Water sources. World fresh water reserves on earth

Main source fresh water are precipitation, but two other sources can also be used for consumer needs: groundwater and surface water.

Underground springs. Approximately 37.5 million km3, or 98% of all fresh water in liquid form, is groundwater, with approx. 50% of them lie at depths of no more than 800 m. However, the volume of available groundwater is determined by the properties of the aquifers and the power of the pumps pumping out the water.

Groundwater reserves in the Sahara are estimated at approximately 625 thousand km3. IN modern conditions they are not replenished by surface fresh waters, but are depleted when pumped. Some of the deepest groundwater is never included in the general water cycle, and only in areas of active volcanism does such water erupt in the form of steam.
However, a significant mass of groundwater still penetrates the earth's surface: under the influence of gravity, these waters move along waterproof inclined layers rocks, emerge at the foot of the slopes in the form of springs and streams.
In addition, they are pumped out by pumps, and also extracted by plant roots and then enter the atmosphere through the process of transpiration.

Mirror groundwater represents the upper limit of available groundwater. If there are slopes, the groundwater table intersects with the earth's surface, and a source is formed. If groundwater is under high hydrostatic pressure, then artesian springs are formed at the places where they reach the surface.
With the advent of powerful pumps and the development of modern drilling technology, the extraction of groundwater has become easier.
Pumps are used to supply water to shallow wells installed on aquifers. However, in wells drilled to greater depths, to the level of pressure artesian waters, the latter rise and saturate the overlying groundwater, and sometimes come to the surface.
Groundwater moves slowly, at a speed of several meters per day or even per year.
They are usually found in porous pebbly or sandy horizons or relatively impervious shale formations, and only rarely are they concentrated in underground cavities or underground streams.
For the right choice well drilling sites usually require information about geological structure territories.

In some parts of the world, increasing consumption of groundwater is having serious consequences. Pumping a large volume of groundwater, incomparably exceeding its natural replenishment, leads to a lack of moisture, and lowering the level of this water requires greater costs for expensive electricity used to extract it.
In places where the aquifer is depleted earth's surface begins to sag, and recovery becomes more difficult there water resources naturally.

In coastal areas, excessive groundwater withdrawal leads to the replacement of fresh water in the aquifer with seawater and saline water, thereby degrading local freshwater sources.

Gradual deterioration of groundwater quality as a result of salt accumulation may have an even greater impact dangerous consequences. Sources of salts can be both natural (for example, the dissolution and removal of minerals from soils) and anthropogenic (fertilization or excessive watering with water with a high salt content).
Rivers fed by mountain glaciers usually contain less than 1 g/l of dissolved salts, but the mineralization of water in other rivers reaches 9 g/l due to the fact that they drain areas composed of salt-bearing rocks over a long distance.

Indiscriminate release or disposal of toxic chemicals causes them to leak into aquifers that provide drinking or irrigation water.
In some cases, just a few years or decades are enough for harmful chemicals got into groundwater and accumulated there in noticeable quantities. However, if aquifer once contaminated, it will take from 200 to 10,000 years to naturally cleanse itself.

Surface sources. Only 0.01% of the total volume of fresh water in liquid state is concentrated in rivers and streams and 1.47% in lakes. To store water and constantly provide it to consumers, as well as to prevent unwanted floods and generate electricity, dams have been built on many rivers.
The Amazon River has the highest average water consumption, and therefore the highest energy potential. South America, Congo (Zaire) in Africa, Ganges with Brahmaputra in south asia, Yangtze in China, Yenisei in Russia and Mississippi with Missouri in the USA.

Natural freshwater lakes holding approx. 125 thousand km3 of water, along with rivers and artificial reservoirs, are important source drinking water for people and animals.
They are also used for irrigation of agricultural lands, navigation, recreation, fishing and, unfortunately, for the discharge of domestic and industrial wastewater. Sometimes, due to gradual filling with sediment or salinization, lakes dry up, but in the process of evolution of the hydrosphere, new lakes form in some places.

The water level of even “healthy” lakes can decrease throughout the year as a result of water runoff through the rivers and streams flowing from them, due to water seeping into the ground and its evaporation.
Restoration of their levels usually occurs due to precipitation and the influx of fresh water from rivers and streams flowing into them, as well as from springs. However, as a result of evaporation, salts coming with river runoff accumulate.
Therefore, after thousands of years, some lakes can become very salty and unsuitable for many living organisms.

Fresh water is water that contains no more than 0.1% salt. It can be in the form of liquid, vapor or ice. Of the total amount of water resources it is 2.5-3%. But of this 3%, only 1% is available to humans.

Its distribution on globe characterized by unevenness. Europe and Asia, inhabited by 70% of the population, have only 39% at their disposal.

The main sources are:

surface (rivers, streams, fresh lakes, glaciers);
groundwater (springs and artesian springs);
precipitation (snow and rain).

The largest reserve is stored in glaciers (85-90%), especially in Antarctic ones. Russia ranks second in the world in terms of fresh water reserves (first place belongs to Brazil). The main amount of water is concentrated in Lake Baikal: 80% of Russian reserves and 20% of global reserves.

The total volume of the lake is 23.6 thousand cubic kilometers. Every year it produces approximately 60 m 3 of water, characterized by extraordinary purity and transparency.

Fresh water shortage problem

IN lately humanity faces the problem of shortage. Now over 1.2 billion people are experiencing constant shortages. According to forecasts, in a few decades more than 4 billion people will find themselves in such conditions, as its number will be halved. The reasons for this situation include:

contamination of water sources;
population growth;
melting of glaciers as a result of the greenhouse effect.

They are trying to restore this deficit in the following ways:

export;
creation of artificial reservoirs;
cost savings;
artificial production of fresh water.

Methods for obtaining fresh water:

desalination of sea waters;
condensation of water vapor from the air in natural cold storage facilities, most often in coastal caves.

With the help of condensation, huge reserves of water are formed, which fall under the seabed, where they often break through with fresh springs.

Meaning and Application

First of all, water is necessary for the Earth's ecosystems to function properly. Water creates and supports life on Earth, plays the role of a universal solvent, and takes part in all chemical reactions, occurring in the human body, shapes climate and weather.

The human body contains 70% water. Therefore, it must be constantly replenished: without it, a person cannot live for more than 3 days.

The bulk of water resources is used by agriculture and industry, and only a small part (about 10%) is used for consumer needs.

Recently, consumption for household needs has increased sharply due to the introduction of automatic dishwashers and washing machines.

Compound

The water of rivers and lakes is not the same in composition. Since it is a universal solvent, its composition depends on the composition of the surrounding soil and the minerals contained in it. It contains dissolved gases (mainly oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide), various cations and anions, organic substances, suspended particles, microorganisms.

Characteristics

An important characteristic is its purity. Water quality depends on acidity pH, hardness and organoleptics.

The acidity of water is affected by the content of hydrogen ions, and hardness is affected by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions.

Hardness can be general, carbonate and non-carbonate, removable and irremovable.

The organoleptic properties of water depend on its smell, taste, color and turbidity.

The smell may be earthy, chlorine, petroleum, etc. It is rated on a 5-point scale:

complete absence of odor;
the smell is almost unnoticeable;
the smell can only be noticed if you specifically pay attention to it;
the smell can be easily noticed and you don’t really want to drink it;
the smell is clearly audible, which prevents the desire to drink it;
the smell is particularly strong, making it undrinkable.

The taste of fresh water can be salty, sour, sweet and bitter. It is also rated on a 5-point scale. It can be absent, very faint, weak, noticeable, distinct and very strong.

Color and turbidity are assessed on a 14-point scale by comparison with a standard.

Water is characterized by inexhaustibility and self-purification. Inexhaustibility is determined by its self-replenishment, which results from the natural water cycle.

What does water quality depend on?

To study its properties, qualitative and quantitative analysis. On its basis, the maximum permissible concentration is determined for each substance included in its composition. But for some substances, viruses and bacteria, the maximum permissible concentration should be zero: they should be completely absent.

Quality is affected by:

climate (especially frequency and amount of precipitation);
geological feature of the area (mainly the structure of the river bed);
ecological conditions of the region.

Special devices are used for cleaning. But even when using the latest modifications of treatment systems, some of the pollutants (about 10%) remain in the water.

Freshwater classification

Divided into:

regular;
mineral.

Depending on the mineral content, mineral water is classified into:

In addition, there are also artificial fresh waters, which are divided into:

mineral and distilled;
desalinated and melted;
shungite and silver;
"alive" and "dead".

Melt water has a number of useful properties. But it is not recommended to prepare it by melting snow or ice from the street: it will contain benzopyrene, which is an organic carcinogenic compound that is characterized by the first hazard class. Its source is car exhaust gases.

Shungite water is formed when water passes through deposits of shungite (rock), acquiring medicinal properties. They also make artificial shungite water, but its effectiveness has not been proven.

Silver water is formed as a result of saturation with silver. It has bactericidal properties and can kill pathogenic microorganisms.

“Living” and “dead” water does not only exist in fairy tales. It is obtained by electrolysis of ordinary water and is used to treat various diseases.

A leaking tap, from which tap water flows in a thin stream, will carry away 840 liters per day.
Most clean water Finland can boast.
The most expensive water is sold in Finland: 1 liter costs $90.
If you put hot and cold water, then the hot one will freeze faster.
Hot water will put out a fire faster than cold water.
At school we learned that water can be in 3 states. Scientists identify 14 states of frozen water and 5 states of liquid water.
Modern people need 80-100 liters of water per day. During the Middle Ages, 5 liters was enough for a person.
A person drinks 2-2.5 liters per day, and 35 tons over a lifetime.

Water shortages are increasingly making themselves felt to humanity. Something needs to be done to change the situation, otherwise the inhabitants of the blue planet, most of which is occupied by water, will be left without something to drink. In this case, all living things will have only 3 days to live.

About 1500 million cubic kilometers of water are found on our planet, of which approximately 10% is fresh water.

Moreover, from 110 to 190 million cubic kilometers of water is located under the earth’s crust, these are underground reservoirs. And depending on how deep these are sources of water on earth, they are divided into surface and underground waters.

Water pools, located underground at depths from tens to hundreds of meters, are peculiar vessels surrounded by solid rock, in which water is under high pressure. Water reservoirs that accumulate at depths of several meters are a favorable basis for wells from which people get water for domestic needs, but such water also has the disadvantage that due to its constant contact with the upper loose layers of the soil, it is dirtier than the water which is much deeper.

A huge source of water on earth are our glaciers located in Antarctica and Greenland. This is in the area of 20 to 30 million cubic kilometers of fresh water. A considerable amount of fresh water falls to earth from the atmosphere, in the form atmospheric precipitation, formed due to evaporation from natural water sources on earth, this is approximately another 13 thousand cubic kilometers.

And how much fresh water is obtained annually from the world’s oceans using various physical and chemical methods. Undoubtedly, the most used sources of water on earth for their needs by humanity today are, first of all, rivers and lakes. What is it worth - the largest (and cleanest in the world) natural fresh water storage facility in Russia, the volume of which is 20 thousand cubic kilometers of water.

The composition of water in Lake Baikal is approximately as follows:

Arsenic contains about 0.3 µg/l (MPC = 10 µg/l)

Lead around 0.7 µg/l (MPC = 10)

Mercury within 0.1 μg/l (MPC = 1)

Cadmium approximately 0.02 µg/l (MPC = 1),

6 thousand cubic kilometers of water on our planet is in you and me, living organisms, animals and plants. Thus, our water natural resources distributed throughout the planet. You and I are 80% liquid, and a violation of the water balance leads to dire consequences. We do not pay attention to how we exchange liquid with nature through urine, sweat and exhaled tiny droplets of liquid. But in order for all this to take place, we draw this liquid from nature.

And no one wondered what if this exchange stopped? In this case, dehydration occurs - dehydration of the body. The person begins to feel weak, the heart rate increases, shortness of breath and dizziness appear. When the body loses about 10% of fluid from body weight, a person loses consciousness, his speech is impaired, and his hearing and vision also deteriorate. If the fluid loss is 15-20% of body weight, then irreversible processes occur in the cardiovascular and nervous systems leading to death.

There are many sources of water on Earth, but not all natural waters can serve as a source of water supply for the population. Selecting a source of water supply to populated areas is a complex task that requires a comprehensive study and careful analysis of water resources in each specific area and especially the characteristics of natural waters.

Open surface water bodies include oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, swamps and reservoirs. Sea and ocean water cannot be used as a source of water supply without preliminary special expensive treatment, since it contains up to 35 kg various salts in one ton of water.

Therefore, for the purpose of water supply to populated areas, other sources are used - rivers, lakes and reservoirs. In the CIS countries, centralized water supply in the amount of about 8 km 3 /year is mainly carried out from surface sources - 83%. The waters of rivers and fresh lakes are of primary importance.

Depending on climatic and weather conditions In one area or another, the water content of rivers and lakes varies from year to year. It also changes throughout the year: it rises in the spring, and drops significantly in summer and winter. During periods of spring floods, water has high color, low alkalinity, contains a large amount of suspended substances, various pesticides, bacteria, and acquires tastes and odors. When water bodies bloom in summer period the water acquires the most unexpected colors and very unique smells - fishy, herbal, moldy, cucumber and even violet.

River water usually contains small quantity mineral salts and has relatively low hardness. All physical and chemical properties river water, its bacterial and biological composition depend on the substances and pollutants distributed throughout the catchment area. All surface water first washes forests and meadows, fields and built-up areas, and only then enters rivers. In rivers, self-purification processes occur under the influence of dilution with water from the reservoir, biological decomposition of pollutants and sedimentation of the largest suspended matter to the bottom. Biological processes occur under the influence of the vital activity of microorganisms and protozoa inhabiting the reservoir, with the participation of oxygen dissolved in water and sunlight.

Lakes used for water supply are also characterized by high color and oxidation of water, the presence of plankton in warm periods of the year, low mineralization and low hardness. Lake water contains an increased amount of nutrients that contribute to the massive development of phytoplankton and summer blooms, which cause a decrease in water transparency, the appearance of characteristic odors and the formation of a deficiency of dissolved oxygen.

Artificial reservoirs - reservoirs and river seas are also sources of water supply. Reservoirs with a useful total volume of about 2300 km 3 have been built around the world.

Reservoirs are bodies of water with slow water exchange, so they are characterized by a gradual deterioration in water quality. Fresh water reserves are also found in swamps. They not only store fresh water, feeding streams and ponds, but also play the role of a natural filter in purifying polluted waters.

Swamps play a huge role in natural balance - during spring floods they accumulate moisture and release it during the dry periods of the year. About 3/4 of the world's fresh water reserves are located in crystalline state in the form of ice in the Arctic and Antarctica and high-mountain glaciers. The total volume of ice on Earth is 27 million km 3, which corresponds to 24 million km 3 of water.

Groundwater

In the upper part of the earth's crust, at different depths under the soil, there are vast reserves of groundwater. These waters in some places permeate loose or fractured rocks, forming aquifers. Most of the groundwater in upper aquifers is created by precipitation seeping through the soil and soil. Some of the groundwater may be formed as a result of the combination of oxygen and hydrogen released from the magma. Such waters are called juvenile, entering for the first time into the general moisture circulation of the globe. There is no reliable information about the volume of these waters in the overall moisture balance on Earth.

Total quantity fresh groundwater contained in earth's crust, it is difficult to count, but researchers have found that there are much more of them on the globe than surface ones. The natural reserves of groundwater usually include the volume of free, chemically bound water, moving mainly under the influence of gravity in the pores and cracks of rocks. In the earth's crust, to a depth of 2000 m, there is a total of 23.4 million km 3 of salt and fresh groundwater. Fresh waters, as a rule, lie to a depth of 150–200 m, below which they turn into brackish waters and brines. According to calculations by hydrogeologists, to a depth of 200 m, the volume of fresh groundwater ranges from 10.5 to 12 million km 3, which is more than 100 times the volume of fresh surface water.

Groundwater has a high degree of mineralization. However, their mineralization depends on the conditions of occurrence, nutrition and unloading. aquifers. If groundwater lies above the water line in rivers and flows into these rivers, then these waters are fresh. If they are below the level river valleys and occur in fine-grained or clayey sands, they are usually more mineralized. There are cases when lower aquifers have greater water permeability than those lying above, and then the water there is fresher compared to the water of the overlying horizons. Groundwater is characterized by constant temperature (5 ... 12°C), absence of turbidity and color, and high sanitary reliability. The deeper the aquifer and the better it is covered from above with waterproof layers, the purer its water, the better it is. physical properties, the temperature is lower, there are fewer bacteria in it, which may not be present in clean groundwater, although the possibility of contamination of these waters is not excluded in principle. From a hygienic point of view, underground springs are considered the best sources of drinking water supply.

7. Rivers of your small homeland - Donbass

The direction of water movement in rivers is determined by the terrain. For the rivers of our region, the watershed is the Donetsk Ridge, which runs along the Donetsk-Gorlovka highway. On the northern slope of the ridge, not far from the town of Yasinovataya, the Krivoy Torets River originates, entering the Seversky Donets River basin. Between the Yasinovataya station and the city of Donetsk, near the village of Yakovlevka, the source of the Kalmius River, which flows into the Sea of Azov, is formed from two small streams.

On the western slope of the ridge in the Volchya gully, near the Zhelannaya and Ocheretino railway stations, the Volchya River begins, which is a tributary of the Samara River, which flows into the Dnieper.

The density of the river network in Donbass is small. If on average in Ukraine there are 0.25 kilometers of rivers per square kilometer of area, then in the Seversky Donets basin there are 0.15 kilometers. All rivers are flat, steppe. Their character is calm and reserved. The main supplier of water that replenishes rivers, lakes and underground sources is precipitation. The amount of precipitation falling on land depends on the distance of the territory from the ocean. In the middle latitudes, where Donbass is located, precipitation falls only from 400 to 500 millimeters. The climate of our region is considered semi-dry. The bulk of precipitation occurs from April to November, with a maximum in June-July. In summer there are short-term showers. In winter, only 25–30% of the annual precipitation falls, and they are the main sources of replenishment of groundwater and artificial reservoirs. Strong, predominantly eastern winds – hot winds, the duration of which in some years reaches 160 days, prevent the accumulation of water in the Donbass.

On average, the territory of the Donetsk and Luhansk regions receives 21.28 - 26.60 cubic kilometers of water per year with precipitation, a significant part of it evaporates, especially from the surfaces of reservoirs - from 650 to 950 millimeters of water per year.

Seversky Donets - main river our region, which gave it its name and plays an important role in its economy. The name of the river is made up of two words. Donets - from the word “don” from the language of the Scythians and Alans, meaning flowing water, river. Donets is a small Don. Seversky because it originates where the appanage Seversk principality was in ancient Rus'.

Characteristics of the river: length from the source to the confluence with the Don is 1053 kilometers, within the Donbass - 370 km; width in the middle course is 60-110 meters; the average depth is 1.5-2.2 m, on stretches - 3-4 m, in whirlpools and holes - 6-8 m, on riffles - 0.7 - 1 meter. The river drop is only 0.18 meters per kilometer, which is typical for lowland rivers With slow flow. Food comes mainly from melt water. The Seversky Donets flows through the Belgorod, Kharkov, Donetsk, Lugansk and Rostov regions.

Seversky Donets is the main source of water supply for the Donetsk region. For this purpose, in 1953 - 1958, the Seversky Donets - Donbass canal with a length of 130 km was built. A river-bed dam was built near the village of Raigorodok, with the help of which the water level was raised by 5 meters, thanks to which the water flows by gravity to the first rise pumping station. The canal runs along the watershed of the Kazenny Torets, Bakhmut and Krynka rivers and ends in Donetsk in the Verkhnekalmius reservoir. IN summer time the river is replenished from the regulating Pechenezhsky and Krasnooskolsky reservoirs located in the Kharkov region. Currently throughput channel reaches 43 cubic meters per second. 600 - 654 million cubic meters of water are supplied to consumers per year.

Aidar River- one of the largest tributaries of the Seversky Donets, originates in Belgorod region. The name comes from the Tatar words “ai” - white and “dar” - river. The length of Aydar is 264 kilometers, the basin area is 7420 square kilometers. The river valley is wide, picturesque, covered with forests. In some places, chalk outcrops approach the water itself.

More than 60 rivers with a total length of 850 kilometers flow into Aydar. The most significant of them are Lozovaya, Belaya, Loznaya, Serebryanka, Belaya Kamenka and Studenka. The river is fed by numerous springs, located mainly at the foot of the high right bank.

Lugan River It originates northeast of Gorlovka and flows into the Seversky Donets near Stanichno-Luganskoye, its length is 198 kilometers. Water is collected from an area of 3,740 square kilometers, and is brought by 218 rivers with a total length of 1,138 kilometers. Main tributaries - Lozovaya, Skelevaya, Kartomysh, Sanzharovka, Lomovatka, Kamyshevakha, Nut, White, Alder. The name of the rivers comes from the meadows, which in the old days were very vast and rich in the floodplain of this river. Three largest reservoirs were built on the Lugan River - Lugansk, area of 220 hectares with a useful volume of 8.6 million cubic meters,

Mironovskoe, with an area of 480 hectares with a useful volume of 20.5 million cubic meters and Uglegorskoe a reservoir with a surface area of 1,500 hectares and a volume of 163 million cubic meters.

On the river White built Isakovskoe reservoir with an area of 300 hectares and a water volume of 20.4 million cubic meters, and on the river Alder - Elizavetskoe a reservoir with an area of 140 hectares and a volume of 6.9 million cubic meters.

Derkul River- the left tributary of the Seversky Donets in the Lugansk region, it serves as a natural border between Ukraine and Russia. The name of the river comes from the Turkic words “dere” - valley and “kul” - lake, that is, “valley of lakes”. The second interpretation of the name is from the words “dar” - yar, valley, gorge, gorge and “kul” - reservoir, river - a river flowing in a gorge.

And indeed, in the upper reaches of the river, in many places from the west, chalk hills approach it, literally crowding it. The length of Derkul is 165 kilometers, the basin area is 5180 square kilometers. Main tributaries - Belaya, Loznaya, Bishkan, Chugina, Complete.

Red River so named because in the outcrops on its right bank there are outcrops of red and yellow clays, its length is 124 kilometers, the basin area is 2720 square kilometers. 16 rivers flow into it with a total length of 295 kilometers, 35 of which are the largest Rotten, Duvanka, Kobylka and Mechetnaya- ordinary steppe rivers.

River name State Torets comes from the name of the people - Torki, who lived in the 10th-11th centuries in the Seversky Donets basin. The river was called the state river because it middle part flowed through state-owned, that is, state-owned lands. The State Torets has a length of 129 kilometers and a basin area of 5410 square kilometers, it has two tributaries - the right Crooked Butt 88 kilometers long and left - Dry Butt 97 kilometers long.

On a tributary of Krivoy Torets - a river Kleban the Bull- a drinking reservoir with a capacity of about 30 million cubic meters was built. On the Mayachk tributary there is Kramatorsk reservoir with an area of 0.4 square kilometers and a useful volume of 1.4 million cubic meters of water.

Bakhmut River has a length of only 88 kilometers and a drainage area of 1680 square kilometers. The name has two interpretations - from Tatar name Mohammed or Mahmud, the second from the Turkic word “bakhmat”, is a short Tatar horse. In the past the river was navigable. Once upon a time, the waters of the Perm Sea stretched across the territory of the Bakhmut basin. Over time, the sea became shallow, the moisture evaporated and salt remained at the bottom. Reserves rock salt, compressed under the thickness of the earth in the Artyomovskaya depression, are huge; 43% of rock salt in the CIS is mined here.

Among the rivers directly flowing into the Sea of Azov, the largest is Mius, its length is 258 kilometers, the basin area is 6680 square kilometers. The most major tributaries - Nagolnaya, Krepenkaya, Miusik and Khrustalnaya, and in total there are 36 rivers with a total length of 647 kilometers.

The name is based on the Turkic word “mius, miyus” - horn, angle. It indicates the tortuosity of the river or the angle that is formed at the confluence of the Mius and its right tributary - Krynki.

The water of the Mius, Miusik and Krynka, as well as other tributaries, is widely used for drinking and industrial water supply. Built on the Mius River Grabovskoe reservoir with an area of 170 hectares and a water volume of 12.1 million cubic meters, and on the Miusik River - Yanovskoe a reservoir with an area of 80 hectares and a water reserve of 4.6 million cubic meters.

Krynka- the right tributary of the Mius, the length of the river is 227 kilometers. The name of the river is explained by the presence at its source large quantity krinits. The Krynka laid its channel across folded structures, which determined the character of its valley: it is narrow, with steep slopes, and rock outcrops are often found here. The river bed is winding, width from 5 to 20 meters, depth from 1-2 to 3-4 meters. On the rapids, rifts with a depth of only 10-50 centimeters are formed. The current in these places is fast, you can hear the flow bubbling.

The tributaries of the Krynka are the rivers Bulavin and Olkhovka. There are several reservoirs on the Krynka River - Zuevskoye, with an area of 250 hectares and a water volume of 6.9 million cubic meters, Khanzhenkovskoe, with an area of 480 hectares and a volume of 18.5 million cubic meters; on the Olkhovka River - Olkhovskoe reservoir with a volume of 24.7 million cubic meters; on the river Bulavine - Volyntsevskoe reservoir.

River Kalmius has a length of 209 kilometers and a basin area of 5070 square kilometers. The name of the river has two interpretations - from the Turkic words “kil” - hair and “miyus” - horn, that is, the river is “thin, like hair, and winding, like a horn.” The second interpretation from the 36th Turkic word “kal” is gold, that is, golden. Non-ferrous metals were once mined along the Kalmius and its tributaries. On the banks of this river is the city of Donetsk, a large industrial, scientific and cultural center of Ukraine. Until the fifties of the 20th century, Kalmius flowed through Donetsk as a small stream, then its bed was cleared and built on it. Verkhnekalmiusskoe reservoir.

The water flow of Kalmius is small, not far from the mouth, near the village of Primorskoye the water flow is 6.23 cubic meters per second. However, the river has a convenient location, so the Kalmius and almost all of its tributaries have become one of the main reservoirs of fresh water for industry and agriculture. In the river basin, 11 large reservoirs with a total volume of 227 million cubic meters were built, among them - Starobeshevskoe, Verkhnekalmiusskoe, Pavlopolskoe.

About 212 million cubic meters of water per year are taken from Kalmius for the needs of industry and agriculture. Kalmius has two right tributaries - Wet Volnovakha and Dry Volnovakha and also the river Kalchik, which merges with it within the boundaries of the city of Mariupol several kilometers before it flows into the Sea of Azov.

One of the largest in Donbass was built on the Kalchik River Starokrymskoye Reservoir with an area of 620 hectares and a volume of 47.8 million cubic meters of water.

Rivers flow through the western regions of the Donetsk region - Aleksandrovsky, Dobropolsky, Krasnoarmeysky, Velikonovoselkovsky, Maryansky, as well as through a significant territory of the Volnovakha and Yasinovatsky districts, which carry their water to the Dnieper. This is where the main part of the river basin is located Volchaya with tributaries Dry Yala and Wet Yala, as well as the upper reaches of Samara and its tributary Bull.

The economic importance of the Volchaya River, although it is just a tributary of Samara, is very great. The length of the river is 323 kilometers, the basin area is 13,300 square kilometers. In its upper reaches there is Karlovskoe a reservoir with a volume of over 25 million cubic meters is a water regulator for the central and southern regions of the Donetsk region. Second reservoir - Kurakhovskoe- supplies Kurakhovskaya GRES with water. The Samara River has a length of 220 kilometers, a basin area of 26,000 square kilometers, and it is navigable to the city of Pavlograd, Dnepropetrovsk region. Not far from Dobropolye flows the left tributary of the Samara - Bull River. The waters of these two rivers are mainly used to irrigate fields.

Fresh water.

Water is the basis of life on earth. Our body consists of 75% water, the brain - 85%, blood - 94%. The calorie content of water is 0 kcal per 100 grams of product. Water that doesn't negative impact on human health is called drinking water or unpolluted water. Water must comply with sanitary and epidemiological standards; it is purified using water treatment plants.

Fresh water.

The main sources of fresh water are rivers and lakes. Lake Baikal is rightfully considered the largest reservoir. The water of this lake is considered the cleanest. Fresh water is divided into 2 types according to its chemical composition:

PROPERLY FRESH– fresh water is not found in nature as absolutely pure. It always contains a small percentage of minerals and impurities.

MINERAL WATER– drinking water, which contains trace elements and mineral salts. Because of unique properties mineral waters, it is used in the treatment of various diseases and prevention. Mineral water able to maintain the health of the body. Mineral water is divided into 4 groups according to the content of mineral components in it. Mineral medicinal waters with mineralization over 8 g/l, such water should be taken as prescribed by a doctor. Mineral medicinal table waters with mineralization from 2 to 8 g/l. They can be used as a drink, but not in large quantities. Among the popular ones are Narzan and Borjomi. Mineral table waters containing 1 – 2 g/l of mineral elements. Table waters with mineralization less than a gram.

Mineral waters can be classified based on their chemical composition: hydrocarbonate, chloride, sulfate, sodium, calcium, magnesium and mixed composition;

By gas composition and individual elements: carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, bromide, arsenic, ferruginous, silicon, radon:

Depending on the acidity of the medium: neutral, slightly acidic, acidic, strongly acidic, slightly alkaline, alkaline. “Mineral water” on the labels means that it is bottled directly from the source and has not undergone any additional processing. Drinking water is water artificially enriched with minerals.

The label on the bottle should be studied carefully; it should indicate:

Well number or source name.
Name and location of the manufacturer, address of the organization authorized to accept claims.
Ionic composition of water (the content of calcium, magnesium, potassium, bicarbonates, chlorides is indicated)
GOST or technical specifications.
Volume, bottling date, expiration date and storage conditions.

GOST guarantees standards for the safe presence of pollutants such as mercury, cadmium or lead, radionuclides in water are not exceeded, and there is no bacterial contamination.

“Mineral water” on the labels means that it is bottled directly from the source and has not undergone any additional processing. Artesian springs are used to collect water. They are well protected from industrial, agricultural and bacterial contamination. This water is tested for chemical composition, clean using industrial and household filters. Spring water is also used.

Drinking water is water artificially enriched with minerals.

PROPER FRESH WATER

This is a natural solvent; it contains particles of substances surrounding it. It has indicators of acidity and hardness. Water can also have taste qualities, smell, color and transparency. Its indicators depend on the location, environmental situation, on the composition of the reservoir. Fresh water is considered to be water that contains no more than 0.1% salt. It can be in a variety of states: in the form of liquid, vapor, ice. The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is important indicator its quality. Oxygen is necessary for the life of fish, biochemical processes, and aerobic bacteria. pH is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions and gives us the idea of the acidity or alkaline properties of water as a solvent. Rn< 7 – кислая среда; рН=7 – нейтральная среда; рН>7 – alkaline environment. Hardness is a property of water caused by the content of calcium and magnesium ions in it. There are several types of hardness - general, carbonate, non-carbonate, removable and irremovable; but most often they talk about general rigidity. The lower the water hardness, the less harm the liquid causes to our body.

THE SMELL OF WATER

It is caused by the presence of volatile odorous substances in it that enter the water naturally or through wastewater. The smell is divided into 2 groups according to its character, describing it subjectively according to your feelings. Natural origin(from living and dead organisms, from the influence of soil, aquatic vegetation, etc.) earthy, putrid, moldy, peaty, grassy, etc. And of artificial origin - such odors usually change significantly during water treatment; petroleum products (gasoline, etc.), chlorine, vinegar, phenolic, etc. The odor is assessed on a five-point scale (zero corresponds to complete absence smell):

VERY WEAK, almost imperceptible odor;
THE SMELL is WEAK, noticeable only if you pay attention to it;
THE SMELL IS EASILY NOTICED and causes disapproval of the water;
The SMELL is DISTINCT, attracts attention and makes you refrain from drinking;
The SMELL is so STRONG that it makes the water unfit for consumption.

For drinking water, an odor rating of no more than 2 points is allowed.

TASTE OF WATER.

Previously, it was believed that a person is able to distinguish 4 tastes: sour, sweet, salty, bitter. Later, umami was added to them - “meat” taste, the taste of high-protein substances... Reacting to light, these receptors caused sensations similar to the taste of water. Scientists have named the taste of water as the 6th taste – Newspaper. Ru /News/. A new study published in the journal Nature Neuroscience by specialists from the California Institute of Technology may put an end to many years of controversy. It turned out that the same receptors react to water as to sour taste. Scientists plan to continue the research. First of all, they will have to find out what mechanisms underlie the work of “acidic” receptors in detecting the presence of water.

COLOR OF WATER

The color of water perceived by the eye. Although small volumes of water appear clear, as the thickness of the sample increases, the water takes on a blue tint. This is due to the intrinsic properties of water to selectively absorb and scatter light. RIVER WATER – the following types are distinguished:

TRANSPARENT (no color) – near mountain and alpine rivers;
YELLOW (yellow-red) – near lowland and especially desert rivers;
DARK or BLACK, which is especially typical for rivers flowing in the jungle;
WHITE (white-gray) – the white color of the water is given by air bubbles when the water foams on rapids and waterfalls.
SEA WATER - the color of the sea depends on the color of the sky, the number and nature of clouds, the height of the sun above the horizon, as well as other reasons.
ICE – ideal ice is transparent, but any inhomogeneities lead to the absorption and scattering of light and, accordingly, a change in color.