometimes the main reason for the introduction of scientific and technological progress. According to preliminary estimates, the cost of desalinated water when used electrical energy tidal and other conventional power plants is 6-20 thousand den. units/m3, and when using nuclear power plants - 1-4 thousand den. units/m3.

The total tidal energy capacity is just over 1 billion kW. Since 1968, the Kislogubskaya tidal power plant with a capacity of 1 thousand kW has been operating; in France, a similar station was built on the Cotentin Peninsula with a capacity of 33 million kW. The intensification of the development of the resources of the World Ocean and the development of energy do not occur without causing damage to it. Complex biological and other natural processes take place in the World Ocean, for example, more than half of all earth's oxygen is produced, and a violation of the ecological balance leads to a decrease in the productivity of phytoplankton, which, in turn, leads to a decrease in oxygen content and an increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Currently, the fauna and flora of the World Ocean are seriously threatened by pollution: municipal, industrial, agricultural and other wastewater is a source of bacterial, radioactive contamination; emergency discharges; oil leaks from tankers; pollutants coming from the air, etc. Every year, about 2 million tons of oil fall from tankers and offshore drilling rigs to the surface of the ocean. Not only offshore drilling is dangerous for the seas and oceans, but also seismic methods of oil exploration, since explosions kill eggs, larvae, juveniles and adult fish.

Thus, the problem of protecting the World Ocean is of national and international significance, and its successful solution will contribute to progress in the field of protecting the biosphere within an individual state and the entire planet. The country cooperates on the protection marine environment from pollution with Germany, USA, Canada, France, Japan, Sweden, Finland, actively participates in the activities of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and other international organizations. To protect water resources, our country has adopted a number of resolutions “On measures to prevent pollution of the Caspian Sea”, “On measures to prevent pollution of the Volga and Ural river basins with untreated wastewater", "On measures for conservation and rational use natural complexes lake Baikal" and others.

The multifaceted use of the ocean creates problems and contradictions in the development of many industries. For example, oil production in coastal waters causes damage to fisheries and resorts. Hydrosphere pollution has a negative impact on biological resources and per person, it causes enormous damage to the economy.

Available methods make it possible to determine the amount of economic and social damage caused to nature by sectors of the national economic complex of our country. The further task of increasing the environmental and economic efficiency of nature management is to improve the economic mechanism that allows the transfer of environmental measures from the state budget to economic accounting. Under these conditions, it will be possible to rationally use and protect resources and the hydrosphere, i.e. the World Ocean will be able to ensure the progress of mankind only by taking into account the reasonable interaction of society and nature.

3. ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF HYDROSPHERE POLLUTION

The growth in the possibilities of industrial, agricultural production and non-production spheres complicates the relationship between society and nature, resulting in the need to preserve and improve the life support system on a global and regional scale. External environmenthydrosphere, atmosphere and metasphere becomes a direct participant in the production of a social product. Therefore, here, as in basic production, systematic accounting, control and planning for the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection are required. The effectiveness of these measures is closely related to determining the amount of economic and social damage caused to society and nature by negative anthropogenic impacts. Under economic and social damage should be understood losses in national economy and society, directly or indirectly resulting from negative anthropogenic impacts leading to environmental pollution with aggressive substances, noise, electromagnetic or other wave influences.

In the general interpreted understanding, specific damage is the amount of reduction in national income per unit of emitted aggressive substances in hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere. It can be calculated for 1 km 2 of sea, 1 hectare of agricultural land, 1 hectare of forests, per 1000 people, 1 million den. units fixed assets, etc.

Using the calculated characteristics of changes in the magnitude of damage from the concentration of an aggressive substance in the environment and the duration of its impact on a subject or object, it is possible to develop a pollution assessment monogram hydrosphere, lithosphere or atmosphere, in which zones are distinguished according to the degree of danger. When determining the danger zone of water pollution, the directions of use of water resources should be taken into account. For example, the requirements for water quality are different when people use it for cooking or for cultural and domestic needs. The absolute and comparative effectiveness of environmental protection measures is closely related to the requirements for maintaining the quality of water and other natural resources. Criteria comparative effectiveness environmental protection measures can achieve growth in national income by preventing economic damage with minimal costs for environmental protection measures. It follows from this that the amount of economic damage can act as a general measure when optimizing the relationship between society and nature. The need to optimize resource-saving and environmental measures is of particular importance, since their implementation requires expenditures of more than 20% of all capital investments in the national economic complex. At the same time, comparative indicators ecological—

Structure and composition of the hydrosphere.

Population. Model of limited population growth.

Ways to reduce emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere.

Structure and composition of the Earth's hydrosphere.

The hydrosphere (the word from the Greek hydor - water and sphaira - ball) is the water shell of the Earth.

The hydrosphere consists of all natural waters on and near the surface of the earth. Earth is the only planet solar system, on the surface of which water can be in a liquid state. The mass of the hydrosphere is less than 0.03% of the mass of the entire Earth, the volume of the hydrosphere is 1370.3 million km 3.
The hydrosphere is the totality of all the waters of the Earth: continental (underground, soil, surface), oceanic and atmospheric. Water is not only the medium in which life develops, but also the product from which living organisms are created. Initially, all waters could be acidic in nature. Despite the variety of types of natural waters and their state of aggregation, the hydrosphere is one, since all its parts are connected by flows of ocean, sea and lake currents, channel, surface and underground runoff, and atmospheric transport.

Composition of the hydrosphere:

1) oceans and seas (96.5%)

2) groundwater (1.7%)

3) glaciers, permanent snow and underground ice (1,7%)

4) water from rivers, swamps and fresh lakes (0.01%)
Almost 98% of the hydrosphere consists of salt water from the seas and oceans, and they cover 70.8% of the earth's surface. About 4% comes from river, underground and lake waters, continental ice, and some water is also contained in minerals and organic nature.

Four oceans (Pacific - the largest and deepest, occupies almost half of the earth's surface, Indian, Atlantic, and Arctic), which together with the seas form a single water area - the World Ocean.

The world's oceans are main part hydrosphere and is a continuous shell of water surrounding all continents. It occupies 2/3 of the earth's surface.
Sea water is special kind natural waters because it is salty. In addition to water and oxygen, about 81 chemical elements out of 92 were discovered. There are about 40 tons of salt in 1 km2. This determines the salinity of the water. Average salinity MO = 35 ppm. , that is, 35 g per 1 liter of water.

World water cycle:

1) large (connects the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and organisms inhabiting the Earth into a single whole geographical envelope)

2) small (covers the hydrosphere and atmosphere). Components The hydrosphere is the world's oceans and the ground and surface waters of the land.

Water plays an extremely important role in the life of the Earth. The action of water and wind modifies the surface of the planet, contributing to the destruction of mountain ranges and plateaus and, at the same time, forming strata of sedimentary rocks at the bottom of the seas and oceans.

Water plays a primary role in the life of plants, animals and humans. It is involved in most biochemical processes and is the environment in which chemical and biochemical reactions take place that ensure the life of any organism. The body of an adult contains up to 70% water (~25% intracellular water, ~45% extracellular water), and to maintain and renew its reserves it requires at least 2-3 liters of water per day. In fact, a city dweller spends 100-200 times more on household needs. Not a single sector of the modern economy can do without water: it is used as a technological raw material, a coolant, a coolant, a detergent, and a working fluid in hydraulic devices. Water consumption by mankind is constantly growing and the task of water supply, due to the increase in the planet's population, has become one of the main problems of mankind.

Thus, water, as an element of the global ecosystem, performs four very important functions:

1) water is the main component of all living organisms and plants (the human body consists of 70% water, and some organisms, such as jellyfish or cucumber - 98-99%);

2) occur with the participation of water numerous processes in ecosystems (eg metabolism, heat);

3) the waters of the World Ocean - the main climate-forming factor, the main accumulator of solar energy;

4) water is one of the most important types of mineral raw materials, the main natural resource which is consumed by humanity.

Population. Model of limited population growth.

A population is a collection of individuals of the same species that interact with each other and jointly populate a common territory. The main characteristics of a population: number, density, birth rate, mortality, growth rate, etc. In addition, populations have a certain structure: age (ratio of individuals of different ages), sexual (sex ratio), spatial (colonies, families, packs, etc.). So the age structure of the population is important characteristic affecting fertility and mortality. The ratio of different age groups in a population determines its ability to reproduce in this moment, and usually in rapidly growing populations a significant proportion consists of young individuals. The ratio of young individuals in game birds and fur-bearing animals to the size of the entire population determines the size of permissible quotas for shooting or trapping during the hunting season. The sex ratio also has practical significance(herds of domestic animals, when a certain number of individuals of a particular species can be removed without damaging the population dynamics)

The parameter K is called the “population capacity”, is expressed in units of number (or concentration) and is systemic in nature, that is, determined by a number of different circumstances, including restrictions on the amount of substrate for microorganisms, the available volume for a population of tissue cells, the food supply or shelters for higher animals. The graph of the dependence of the right side of equation (2) on the size x and the population size on time is presented in Fig. 1 (a and b).

The study of a discrete analogue of equation (2) in the second half of the 20th century revealed completely new and remarkable properties [Riznichenko G. Yu., Rubin A. B. Mathematical models biological production processes; Murray J. D. Mathematical Biology]. Let us consider the population size at successive moments of time, which corresponds to the real procedure for counting individuals (or cells) in a population. The dependence of the population at time step number n+1 on the population at the previous step n can be written as:

x n+1 = rx n (1 - x n)

(3)

The time behavior of the variable x n, depending on the value of the parameter r, can have the character of not only limited growth, as was the case for the continuous model (2), but also be oscillatory or quasistochastic, as shown in Fig. 2 on the left. From top to bottom, the value of the intrinsic growth rate parameter r increases. Curves representing the dependence of the population value at a given time (t+1) on the population value at the previous time t are presented in Fig. 2 on the left, this speed increases at small numbers, and decreases, and then becomes zero at large numbers. The dynamic type of population growth curve depends on how quickly growth occurs at small numbers, i.e. is determined by the derivative (the tangent of the slope of this curve) at zero, which is determined by the coefficient r:

· For small r (r< 3) численность популяции стремится к устойчивому равновесию;

· As the graph on the left becomes steeper, stable equilibria transition into stable cycles. As the population increases, the length of the cycle increases, and the population values ​​are repeated after 2, 4, 8,..., 2n generations;

· When the parameter r > 2.570, solutions become chaotic. At sufficiently large r, the population dynamics exhibit chaotic bursts (outbreaks in the number of insects). Equations of this type describe the population dynamics of seasonally breeding insects with non-overlapping generations.

Discrete description has proven to be productive for systems of a wide variety of natures. The apparatus for representing the dynamic behavior of a system on a plane in coordinates allows one to determine whether the observed system is oscillatory or quasistochastic. For example, the presentation of electrocardiogram data made it possible to establish that contractions human heart Normally, they are irregular, but during attacks of angina or in a pre-infarction state, the rhythm of heart contraction becomes strictly regular. This “tightening” of the regime is a protective reaction of the body in stressful situation and indicates a threat to the life of the system.

Ways to reduce emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere.

There are basically three main sources of air pollution: industry, domestic boilers, and transport. The contribution of each of these sources to total air pollution varies greatly from place to place. It is now generally accepted that industrial production produces the most air pollution. Sources of pollution are thermal power plants, which, along with smoke, emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air; metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants. Harmful gases enter the air as a result of burning fuel for industrial needs, heating homes, operating transport, burning and processing household and industrial waste.

For the atmosphere to function properly, it is necessary to find ways that would help reduce the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. Such ways exist, but they are not always used. These ways can reduce the amount of emissions into the atmosphere. Now I will list ways that could reduce the amount of harmful substances emitted into the atmosphere.

Ways to reduce:

1. Improvement technological processes, introduction of resource-saving technologies, new materials.

2. The use of natural gas as fuel in boiler houses. Currently, a design and estimate documentation has been prepared for the conversion of boiler houses of MPO housing and communal services in Krasnye Baki to gas fuel. A gas pipeline was laid at Metoksil LLC to connect the boiler room.

3. Introduction of gas purification systems (cyclones, dust and gas collection units, etc.). Woodworking equipment at the enterprises of OJSC "Udarnik", JSC LPH "Shemanikhinsky", PP Krasnobakovsky LPH, CJSC "Agroles" and some others are equipped with cyclones for collecting dust; a gas purification unit was installed at the DRSP asphalt plant.

4. Use of unleaded gasoline and gas in engines internal combustion. The sale of leaded gasoline is prohibited in the Nizhny Novgorod region.

Bibliography:

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ü Ecology. Nature - Man - Technology: Textbook for universities. // Akimova T. A., Kuzmin A. P., Khaskin V. V. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2001.

ü Basics general ecology. Textbook. Voronkov N.A. M.: "Agar", 2007, - 218

ü
Bazykin A.D. Nonlinear dynamics of interacting populations. M-Izhevsk, 2003

ü Bigon M., Harper J., Tausend K. Ecology. Individuals, populations and communities. M., 1989

ü Jeffers D. Introduction to systems analysis: application in ecology. M., 1981

ü http://www.greenpeace.org/russia/ru Greenpeace Russia.

The hydrosphere - the watery shell of our planet - is the vast expanses of seas and oceans, the blue of lakes, sparkling ribbons of rivers and swamps of swamps, clouds and fogs, silvery frost and dew drops. About 3/4 of the Earth's surface is covered with water. The water molecule H2O consists of three atoms - one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. This colorless chemical compound, tasteless and odorless, is the most common on the planet; without it, the existence of life is impossible, and its role in the formation geographic envelope huge.

The total volume of water per globe 1390 million km3, the main part of it falls on the seas and oceans - 96.4%. On the land greatest number The water contains glaciers and permanent snow - about 1.86% (while in mountain glaciers - 0.2%). About 1.7% of the total volume of the hydrosphere is groundwater and approximately 0.02% is land water (rivers, lakes, swamps, artificial reservoirs - approx. A certain amount of water is found in living organisms of the biosphere and in the atmosphere. Fresh water is only 2.64%.

On our planet, under natural conditions, water can exist in three states of aggregation - solid (ice), liquid (water) and gaseous (water vapor), unlike other substances that are either in solid (minerals, metals - approx. or in gaseous (oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide) state.

Life on Earth originated due to the appearance of water on it - an amazing substance with anomalous chemical and physical properties. Water molecules have an unusually strong attraction to each other, about 10 times stronger than molecules of other liquids. Therefore, at normal atmospheric pressure, water boils at 100 °C and melts at 0 °C. If we compare water - hydrogen oxide - with other substances that are compounds of hydrogen with elements found in periodic table Mendeleev on a par with oxygen - tellurium, selenium and sulfur, it turns out that the freezing and boiling points of water are unusually high. One would expect that ice would melt at -90 °C and water would boil at -70 °C. In this case, all the ice on Earth would melt, and the oceans and seas would boil away. Under the conditions of our planet, only the gaseous state of water would become normal.

The heat capacity of water is abnormally high, so melting ice, heating and evaporating water requires much more energy than other substances. And the thermal conductivity of water is very small, so the water heats up slowly and cools down slowly.

Some amazing properties water determines many of the most important natural processes occurring on the planet. For example, water has its greatest density not at 0 °C - the melting point, but at 4 °C. Fresh water cooled to below
4 °C, becomes less dense and therefore remains in the surface layer. This allows reservoirs not to freeze to the bottom, which preserves the lives of their inhabitants.

When water freezes, it expands and its density in the liquid state is greater than in the solid state. Therefore, ice is lighter than water - this is another remarkable property of water, which distinguishes it from the vast majority of other substances. Thanks to this property, ice does not sink, does not sink to the bottom of the reservoir, and giant icebergs float in the oceans. Eternal ice Antarctica, Greenland and many other islands in high latitudes are covered. In mountains at high altitudes, mountain glaciers form.

Water has high surface tension, so raindrops very elastic and successfully destroy rocks.

Due to the peculiarities of its molecular structure, water dissolves various chemical compounds well.

Over the long geological history of the planet, the outlines of the continents and oceans have changed more than once, large ice sheets have developed, powerful rivers have carried huge masses of destroyed land into the seas and oceans. rocks. Water took part in all these processes - approx. Water can flow upward - it independently rises through the soil capillaries, feeding the soil layer with moisture. Moving up through the capillary vessels of grasses and trees, water supplies them with nutrients.