Participants in the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice. The Battle of Lake Peipsi (“Battle of the Ice”) took place

The 10th century in densely populated - by medieval standards, of course - Western Europe was marked by the beginning of expansion. Subsequently, from century to century, this expansion expanded, taking on a wide variety of forms.

The European peasant, bent under the burden of duties to the lord, ventured into the unruly forests. He cut down trees, cleared the land of bushes and drained swamps, obtaining additional arable land.

The Europeans were pushing back the Saracens (the Arabs who captured Spain), and the reconquista (“reconquest” of Spain) was underway.

Inspired by the lofty idea of ​​liberating the Holy Sepulcher and overwhelmed by a thirst for riches and new lands, the crusaders stepped into the Levant - as the territories located along the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea were called in the Middle Ages.

The European “push to the east” began; peasants, skilled city craftsmen, experienced traders, and knights appeared en masse in Slavic countries, for example, in Poland and the Czech Republic, and began to settle and settle there. This contributed to the rise of the economy, social and cultural life of the Eastern European countries, but at the same time gave rise to problems, creating rivalry and confrontation between the newcomer and indigenous populations. A particularly large wave of immigrants poured from the German lands, where the rulers of the German Empire (following Emperor Frederick Barbarossa) supported the “onslaught on the East.”

Soon the eyes of Europeans were drawn to the Baltic states. It was perceived as a forest desert, lightly populated by wild Letto-Lithuanian and Finno-Ugric pagan tribes who did not know state power. Since ancient times, Rus' and the Scandinavian countries have been expanding here. They colonized the areas bordering them. Local tribes were subject to tribute. Back in the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the Russians built their Yuryev fortress beyond Lake Peipus in the land of the Finno-Ugric Estonians (named after Yaroslav the Wise at his baptism, the name George). The Swedes advanced into the possessions of the Finns until they reached the borders of the Karelian land controlled by Novgorod.

At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries, people from Western Europe appeared in the Baltic states. The first to come were Catholic missionaries carrying the word of Christ. In 1184, monk Maynard unsuccessfully tried to convert the Livs (ancestors of modern Latvians) to Catholicism. Monk Berthold in 1198 preached Christianity with the help of the swords of the crusading knights. Canon Albert of Bremen, sent by the Pope, captured the mouth of the Dvina and founded Riga in 1201. A year later, an order of monastic knights was created on the Livonian lands conquered around Riga. He called Order of the Swordsmen in the shape of a long cross, more like a sword. In 1215-1216, the Swordsmen captured Estonia. This was preceded by their struggle with the Russians and Lithuanian princes, as well as enmity with Denmark, which had laid claim to Estonia since the beginning of the 12th century.

In 1212, the Swordsmen came close to the borders of Pskov and Novgorod lands. Mstislav Udaloy, who reigned in Novgorod, successfully resisted them. Then, during the reign of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich's father in Novgorod, the Sword Bearers were defeated near Yuryev (modern Tartu). The city remained with the crusaders on the condition that tribute was paid to Novgorod for it (Yuriev's tribute). By 1219, Denmark had reconquered Northern Estonia, but 5 years later the Swordsmen regained it.

The activity of the crusaders pushed the Lithuanian tribes (Lithuania, Zhmud) to unite. They, the only Baltic peoples, began to form their own state.

In the land of the Baltic tribe of Prussians, which was located near the Polish border, another order of crusaders was founded - the Teutonic. Previously, he was in Palestine, but the Polish king invited the Teutons to the Baltic states, hoping for their help in the fight against the pagan Prussians. The Teutons soon began to seize Polish possessions. As for the Prussians, they were exterminated.

But defeat in 1234 by Alexander Nevsky's father Yaroslav, and in 1236 by the Lithuanians led to the reform of the Order of the Sword. In 1237 it became a branch of the Teutonic Order, and it began to be called Livonian.

Batu's invasion gave rise to the hope among the crusaders that expansion could be expanded to northern lands Orthodox, who in the West had long been considered heretics after the schism of the churches in 1054. Mister Veliky Novgorod was especially attractive. But the crusaders were not the only ones who were seduced by the Novgorod land. The Swedes were also interested in it.

Mr. Veliky Novgorod and Sweden fought more than once when their interests in the Baltic states collided. At the end of the 1230s, news was received in Novgorod that the son-in-law of the Swedish king, Jarl (title of the Swedish nobility) Birger, was preparing a raid on the Novgorod possessions. Alexander, the 19-year-old son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, was then sitting as prince in Novgorod. He ordered the Izhora elder Pelgusius to monitor the coast and report the Swedish invasion. As a result, when the Scandinavian boats entered the Neva and stopped at the confluence of the Izhora River, the Prince of Novgorod was notified in time. July 15, 1240 Alexander arrived at the Neva and, with the help of a small Novgorod detachment and his squad, unexpectedly attacked the enemy.

Against the backdrop of the devastation of northeastern Rus' Mongol Khan For Batu, this battle opened a difficult circle for his contemporaries: Alexander brought victory to Rus' and with it hope, faith in one’s own strength! This victory brought him the honorary title of Nevsky.

Confidence that the Russians were capable of winning victories helped them withstand the difficult days of 1240, when a more dangerous enemy, the Livonian Order, invaded the Novgorod borders. Ancient Izborsk fell. The Pskov traitors opened the gates to the enemy. The crusaders scattered across the Novgorod land and plundered in the outskirts of Novgorod. Not far from Novgorod, the crusaders built a fortified outpost, carried out raids near Luga and Sabelny Pogost, which was located 40 versts from Novgorod.

Alexander was not in Novgorod. He quarreled with the independent Novgorodians and left for Pereyaslavl Zalessky. Under pressure from circumstances, the Novgorodians began to ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav for help. The Novgorodians wanted to see Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Suzdal regiments. Grand Duke Yaroslav sent another son, Andrei, with a cavalry detachment, but the Novgorodians stood their ground. In the end, Alexander arrived and brought his Pereyaslav squad and the Vladimir-Suzdal militia, which consisted mainly of peasants. Novgorodians also assembled shelves.

In 1241, the Russians launched an offensive, recapturing Koporye from the crusaders. The fortress built by the knights in Koporye was destroyed. In the winter of 1242, Alexander Nevsky unexpectedly appeared near Pskov and liberated the city.

Russian troops entered the Order, but soon their vanguard was defeated by the knights. Alexander took his regiments to the eastern shore of Lake Peipus and decided to give battle.

5 April 1242 of the year A great slaughter took place on the melted ice. The Russians stood in the traditional “eagle”: in the center was a regiment consisting of Vladimir-Suzdal militias, on the sides were regiments of the right and left hands - heavily armed Novgorod infantry and princely equestrian squads. The peculiarity was that a significant mass of troops were located on the flanks; usually the center was the strongest. Behind the militia was a steep bank covered with boulders. A convoy's sleigh, fastened with chains, was placed on the ice in front of the shore. This made the coast completely impassable for knightly horses and was supposed to keep the faint-hearted in the Russian camp from fleeing. A horse squad stood in ambush near the island of Voroniy Kamen.

The knights moved towards the Russians "boar's head" This was a special system that more than once brought success to the crusaders. In the center of the “boar’s head”, bollard infantrymen marched in closed ranks. On the sides of them and behind them, in 2-3 rows, rode riders clad in armor; their horses also had armor. Ahead, narrowing to a point, the ranks of the most experienced knights moved. The "boar's head", nicknamed the "pig" by the Russians, rammed the enemy and broke through the defense. Knights destroyed the enemy with spears, battle axes, and swords. When it was defeated, bollard infantrymen were released to finish off the wounded and those fleeing.

The chronicle story about the battle on the ice reports “the speed of the slashing of evil, and the crackling from the spears, and the breaking, and the sound from the cutting of the sword.”

The knights crushed the Russian center and began to spin around, breaking their own formation. They had nowhere to move. “Regiments of the right and left hands” pressed on the knights from the flanks. It was as if they were squeezing the “pig” with pincers. There were many dead on both sides of the fighting. The ice turned red with blood. The enemy suffered mainly from infantry. Killing a knight was difficult. But if he was pulled off his horse, he became defenseless - the weight of the armor did not allow him to stand up and move.

Suddenly the April ice cracked. The knights mingled. Those who fell into the water sank like stones to the bottom. Alexander Nevsky's troops struck with redoubled energy. The crusaders ran. Russian horsemen pursued them for several kilometers.

The ice battle was won. The crusaders' plan to establish themselves in Northern Rus' failed.

In 1243, ambassadors of the Order arrived in Novgorod. Peace was signed. The Crusaders recognized the borders of the Lord of Veliky Novgorod as inviolable and promised to regularly pay tribute to Yuryev. The terms for the ransom of several dozen knights who were captured were agreed upon. Alexander led these noble captives from Pskov to Novgorod next to their horses, barefoot, with their heads uncovered, and with a rope around their necks. It was impossible to think of a greater insult to knightly honor.

In the future, military skirmishes occurred more than once between Novgorod, Pskov and the Livonian Order, but the border of the possessions of both sides remained stable. For the possession of Yuryev, the Order continued to pay tribute to Novgorod, and from the end of the 15th century - to the Moscow unified Russian state.

In political and moral terms, victories over the Swedes and the knights of the Livonian Order were very important: the scale of the Western European onslaught on the northwestern borders of Rus' was reduced. The victories of Alexander Nevsky over the Swedes and crusaders interrupted the series of defeats of the Russian troops.

For the Orthodox Church, it was especially important to prevent Catholic influence in Russian lands. It is worth remembering that the crusade of 1204 ended with the capture by the crusaders of Constantinople, the capital of the Orthodox empire, which considered itself the Second Rome. For more than half a century, the Latin Empire existed on Byzantine territory. The Orthodox Greeks “huddled” in Nicaea, from where they tried to recapture their possessions from the Western crusaders. The Tatars, on the contrary, were allies of the Orthodox Greeks in their fight against the Islamic and Turkish onslaught on the eastern Byzantine borders. According to the practice that has developed since the 10th century, most of the highest hierarchs of the Russian Church were by origin Greeks or southern Slavs who came to Rus' from Byzantium. The head of the Russian church - the metropolitan - was appointed by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Naturally, the interests of the universal Orthodox Church were above all else for the leadership of the Russian Church. Catholics seemed much more dangerous than Tatars. It is no coincidence that before Sergius of Radonezh (second half of the 14th century), not a single prominent church hierarch blessed or called for the fight against the Tatars. The invasion of Batu and the Tatar armies were interpreted by the clergy as the “scourge of God,” the punishment of the Orthodox for their sins.

It was the church tradition that created around the name of Alexander Nevsky, canonized after his death, the aura of an ideal prince, warrior, “sufferer” (fighter) for the Russian land. This is how he entered the national mentality. In this case, Prince Alexander is in many ways a “brother” of Richard the Lionheart. The legendary “doubles” of both monarchs overshadowed their real historical images. In both cases, the “legend” was far removed from the original prototype.

In serious science, meanwhile, debates about the role of Alexander Nevsky in Russian history do not subside. Alexander’s position in relation to the Golden Horde, his participation in the organization of the Nevryuev army in 1252 and the spread of the Horde yoke to Novgorod, the cruel reprisals even for that time, characteristic of Alexander in the fight against his opponents, give rise to conflicting judgments regarding the results of the activities of this undoubtedly bright hero of Russian history .

For Eurasians and L.N. Gumilyov Alexander is a far-sighted politician who correctly chose an alliance with the Horde and turned his back to the West.

For other historians (for example, I.N. Danilevsky), Alexander’s role in Russian history is rather negative. This role is the actual conductor of Horde dependence.

Some historians, including S.M. Solovyova, V.O. Klyuchevsky, does not at all consider the Horde yoke to be a “useful alliance for Rus',” but notes that Rus' did not have the strength to fight. Supporters of continuing the fight against the Horde - Daniil Galitsky and Prince Andrei Yaroslavich, despite the nobility of their impulse, were doomed to defeat. Alexander Nevsky, on the contrary, was aware of the realities and was forced, as a politician, to seek a compromise with the Horde in the name of the survival of the Russian land.

The Battle of the Ice is one of greatest battles V Russian history, during which Prince of Novgorod Alexander Nevsky repelled the invasion of the knights of the Livonian Order on Lake Peipsi. For many centuries, historians have debated the details of this battle. Some points remain not entirely clear, including exactly how the Battle of the Ice took place. The diagram and reconstruction of the details of this battle will allow us to reveal the mystery of the mysteries of history associated with the great battle.

Background to the conflict

Beginning in 1237, when he announced the start of the next crusade in the lands of the eastern Baltic, between the Russian principalities on the one hand, and Sweden, Denmark and the German Livonian Order on the other, constant tension remained, which from time to time escalated into military action.

So, in 1240, Swedish knights led by Earl Birger landed at the mouth of the Neva, but the Novgorod army under the control of Prince Alexander Nevsky defeated them in a decisive battle.

In the same year he launched an offensive operation on Russian lands. His troops took Izborsk and Pskov. Assessing the danger, in 1241 she called Alexander back to reign, although she only recently expelled him. The prince gathered a squad and moved against the Livonians. In March 1242, he managed to liberate Pskov. Alexander moved his troops towards the possessions of the Order, towards the Bishopric of Dorpat, where the crusaders gathered significant forces. The parties prepared for the decisive battle.

The opponents met on April 5, 1242 on what was then still covered with ice. That is why the battle later acquired the name - Battle of the Ice. The lake at that time was frozen deep enough to support heavily armed warriors.

Strengths of the parties

The Russian army was of a rather scattered composition. But its backbone, undoubtedly, was the Novgorod squad. In addition, the army included the so-called “lower regiments”, which were brought by the boyars. The total number of Russian squads is estimated by historians at 15-17 thousand people.

The Livonian army was also varied. Its fighting backbone consisted of heavily armed knights led by Master Andreas von Velven, who, however, did not take part in the battle itself. Also included in the army were Danish allies and the militia of the city of Dorpat, which included a significant number of Estonians. The total number of the Livonian army is estimated at 10-12 thousand people.

Progress of the battle

Historical sources have left us rather meager information about how the battle itself unfolded. The battle on the ice began when the archers of the Novgorod army came forward and covered the line of knights with a hail of arrows. But the latter managed, using a military formation called a “pig,” to crush the shooters and break the center of the Russian forces.

Seeing this situation, Alexander Nevsky ordered the Livonian troops to be surrounded from the flanks. The knights were captured in a pincer movement. Their wholesale extermination by the Russian squad began. The order's auxiliary troops, seeing that their main forces were being defeated, fled. The Novgorod squad pursued the fleeing for more than seven kilometers. The battle ended in complete victory for the Russian forces.

This was the story of the Battle of the Ice.

Battle scheme

It is not without reason that the diagram below clearly demonstrates the military leadership gift of Alexander Nevsky and serves as an example of a well-executed military operation in Russian textbooks on military affairs.

On the map we clearly see the initial breakthrough of the Livonian army into the ranks of the Russian squad. It also shows the encirclement of the knights and the subsequent flight of the Order’s auxiliary forces, which ended the Battle of the Ice. The diagram allows you to build these events into a single chain and greatly facilitates the reconstruction of the events that took place during the battle.

Aftermath of the battle

After the Novgorod army won a complete victory over the forces of the crusaders, which was largely due to Alexander Nevsky, a peace agreement was signed in which the Livonian Order completely renounced its recent acquisitions on the territory of Russian lands. There was also an exchange of prisoners.

The defeat that the Order suffered in the Battle of the Ice was so serious that for ten years it licked its wounds and did not even think about a new invasion of Russian lands.

The victory of Alexander Nevsky is no less significant in the general historical context. After all, it was then that the fate of our lands was decided and the actual end was put to the aggression of the German crusaders in the eastern direction. Of course, even after this, the Order tried more than once to tear off a piece of Russian land, but never again did the invasion take on such a large-scale character.

Misconceptions and stereotypes associated with the battle

There is an idea that in many respects in the battle on Lake Peipus the Russian army was helped by the ice, which could not withstand the weight of the heavily armed German knights and began to fall under them. In fact, there is no historical confirmation of this fact. Moreover, according to the latest research, the weight of the equipment of the German knights and Russian knights participating in the battle was approximately equal.

German crusaders, in the minds of many people, which are primarily inspired by cinema, are heavily armed men-at-arms wearing helmets, often adorned with horns. In fact, the Order's charter prohibited the use of helmet decorations. So, in principle, the Livonians could not have any horns.

Results

Thus, we found out that one of the most important and significant battles in Russian history was the Battle of the Ice. The scheme of the battle allowed us to visually reproduce its course and determine the main reason for the defeat of the knights - the overestimation of their strength when they recklessly rushed to the attack.

Prince of Novgorod (1236-1240, 1241-1252 and 1257-1259), and later Grand Duke Kyiv (1249-1263), and then Vladimirsky (1252-1263), Alexander Yaroslavich, known in our historical memory as Alexander Nevsky, is one of the most popular heroes in the history of Ancient Rus'. Only Dmitry Donskoy and Ivan the Terrible can compete with him. A big role in this was played by Sergei Eisenstein’s brilliant film “Alexander Nevsky”, which turned out to be in tune with the events of the 40s of the last century, and more recently also by the “Name of Russia” competition, in which the prince won a posthumous victory over other heroes of Russian history.

The glorification of Alexander Yaroslavich by the Russian Orthodox Church as a noble prince is also important. Meanwhile, the nationwide veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a hero began only after the Great Patriotic War. Before that, even professional historians paid much less attention to him. For example, in pre-revolutionary general courses on the history of Russia, the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice are often not mentioned at all.

Nowadays, a critical and even neutral attitude towards a hero and a saint is perceived by many in society (both in professional circles and among history buffs) as very painful. However, active debate continues among historians. The situation is complicated not only by the subjectivity of each scientist’s view, but also by the extreme complexity of working with medieval sources.

All information in them can be divided into repetitive (quotes and paraphrases), unique and verifiable. Accordingly, you need to trust these three types of information to varying degrees. Among other things, the period from approximately the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 14th century is sometimes called “dark” by professionals precisely because of the scarcity of the source base.

In this article we will try to consider how historians evaluate the events associated with Alexander Nevsky, and what, in their opinion, is his role in history. Without delving too deeply into the arguments of the parties, we will nevertheless present the main conclusions. Here and there, for convenience, we will divide part of our text about each major event into two sections: “for” and “against”. In reality, of course, there is a much greater range of opinions on each specific issue.

Battle of Neva

The Battle of the Neva took place on July 15, 1240 at the mouth of the Neva River between the Swedish landing force (the Swedish detachment also included a small group of Norwegians and warriors of the Finnish tribe Em) and the Novgorod-Ladoga squad in alliance with the local Izhora tribe. Estimates of this collision, like the Battle of the Ice, depend on the interpretation of the data from the First Novgorod Chronicle and the “Life of Alexander Nevsky”. Many researchers treat information in life with great distrust. Scientists also disagree on the question of the dating of this work, on which the reconstruction of events greatly depends.

Behind
Battle of the Neva - quite major battle, which had great importance. Some historians even talked about an attempt to blockade Novgorod economically and close access to the Baltic. The Swedes were led by the son-in-law of the Swedish king, the future Earl Birger and/or his cousin Earl Ulf Fasi. The sudden and quick attack of the Novgorod squad and Izhora warriors on the Swedish detachment prevented the creation of a strong point on the banks of the Neva, and, possibly, a subsequent attack on Ladoga and Novgorod. This was a turning point in the fight against the Swedes.

6 Novgorod warriors distinguished themselves in the battle, whose exploits are described in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” (there are even attempts to connect these heroes with specific people known from other Russian sources). During the battle, the young Prince Alexander “put a seal on his face,” that is, he wounded the Swedish commander in the face. For his victory in this battle, Alexander Yaroslavich subsequently received the nickname “Nevsky”.

Against
The scale and significance of this battle are clearly exaggerated. There was no talk of any kind of blockade. The skirmish was clearly minor, since, according to sources, 20 or less people died in it on the Russian side. True, we can only talk about noble warriors, but this hypothetical assumption is unprovable. Swedish sources do not mention the Battle of the Neva at all.

It is characteristic that the first large Swedish chronicle - “Eric's Chronicle”, which was written much later than these events, mentioning many Swedish-Novgorod conflicts, in particular the destruction of the Swedish capital of Sigtuna in 1187 by Karelians incited by the Novgorodians, is silent about this event.

Naturally, there was no talk of an attack on Ladoga or Novgorod either. It is impossible to say exactly who led the Swedes, but Magnus Birger, apparently, was in a different place during this battle. It is difficult to call the actions of Russian soldiers fast. The exact location of the battle is unknown, but it was located on the territory of modern St. Petersburg, and from it to Novgorod it is 200 km in a straight line, and it takes longer to walk over rough terrain. But it was still necessary to gather the Novgorod squad and connect somewhere with the Ladoga residents. This would take at least a month.

It is strange that the Swedish camp was poorly fortified. Most likely, the Swedes were not going to go deeper into the territory, but to baptize the local population, for which they had clergymen with them. This determines the great attention paid to the description of this battle in The Life of Alexander Nevsky. The story about the Battle of the Neva in the life is twice as long as about the Battle of the Ice.

For the author of the life, whose task is not to describe the deeds of the prince, but to show his piety, we are talking, first of all, not about military, but about spiritual victory. It is hardly possible to speak of this collision as turning point, if the struggle between Novgorod and Sweden continued for a very long time.

In 1256, the Swedes again tried to strengthen themselves on the coast. In 1300 they managed to build the Landskrona fortress on the Neva, but a year later they abandoned it due to constant enemy raids and the difficult climate. The confrontation took place not only on the banks of the Neva, but also on the territory of Finland and Karelia. Suffice it to recall the Finnish winter campaign of Alexander Yaroslavich in 1256-1257. and campaigns against the Finns by Earl Birger. Thus, at best, we can talk about stabilizing the situation for several years.

The description of the battle as a whole in the chronicle and in the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” should not be taken literally, since it is full of quotations from other texts: “The Jewish War” by Josephus, “The Acts of Eugenius”, “Trojan Tales”, etc. As for the duel between Prince Alexander and the leader of the Swedes, almost the same episode with a wound to the face appears in “The Life of Prince Dovmont,” so this plot is most likely transferable.

Some scientists believe that the life of the Pskov prince Dovmont was written earlier than the life of Alexander and, accordingly, the borrowing came from there. Alexander’s role is also unclear in the scene of the death of part of the Swedes on the other side of the river - where the prince’s squad was “impassable.”

Perhaps the enemy was destroyed by Izhora. The sources speak of the death of the Swedes from the angels of the Lord, which is very reminiscent of an episode from the Old Testament (the 19th chapter of the Fourth Book of Kings) about the destruction by an angel of the Assyrian army of King Sennacherib.

The name “Nevsky” appears only in the 15th century. More importantly, there is a text in which the two sons of Prince Alexander are also called “Nevsky”. Perhaps these were proprietary nicknames, meaning the family owned land in the area. In sources close in time to the events, Prince Alexander bears the nickname “Brave”.

Russian-Livonian conflict 1240 - 1242 and Battle on the Ice

The famous battle, known to us as the “Battle of the Ice,” took place in 1242. In it, troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky and German knights with their subordinate Estonians (Chud) met on the ice of Lake Peipus. There are more sources for this battle than for the Battle of the Neva: several Russian chronicles, “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” and the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle,” reflecting the position of the Teutonic Order.

Behind
In the 40s of the 13th century, the papacy organized a crusade to the Baltic states, in which Sweden (Battle of the Neva), Denmark and the Teutonic Order took part. During this campaign in 1240, the Germans captured the Izborsk fortress, and then on September 16, 1240, the Pskov army was defeated there. According to the chronicles, between 600 and 800 people died. Next, Pskov was besieged, which soon capitulated.

As a result, the Pskov political group led by Tverdila Ivankovich submits to the Order. The Germans rebuild the Koporye fortress and raid the Vodskaya land, controlled by Novgorod. The Novgorod boyars ask the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to return them to reign young Alexander Yaroslavich, expelled by “lesser people” for reasons unknown to us.

Prince Yaroslav first offers them his other son Andrei, but they prefer to return Alexander. In 1241, Alexander, apparently, with an army of Novgorodians, Ladoga, Izhorians and Karelians, conquered the Novgorod territories and took Koporye by storm. In March 1242, Alexander with a large army, including Suzdal regiments brought by his brother Andrei, expelled the Germans from Pskov. Then fighting transferred to enemy territory in Livonia.

The Germans defeat the advance detachment of Novgorodians under the command of Domash Tverdislavich and Kerbet. Alexander's main troops retreat to the ice of Lake Peipsi. There, on Uzmen, at the Raven Stone (the exact place is unknown to scientists, discussions are ongoing) on ​​April 5, 1242, a battle takes place.

The number of Alexander Yaroslavich's troops is at least 10,000 people (3 regiments - Novgorod, Pskov and Suzdal). The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle says that there were fewer Germans than Russians. True, the text uses rhetorical hyperbole that there were 60 times fewer Germans.

Apparently, the Russians carried out an encirclement maneuver, and the Order was defeated. German sources report that 20 knights died and 6 were captured, and Russian sources tell of German losses of 400-500 people and 50 prisoners. Countless people died. The Battle of the Ice was a major battle that significantly influenced the political situation. In Soviet historiography it was even customary to talk about “the largest battle of the early Middle Ages.”

Against
The version of a general crusade is doubtful. The West at that time did not have sufficient forces or a general strategy, which is confirmed by the significant difference in time between the actions of the Swedes and the Germans. In addition, the territory, which historians conventionally call the Livonian Confederation, was not united. Here were the lands of the archbishoprics of Riga and Dorpat, the possessions of the Danes and the Order of the Sword (since 1237, the Livonian Landmaster of the Teutonic Order). All these forces were in very complex, often conflicting relationships with each other.

The knights of the order, by the way, received only a third of the lands they conquered, and the rest went to the church. There were difficult relations within the order between the former swordsmen and the Teutonic knights who came to reinforce them. The policies of the Teutons and former Swordsmen in the Russian direction were different. Thus, having learned about the beginning of the war with the Russians, the head of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, Hanrik von Winda, dissatisfied with these actions, removed the Landmaster of Livonia, Andreas von Woelven, from power. The new Landmaster of Livonia, Dietrich von Gröningen, after the Battle of the Ice, made peace with the Russians, freeing all occupied lands and exchanging prisoners.

In such a situation, there could be no talk of any united “Onslaught on the East”. Clash 1240-1242 - this is the usual struggle for spheres of influence, which either intensified or subsided. Among other things, the conflict between Novgorod and the Germans is directly related to Pskov-Novgorod politics, first of all, with the history of the expulsion of the Pskov prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich, who found refuge with the Dorpat Bishop Herman and tried to regain the throne with his help.

The scale of the events appears to have been somewhat exaggerated by some modern scholars. Alexander acted carefully so as not to completely ruin relations with Livonia. So, having taken Koporye, he executed only the Estonians and the leaders, and released the Germans. Alexander's capture of Pskov is actually the expulsion of two knights of the Vogts (that is, judges) with their retinue (hardly more than 30 people), who were sitting there under an agreement with the Pskovites. By the way, some historians believe that this treaty was actually concluded against Novgorod.

In general, Pskov’s relations with the Germans were less conflictual than those of Novgorod. For example, Pskovites took part in the Battle of Siauliai against the Lithuanians in 1236 on the side of the Order of the Swordsmen. In addition, Pskov often suffered from German-Novgorod border conflicts, since German troops sent against Novgorod often did not reach Novgorod lands and plundered closer Pskov possessions.

The “Battle of the Ice” itself took place on the lands not of the Order, but of the Dorpat Archbishop, so most of the troops most likely consisted of his vassals. There is reason to believe that a significant part of the Order’s troops were simultaneously preparing for war with the Semigallians and Curonians. In addition, it is usually not customary to mention that Alexander sent his troops to “disperse” and “heal”, that is, saying modern language, rob the local population. The main method of conducting a medieval war was to inflict maximum economic damage on the enemy and capture booty. It was during the “dispersal” that the Germans defeated the advance detachment of the Russians.

Specific details of the battle are difficult to reconstruct. Many modern historians believe that the German army did not exceed 2,000 people. Some historians speak of only 35 knights and 500 foot soldiers. The Russian army may have been somewhat larger, but it was unlikely to be significant. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle only reports that the Germans used a “pig”, that is, a wedge formation, and that the “pig” broke through the Russian formation, which had many archers. The knights fought bravely, but they were defeated, and some of the Dorpatians fled to save themselves.

As for losses, the only explanation why the data in the chronicles and the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle differ is the assumption that the Germans counted only losses among full-fledged knights of the Order, and the Russians counted the total losses of all Germans. Most likely, here, as in other medieval texts, reports about the number of dead are very conditional.

Even the exact date of the “Battle on the Ice” is unknown. The Novgorod Chronicle gives the date April 5, the Pskov Chronicle – April 1, 1242. And whether it was “ice” is unclear. In the “Livonian Rhymed Chronicle” there are the words: “On both sides the dead fell on the grass.” The political and military significance of the Battle of the Ice has also been exaggerated, especially in comparison with the larger battles of Siauliai (1236) and Rakovor (1268).

Alexander Nevsky and the Pope

One of the key episodes in the biography of Alexander Yaroslavich is his contacts with Pope Innocent IV. Information about this is in two bulls of Innocent IV and “The Life of Alexander Nevsky”. The first bull is dated January 22, 1248, the second – September 15, 1248.

Many believe that the fact of the prince’s contacts with the Roman Curia greatly harms his image as an irreconcilable defender of Orthodoxy. Therefore, some researchers even tried to find other recipients for the Pope's messages. They offered either Yaroslav Vladimirovich, an ally of the Germans in the 1240 war against Novgorod, or the Lithuanian Tovtivil, who reigned in Polotsk. However, most researchers consider these versions to be unfounded.

What was written in these two documents? In the first message, the Pope asked Alexander to notify him through the brothers of the Teutonic Order in Livonia about the offensive of the Tatars in order to prepare for resistance. In the second bull to Alexander “the most serene prince of Novgorod,” the Pope mentions that his addressee agreed to join the true faith and even allowed the construction of a cathedral in Pleskov, that is, in Pskov, and, perhaps, even the establishment of an episcopal see.

No reply letters have been preserved. But from the “Life of Alexander Nevsky” it is known that two cardinals came to the prince to persuade him to convert to Catholicism, but received a categorical refusal. However, apparently, for some time Alexander Yaroslavich maneuvered between the West and the Horde.

What influenced him final decision? It is impossible to answer precisely, but the explanation of the historian A. A. Gorsky seems interesting. The fact is that, most likely, the second letter from the Pope did not reach Alexander; at that moment he was on his way to Karakorum, the capital of the Mongol Empire. The prince spent two years on the trip (1247 - 1249) and saw the power of the Mongol state.

When he returned, he learned that Daniel of Galicia, who received the royal crown from the Pope, did not receive the promised help from the Catholics against the Mongols. In the same year, the Catholic Swedish ruler Jarl Birger began the conquest of Central Finland - the lands of the Em tribal union, which was previously part of the sphere of influence of Novgorod. And finally, a mention Catholic Cathedral in Pskov should have evoked unpleasant memories of the conflict of 1240–1242.

Alexander Nevsky and the Horde

The most painful point in discussing the life of Alexander Nevsky is his relationship with the Horde. Alexander did travel to Sarai (1247, 1252, 1258 and 1262) and Karakorum (1247-1249). Some hotheads declare him almost a collaborator, a traitor to the fatherland and Motherland. But, firstly, such a formulation of the question is a clear anachronism, since such concepts did not even exist in Old Russian language XIII century. Secondly, all the princes went to the Horde for labels to reign or for other reasons, even Daniil Galitsky, who offered direct resistance to it for the longest time.

The Horde people, as a rule, received them with honor, although the chronicle of Daniil Galitsky stipulates that “Tatar honor is worse than evil.” The princes had to observe certain rituals, walk through lit fires, drink kumis, worship the image of Genghis Khan - that is, do things that desecrated a person according to the concepts of a Christian of that time. Most of the princes and, apparently, Alexander too, submitted to these demands.

Only one exception is known: Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, who in 1246 refused to obey and was killed for it (canonized according to the rank of martyrs at the council of 1547). In general, events in Rus', starting from the 40s of the 13th century, cannot be considered in isolation from the political situation in the Horde.

One of the most dramatic episodes of Russian-Horde relations occurred in 1252. The course of events was as follows. Alexander Yaroslavich goes to Sarai, after which Batu sends an army led by commander Nevryuy (“Nevryuev’s army”) against Andrei Yaroslavich, Prince Vladimirsky - Alexander’s brother. Andrei flees from Vladimir to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where their younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich rules.

The princes manage to escape from the Tatars, but Yaroslav’s wife dies, the children are captured, and “countless” ordinary people are killed. After Nevruy leaves, Alexander returns to Rus' and sits on the throne in Vladimir. There are still discussions about whether Alexander was involved in Nevruy’s campaign.

Behind
The English historian Fennell has the harshest assessment of these events: “Alexander betrayed his brothers.” Many historians believe that Alexander specifically went to the Horde to complain to the khan about Andrei, especially since similar cases are known from a later time. The complaints could be the following: Andrei, the younger brother, unfairly received the great reign of Vladimir, taking for himself his father’s cities, which should belong to the eldest of the brothers; he does not pay extra tribute.

The subtlety here was that Alexander Yaroslavich, being great Prince of Kyiv, formally had more power than the Grand Duke of Vladimir Andrei, but in fact Kyiv, devastated back in the 12th century by Andrei Bogolyubsky and then by the Mongols, had by that time lost its importance, and therefore Alexander sat in Novgorod. This distribution of power was consistent with the Mongol tradition, according to which the younger brother receives the father's property, and the older brothers conquer the lands for themselves. As a result, the conflict between the brothers was resolved in such a dramatic way.

Against
There are no direct references to Alexander’s complaint in the sources. The exception is Tatishchev’s text. But recent research has shown that this historian did not use, as previously thought, unknown sources; he did not distinguish between the retelling of the chronicles and his comments. The statement of complaint appears to be the writer's commentary. Analogies with later times are incomplete, since later princes who successfully complained to the Horde themselves took part in punitive campaigns.

Historian A. A. Gorsky offers the following version of events. Apparently, Andrei Yaroslavich, relying on the label for the reign of Vladimir, received in 1249 in Karakorum from the khansha Ogul-Gamish, hostile to Sarai, tried to behave independently of Batu. But in 1251 the situation changed.

Khan Munke (Mengu) comes to power in Karakorum with the support of Batu. Apparently, Batu decides to redistribute power in Rus' and summons the princes to his capital. Alexander is going, but Andrey is not. Then Batu sends Nevryu’s army against Andrei and at the same time Kuremsa’s army against his rebellious father-in-law Daniil Galitsky. However, for a final resolution of this controversial issue, as usual, there are not enough sources.

In 1256-1257, a population census was carried out throughout the Great Mongol Empire in order to streamline taxation, but it was disrupted in Novgorod. By 1259, Alexander Nevsky suppressed the Novgorod uprising (for which some in this city still do not like him; for example, the outstanding historian and leader of the Novgorod archaeological expedition V.L. Yanin spoke very harshly about him). The prince ensured that the census was carried out and that the “exit” was paid (as tribute to the Horde is called in sources).

As we see, Alexander Yaroslavich was very loyal to the Horde, but then this was the policy of almost all princes. IN difficult situation it was necessary to make compromises with the irresistible power of the Great Mongol Empire, about which the papal legate Plano Carpini, who visited Karakorum, noted that only God could defeat them.

Canonization of Alexander Nevsky

Prince Alexander was canonized at the Moscow Council of 1547 among the faithful.
Why did he become revered as a saint? There are different opinions on this matter. So F.B. Schenk, who wrote a fundamental study on the changing image of Alexander Nevsky over time, states: “Alexander became the founding father of a special type of Orthodox holy princes who earned their position primarily through secular deeds for the good of the community...”.

Many researchers prioritize the prince’s military successes and believe that he was revered as a saint who defended the “Russian land.” Also interesting is the interpretation of I.N. Danilevsky: “Under the conditions of terrible trials that befell Orthodox lands Alexander was perhaps the only secular ruler who did not doubt his spiritual righteousness, did not waver in his faith, and did not renounce his God. Refusing joint actions with Catholics against the Horde, he unexpectedly becomes the last powerful stronghold of Orthodoxy, the last defender of the entire Orthodox world.

Could the Orthodox Church not recognize such a ruler as a saint? Apparently, this is why he was canonized not as a righteous man, but as a faithful (listen to this word!) prince. The victories of his direct heirs in the political field consolidated and developed this image. And the people understood and accepted this, forgiving the real Alexander for all the cruelties and injustices.”

And finally, there is the opinion of A.E. Musin, a researcher with two educations - historical and theological. He denies the importance of the prince’s “anti-Latin” policy, loyalty Orthodox faith and social activities in his canonization, and tries to understand what qualities of Alexander’s personality and features of life became the reason for his veneration by the people of medieval Rus'; it began much earlier than the official canonization.

It is known that by 1380 the veneration of the prince had already taken shape in Vladimir. The main thing that, according to the scientist, was appreciated by his contemporaries is “the combination of the courage of a Christian warrior and the sobriety of a Christian monk.” To others important factor there was the very unusualness of his life and death. Alexander may have died of illness in 1230 or 1251, but he recovered. He was not supposed to become a Grand Duke, since he initially occupied second place in the family hierarchy, but his older brother Fedor died at the age of thirteen. Nevsky died strangely, having taken monastic vows before his death (this custom spread to Rus' in the 12th century).

In the Middle Ages they loved unusual people and passion-bearers. Sources describe miracles associated with Alexander Nevsky. The incorruptibility of his remains also played a role. Unfortunately, we don’t even know for sure whether the prince’s real relics have been preserved. The fact is that in the lists of the Nikon and Resurrection Chronicles of the 16th century it is said that the body burned down in a fire in 1491, and in the lists of the same chronicles for the 17th century it is written that it was miraculously preserved, which leads to sad suspicions.

The choice of Alexander Nevsky

Recently, the main merit of Alexander Nevsky is considered not to be the defense of the northwestern borders of Rus', but, so to speak, the conceptual choice between the West and the East in favor of the latter.

Behind
Many historians think so. The famous statement of the Eurasian historian G.V. Vernadsky from his journalistic article “Two Labors of St. Alexander Nevsky": "...with a deep and brilliant hereditary historical instinct, Alexander realized that in his historical era The main danger to Orthodoxy and the uniqueness of Russian culture comes from the West, not from the East, from Latinism, and not from Mongolism.”

Further, Vernadsky writes: “Alexander’s submission to the Horde cannot be assessed otherwise than as a feat of humility. When the times and deadlines were fulfilled, when Rus' gained strength, and the Horde, on the contrary, was crushed, weakened and exhausted, and then Alexander’s policy of subordination to the Horde became unnecessary... then the policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally had to turn into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy.”

Against
Firstly, such an assessment of the motives of Nevsky’s activities - an assessment based on the consequences - suffers from the point of view of logic. He couldn't have foreseen further development events. In addition, as I. N. Danilevsky ironically noted, Alexander did not choose, but he was chosen (Batu chose), and the choice of the prince was “a choice for survival.”

In some places, Danilevsky speaks out even more harshly, believing that Nevsky’s policy influenced the duration of Rus'’s dependence on the Horde (he refers to the successful struggle of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Horde) and, along with the earlier policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, on the formation of a type of statehood North-Eastern Rus' as a "despotic monarchy". Here it is worth citing a more neutral opinion of the historian A. A. Gorsky:

“In general, it can be stated that in the actions of Alexander Yaroslavich there is no reason to look for some kind of conscious fateful choice. He was a man of his era, acting in accordance with the worldview of the time and personal experience. Alexander was, in modern terms, a “pragmatist”: he chose the path that seemed to him more profitable for strengthening his land and for him personally. When it was a decisive battle, he fought; when an agreement with one of Rus'’s enemies seemed most useful, he agreed to an agreement.”

"Favorite Childhood Hero"

This is what historian I.N. called one of the sections of a very critical article about Alexander Nevsky. Danilevsky. I confess that for the author of these lines, along with Richard I the Lionheart, he was a favorite hero. The “Battle on the Ice” was “reconstructed” in detail with the help of soldiers. So the author knows exactly how it all really happened. But if we speak coldly and seriously, then, as was said above, we do not have enough data for a holistic assessment of the personality of Alexander Nevsky.

As is most often the case when studying early history, we more or less know that something happened, but often we don’t know and will never know how. The author’s personal opinion is that the argumentation of the position, which we conventionally designated as “against,” looks more serious. Perhaps the exception is the episode with “Nevryuev’s Army” - nothing can be said for sure there. The final conclusion remains with the reader.

Soviet Order of Alexander Nevsky, established in 1942.

Bibliography
Lyrics
1. Alexander Nevsky and the history of Russia. Novgorod. 1996.
2. Bakhtin A.P. Internal and foreign policy problems of the Teutonic Order, in Prussia and Livonia in the late 1230s - early 1240s. The Battle of the Ice in the Mirror of the Epoch // Collection of scientific works dedicated to. 770th anniversary of the Battle of Lake Peipsi. Comp. M.B. Bessudnova. Lipetsk. 2013 pp. 166-181.
3. Begunov Yu.K. Alexander Nevskiy. The life and deeds of the holy noble Grand Duke. M., 2003.
4. Vernadsky G.V. Two labors of St. Alexander Nevsky // Eurasian temporary book. Book IV. Prague, 1925.
5. Gorsky A.A. Alexander Nevskiy.
6. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky: Paradoxes of historical memory // "Chain of Times": Problems of historical consciousness. M.: IVI RAS, 2005, p. 119-132.
7. Danilevsky I.N. Historical reconstruction: between text and reality (thesis).
8. Danilevsky I.N. Battle on the Ice: change of image // Otechestvennye zapiski. 2004. - No. 5.
9. Danilevsky I.N. Alexander Nevsky and the Teutonic Order.
10. Danilevsky I.N. Russian lands through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (XII-XIV centuries). M. 2001.
11. Danilevsky I.N. Modern Russian discussions about Prince Alexander Nevsky.
12. Egorov V.L. Alexander Nevsky and Chingizids // National history. 1997. № 2.
13. Prince Alexander Nevsky and his era: Research and materials. St. Petersburg 1995.
14. Kuchkin A.V. Alexander Nevsky - statesman and commander of medieval Rus' // Domestic history. 1996. No. 5.
15. Matuzova E. I., Nazarova E. L. Crusaders and Rus'. End of XII - 1270. Texts, translation, commentary. M. 2002.
16. Musin A.E. Alexander Nevskiy. The mystery of holiness.// Almanac "Chelo", Veliky Novgorod. 2007. No. 1. P.11-25.
17. Rudakov V.N. “He worked hard for Novgorod and for the whole Russian land” Book review: Alexander Nevsky. Sovereign. Diplomat. Warrior. M. 2010.
18. Uzhankov A.N. Between two evils. Historical choice of Alexander Nevsky.
19. Fennel. D. The crisis of medieval Rus'. 1200-1304. M. 1989.
20. Florya B.N. At the origins of the confessional schism of the Slavic world (Ancient Rus' and its Western neighbors in the 13th century). In the book: From the history of Russian culture. T. 1. (Ancient Rus'). – M. 2000.
21. Khrustalev D.G. Rus' and the Mongol invasion (20-50s of the 13th century) St. Petersburg. 2013.
22. Khrustalev D.G. Northern Crusaders. Rus' in the struggle for spheres of influence in the Eastern Baltics in the 12th – 13th centuries. vol. 1, 2. St. Petersburg. 2009.
23. Schenk F. B. Alexander Nevsky in Russian cultural memory: Saint, ruler, national hero (1263–2000) / Authorized trans. with him. E. Zemskova and M. Lavrinovich. M. 2007.
24. Urban. W.L. The Baltic Crusade. 1994.

Video
1. Danilevsky I.G. Historical reconstruction between text and reality (lecture)
2. Hour of Truth - Golden Horde - Russian Choice (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov) 1st episode.
3. Hour of Truth - Horde Yoke - Versions (Igor Danilevsky and Vladimir Rudakov)
4. Hour of Truth - Frontiers of Alexander Nevsky. (Petr Stefanovich and Yuri Artamonov)
5. Battle on the ice. Historian Igor Danilevsky about the events of 1242, about Eisenstein’s film and the relationship between Pskov and Novgorod.

Whoever comes to us with a sword will die by the sword.

Alexander Nevskiy

The Battle of the Ice is one of the most famous battles in Russian history. The battle took place in early April 1242 on Lake Peipsi, on the one hand, the troops of the Novgorod Republic, led by Alexander Nevsky, took part in it, on the other hand, it was opposed by the troops of the German crusaders, mainly representatives of the Livonian Order. If Nevsky had lost this battle, the history of Russia could have gone a completely different way, but the prince of Novgorod was able to win. Now let's look at this page of Russian history in more detail.

Preparing for battle

To understand the essence of the Battle of the Ice, it is necessary to understand what preceded it and how the opponents approached the battle. So... After the Swedes lost the Battle of the Neva, the German crusaders decided to more carefully prepare for a new campaign. The Teutonic Order also allocated part of its army to help. Back in 1238, Dietrich von Grüningen became the Master of the Livonian Order; many historians attribute to him the decisive role in shaping the idea of ​​​​the campaign against Rus'. The crusaders were further motivated by Pope Gregory IX, who in 1237 declared a crusade against Finland, and in 1239 called on the princes of Rus' to respect the border orders.

At this point, the Novgorodians already had successful experience of war with the Germans. In 1234, Alexander's father Yaroslav defeated them in the battle on the Omovzha River. Alexander Nevsky, knowing the plans of the crusaders, began to build a line of fortifications along the southwestern border in 1239, but the Swedes made minor adjustments to his plans by attacking from the northwest. After their defeat, Nevsky continued to strengthen the borders, and also married the daughter of the Prince of Polotsk, thereby enlisting his support in case of a future war.

At the end of 1240, the Germans began a campaign against the lands of Rus'. In the same year they took Izborsk, and in 1241 they besieged Pskov. At the beginning of March 1242, Alexander helped the residents of Pskov liberate their principality and drove the Germans northwest of the city, to the region of Lake Peipsi. It was there that the decisive battle took place, which went down in history as the Battle of the Ice.

The course of the battle briefly

The first clashes of the ice battle began in early April 1242 on the northern shore of Lake Peipsi. The crusaders were led by a famous commander Andreas von Felfen who was twice as old Prince of Novgorod. Nevsky's army numbered 15-17 thousand soldiers, while the Germans had about 10 thousand. However, according to chroniclers, both in Rus' and abroad, the German troops were much better armed. But as subsequent developments showed, this played a cruel joke on the crusaders.

The Battle of the Ice took place on April 5, 1242. German troops, mastering the “pigs” attack technique, that is, a strict and disciplined formation, directed the main blow to the enemy’s center. However, Alexander first attacked the enemy army with the help of archers, and then ordered a strike on the flanks of the crusaders. As a result, the Germans were forced forward onto the ice of Lake Peipsi. The winter at that time was long and cold, so at the time of April the ice (very fragile) remained on the reservoir. After the Germans realized that they were retreating onto the ice, it was already too late: the ice began to crack under the pressure of the heavy German armor. That is why historians called the battle the “Battle of the Ice.” As a result, some of the soldiers drowned, others were killed in battle, but most still managed to escape. After this, Alexander's troops finally drove the crusaders out of the territory of the Pskov principality.

The exact location of the battle has not yet been established, this is due to the fact that Lake Peipus has very variable hydrography. In 1958-1959, the first archaeological expedition was organized, but no traces of the battle were found.

Historical reference

Result and historical significance of the battle

The first result of the battle was that the Livonian and Teutonic orders signed a truce with Alexander and renounced their claims to Rus'. Alexander himself became the de facto ruler of Northern Rus'. After his death, in 1268, the Livonian Order violated the truce: the Battle of Rakovsk took place. But this time, too, the Russian troops achieved victory.

After the victory in the “Battle on the Ice,” the Novgorod Republic, led by Nevsky, was able to move from defensive tasks to the conquest of new territories. Alexander undertook several successful campaigns against the Lithuanians.

As for the historical significance of the Battle of Lake Peipus, then the main role Alexander is that he managed to stop the advance of a powerful army of crusaders on Russian lands. The famous historian L. Gumelev argues that the fact of conquest by the crusaders would have meant the end for the very existence of Rus', and therefore the end of the future Russia.

Some historians criticize Nevsky for his truce with the Mongols, and that he did not help defend Rus' from them. In this discussion, most historians still side with Nevsky, because in the situation in which he found himself, it was necessary either to negotiate with the khan or to fight two powerful enemies at once. And as a competent politician and commander, Nevsky made a wise decision.

The exact date of the Battle of the Ice

The battle took place on April 5, old style. In the 20th century, the difference between the styles was 13 days, which is why the holiday was assigned to April 18. However, from the point of view of historical justice, it is worth recognizing that in the 13th century (when the battle took place) the difference was 7 days. Based on this logic, the Battle of the Ice took place on April 12, according to the new style. Nevertheless, today, April 18, is a public holiday in the Russian Federation, the Day military glory. It is on this day that the Battle of the Ice and its significance in the history of Russia are remembered.

Participants in the battle after

Having achieved victory, the Novgorod Republic begins its rapid development. However, in the 16th century there was a decline in both the Livonian Order and Novgorod. Both of these events are associated with the ruler of Moscow, Ivan the Terrible. He deprived Novgorod of the privileges of the Republic, subordinating these lands to a single state. After the Livonian Order lost its strength and influence in Eastern Europe, Grozny declared war on Lithuania to strengthen his own influence and expand the territories of his state.

An alternative view of the Battle of Lake Peipsi

Due to the fact that during the archaeological expedition of 1958-1959 no traces and exact location of the battle were found, and also taking into account the fact that the chronicles of the 13th century contain very little information about the battle, two alternative views on the Battle of the Ice of 1242 were formed, which briefly discussed below:

1. According to the first glance, there was no battle at all. This is an invention of historians of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, in particular Solovyov, Karamzin and Kostomarov. According to historians who share this point of view, the need to create this battle was caused by the fact that it was necessary to justify Nevsky’s cooperation with the Mongols, as well as to show the strength of Rus' in relation to Catholic Europe. Basically, a small number of historians adhere to this theory, since it is very difficult to deny the very fact of the existence of the battle, because the battle on Lake Peipsi is described in some chronicles of the late 13th century, as well as in the chronicles of the Germans.
2. Second alternative theory: The Battle of the Ice is briefly described in the chronicles, which means it is a greatly exaggerated event. Historians who adhere to this point of view say that there were much fewer participants in the massacre, and the consequences for the Germans were less dramatic.

If professional Russian historians deny the first theory as a historical fact, then as for the second version, they have one weighty argument: even if the scale of the battle is exaggerated, this should not reduce the role of the victory over the Germans in the history of Russia. By the way, in 2012-2013 archaeological expeditions were carried out, as well as studies of the bottom of Lake Peipsi. Archaeologists have found several new probable sites of the Battle of the Ice, in addition, a study of the bottom showed the presence of a sharp decrease in depth near Raven Island, which suggests the existence of the legendary “Raven Stone,” that is, the approximate location of the battle, named in the chronicle of 1463.

The Battle of the Ice in the country's culture

The year 1938 is of great significance in the history of reporting historical events in modern culture. This year famous Russian writer Konstantin Simonov wrote the poem “Battle of the Ice,” and director Sergei Eisenstein shot the film “Alexander Nevsky,” in which he highlighted the two main battles of the Novgorod ruler: on the Neva River and Lake Peipsi. The image of Nevsky was of particular importance during the Great Patriotic War. Patriotic War. Poets, artists, and directors turned to him to show the citizens of the Soviet Union an example of a successful war with the Germans and thereby raise the morale of the army.

In 1993, a monument was erected on Mount Sokolikha near Pskov. A year earlier, in the village of Kobylye, a settlement (as close as possible to the battle site) locality) erected a monument to Nevsky. In 2012, a museum of the Battle of the Ice of 1242 was opened in the village of Samolva, Pskov region.

As we can see, even a brief history of the Battle of the Ice is not only the battle of April 5, 1242 between the Novgorodians and the Germans. This is a very important event in the history of Russia, since thanks to the talent of Alexander Nevsky, Rus' was saved from conquest by the crusaders.

Rus' in the 13th century and the arrival of the Germans

In 1240, Novgorod was attacked by the Swedes, by the way, allies of the Livonians, future participants in the Battle of the Ice. Prince Alexander Yaroslavovich, who at that time was only 20 years old, defeats the Swedes on Lake Neva, for which he received the nickname “Nevsky”. In the same year, the Mongols burned Kyiv, that is, most of Rus' was occupied with the war with the Mongols, Nevsky and its Novgorod Republic were left alone with strong enemies. The Swedes were defeated, but ahead of Alexander was a stronger and more powerful opponent: the German crusaders. In the 12th century, the Pope created the Order of the Swordsmen and sent them to the Baltic Sea coast, where they received from him the right to own all the conquered lands. These events went down in history as the Northern Crusade. Since most of the members of the Order of the Sword were immigrants from Germany, this order was therefore called German. At the beginning of the 13th century, the order split into several military organizations, the main ones of which were the Teutonic and Livonian orders. In 1237, the Livonians recognized their dependence on the Teutonic Order, but had the right to choose their master. It was the Livonian Order that was the closest neighbors of the Novgorod Republic.

April 18th The next Day of Military Glory of Russia is celebrated - the Day of the victory of Russian soldiers of Prince Alexander Nevsky over the German knights on Lake Peipsi (Battle of the Ice, 1242). The holiday was established by Federal Law No. 32-FZ of March 13, 1995 “On the Days of Military Glory and memorable dates Russia."

According to the definition of all modern historical reference books and encyclopedias,

Battle on the Ice(Schlacht auf dem Eise (German), Prœlium glaciale (Latin), also called Ice battle or Battle of Lake Peipsi- the battle of the Novgorodians and Vladimirites led by Alexander Nevsky against the knights of the Livonian Order on the ice of Lake Peipus - took place on April 5 (in terms of the Gregorian calendar - April 12) 1242.

In 1995, Russian parliamentarians, accepting the federal law, did not particularly think about the dating of this event. They simply added 13 days to April 5 (as is traditionally done to recalculate the events of the 19th century from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), completely forgetting that the Battle of the Ice did not happen at all in the 19th century, but in the distant 13th century. Accordingly, the “correction” to the modern calendar is only 7 days.

Today, any person who studied at high school, I am sure that the Battle of the Ice or the Battle of Lake Peipsi is considered the general battle of the conquest campaign of the Teutonic Order in 1240-1242. The Livonian Order, as is known, was the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, and was formed from the remnants of the Order of the Sword in 1237. The Order waged wars against Lithuania and Rus'. Members of the order were "brothers-knights" (warriors), "brothers-priests" (clergy) and "brothers-servants" (squires-artisans). The Knights of the Order were given the rights of the Knights Templar (templars). The distinctive sign of its members was a white robe with a red cross and a sword on it. The battle between the Livonians and the Novgorod army on Lake Peipus decided the outcome of the campaign in favor of the Russians. It also marked the actual death of the Livonian Order itself. Every schoolchild will enthusiastically tell how, during the battle, the famous Prince Alexander Nevsky and his comrades killed and drowned almost all the clumsy, ponderous knights in the lake and liberated the Russian lands from the German conquerors.

If we abstract from the traditional version set out in all school and some university textbooks, it turns out that practically nothing is known about the famous battle, which went down in history as the Battle of the Ice.

Historians to this day break their spears in disputes about what were the reasons for the battle? Where exactly did the battle take place? Who took part in it? And did she exist at all?..

Next, I would like to present two not entirely traditional versions, one of which is based on an analysis of well-known chronicle sources about the Battle of the Ice and concerns the assessment of its role and significance by contemporaries. The other was born as a result of a search by amateur enthusiasts for the immediate site of the battle, about which neither archaeologists nor specialist historians still have a clear opinion.

An imaginary battle?

The “Battle on the Ice” is reflected in a lot of sources. First of all, this is a complex of Novgorod-Pskov chronicles and the “Life” of Alexander Nevsky, which exists in more than twenty editions; then - the most complete and ancient Laurentian Chronicle, which included a number of chronicles of the 13th century, as well as Western sources - numerous Livonian Chronicles.

However, analyzing domestic and foreign sources over many centuries, historians have not been able to come to a common opinion: do they tell about a specific battle that took place in 1242 on Lake Peipsi, or are they about different ones?

Most domestic sources record that some kind of battle took place on Lake Peipus (or in its area) on April 5, 1242. But it is not possible to reliably establish its causes, the number of troops, their formation, composition on the basis of annals and chronicles. How did the battle develop, who distinguished himself in the battle, how many Livonians and Russians died? No data. How did Alexander Nevsky, who is still called “the savior of the fatherland”, finally show himself in the battle? Alas! There are still no answers to any of these questions.

Domestic sources about the Battle of the Ice

The obvious contradictions contained in the Novgorod-Pskov and Suzdal chronicles telling about the Battle of the Ice can be explained by the constant rivalry between Novgorod and the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, as well as the difficult relationship between the Yaroslavich brothers - Alexander and Andrey.

The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, as you know, saw his youngest son, Andrei, as his successor. In Russian historiography, there is a version that the father wanted to get rid of the elder Alexander, and therefore sent him to reign in Novgorod. The Novgorod “table” at that time was considered almost a chopping block for the Vladimir princes. The political life of the city was ruled by the boyar “veche”, and the prince was only a governor, who in case of external danger must lead the squad and militia.

According to the official version of the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL), for some reason the Novgorodians expelled Alexander from Novgorod after the victorious Battle of the Neva (1240). And when the knights of the Livonian Order captured Pskov and Koporye, they again asked the Vladimir prince to send them Alexander.

Yaroslav, on the contrary, intended to send Andrei, whom he trusted more, to resolve the difficult situation, but the Novgorodians insisted on Nevsky’s candidacy. There is also a version that the story of the “expulsion” of Alexander from Novgorod is fictitious and of a later nature. Perhaps it was invented by Nevsky’s “biographers” to justify the surrender of Izborsk, Pskov and Koporye to the Germans. Yaroslav feared that Alexander would open the Novgorod gates to the enemy in the same way, but in 1241 he managed to recapture the Koporye fortress from the Livonians, and then take Pskov. However, some sources date the liberation of Pskov to the beginning of 1242, when the Vladimir-Suzdal army led by his brother Andrei Yaroslavich had already arrived to help Nevsky, and some - to 1244.

According to modern researchers, based on the Livonian Chronicles and other foreign sources, the Koporye fortress surrendered to Alexander Nevsky without a fight, and the Pskov garrison consisted of only two Livonian knights with their squires, armed servants and some militias from local peoples who joined them (Chud, water, etc.). The composition of the entire Livonian Order in the 40s of the 13th century could not exceed 85-90 knights. That is exactly how many castles existed on the territory of the Order at that moment. One castle, as a rule, fielded one knight with squires.

The earliest surviving domestic source mentioning the “Battle of the Ice” is the Laurentian Chronicle, written by a Suzdal chronicler. It does not mention the participation of the Novgorodians in the battle at all, and Prince Andrei appears as the main character:

“Grand Duke Yaroslav sent his son Andrei to Novgorod to help Alexander against the Germans. Having won on the lake beyond Pskov and taken many prisoners, Andrei returned with honor to his father.”

The authors of numerous editions of Alexander Nevsky’s Life, on the contrary, argue that it was after “The Battle of the Ice” made the name of Alexander famous “across all countries from the Varangian Sea and to the Pontic Sea, and to the Egyptian Sea, and to the country of Tiberias, and to the Ararat Mountains, even to Rome the Great...”.

According to the Laurentian Chronicle, it turns out that even his closest relatives did not suspect Alexander’s worldwide fame.

The most detailed account of the battle is contained in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL). It is believed that in the earliest list of this chronicle (Synodal) the entry about the “Battle on the Ice” was made already in the 30s of the 14th century. The Novgorod chronicler does not mention a word about the participation of Prince Andrei and the Vladimir-Suzdal squad in the battle:

“Alexander and the Novgorodians built regiments on Lake Peipus on Uzmen near the Crow Stone. And the Germans and Chud drove into the regiment, and fought their way through the regiment like a pig. And there was a great slaughter of the Germans and Chuds. God helped Prince Alexander. The enemy was driven and beaten seven miles to the Subolichi coast. And countless Chuds fell, and 400 Germans(later scribes rounded this figure to 500, and in this form it was included in history textbooks). Fifty prisoners were brought to Novgorod. The battle took place on Saturday, April 5th.”

In later versions of the “Life” of Alexander Nevsky (late 16th century), discrepancies with the chronicle information are deliberately eliminated, details borrowed from the NPL are added: the location of the battle, its course and data on losses. The number of killed enemies increases from edition to edition to 900 (!). In some editions of the “Life” (and there are more than twenty of them in total) there are reports about the participation of the Master of the Order in the battle and his capture, as well as the absurd fiction that the knights drowned in the water because they were too heavy.

Many historians who analyzed in detail the texts of the “Life” of Alexander Nevsky noted that the description of the massacre in the “Life” gives the impression of obvious literary borrowing. V.I. Mansikka (“The Life of Alexander Nevsky”, St. Petersburg, 1913) believed that the story about the Battle of the Ice used a description of the battle between Yaroslav the Wise and Svyatopolk the Accursed. Georgy Fedorov notes that the “Life” of Alexander “is a military heroic story inspired by the Roman-Byzantine historical literature(Palea, Josephus)”, and the description of the “Battle of the Ice” is a tracing of Titus’s victory over the Jews at Lake Gennesaret from the third book of the “History of the Jewish War” by Josephus.

I. Grekov and F. Shakhmagonov believe that “the appearance of the battle in all its positions is very similar to famous battle at Cannes” (“World of History”, p. 78). In general, the story about the “Battle on the Ice” from the early edition of Alexander Nevsky’s “Life” is just common place, which can be successfully applied to the description of any battle.

In the 13th century there were many battles that could have become a source of “literary borrowing” for the authors of the story about the “Battle on the Ice.” For example, about ten years before the expected date of writing the “Life” (80s of the 13th century), on February 16, 1270, a major battle took place between the Livonian knights and the Lithuanians at Karusen. It also took place on ice, but not on a lake, but on the Gulf of Riga. And its description in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle is exactly like the description of the “Battle on the Ice” in the NPL.

In the Battle of Karusen, as in the Battle of the Ice, the knightly cavalry attacks the center, there the cavalry “gets stuck” in the convoys, and by going around the flanks the enemy completes their defeat. Moreover, in neither case do the winners try to take advantage of the result of the defeat of the enemy army in any way, but calmly go home with the spoils.

"Livonians" version

The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle (LRH), telling about a certain battle with the Novgorod-Suzdal army, tends to make the aggressors not the knights of the order, but their opponents - Prince Alexander and his brother Andrei. The authors of the chronicle constantly emphasize the superior forces of the Russians and the small number of the knightly army. According to LRH, the Order's losses in the Battle of the Ice amounted to twenty knights. Six were captured. This chronicle says nothing about the date or place of the battle, but the minstrel’s words that the dead fell on the grass (ground) allows us to conclude that the battle was fought not on the ice of the lake, but on land. If the author of the Chronicle understands “grass” not figuratively (the German idiomatic expression is “to fall on the battlefield”), but literally, then it turns out that the battle took place when the ice on the lakes had already melted, or the opponents fought not on the ice, but in coastal reed thickets:

“In Dorpat they learned that Prince Alexander came with an army to the land of the brother knights, causing robberies and fires. The bishop ordered the men of the bishopric to rush into the army of the brother knights to fight against the Russians. They brought too few people, the army of the brother knights was also too small. However, they came to a consensus to attack the Russians. The Russians had many shooters who bravely accepted the first onslaught. It was seen how a detachment of brother knights defeated the shooters; there the clanking of swords could be heard, and helmets could be seen being cut apart. On both sides the dead fell onto the grass. Those who were in the army of the brother knights were surrounded. The Russians had such an army that each German was attacked by perhaps sixty people. The brother knights stubbornly resisted, but were defeated there. Some of the Derpt residents escaped by leaving the battlefield. Twenty brother knights were killed there, and six were captured. This was the course of the battle."

The author LRH does not express the slightest admiration for Alexander’s military leadership talents. The Russians managed to encircle part of the Livonian army not thanks to Alexander’s talent, but because there were much more Russians than Livonians. Even with an overwhelming numerical superiority over the enemy, according to LRH, the Novgorod troops were not able to encircle the entire Livonian army: some of the Derpt residents escaped by retreating from the battlefield. Only a small part of the “Germans” were surrounded - 26 brother knights who preferred death to shameful flight.

A later source in terms of the time of writing - “The Chronicle of Hermann Wartberg” was written one hundred and fifty years after the events of 1240-1242. It contains, rather, an assessment by the descendants of the defeated knights of the significance that the war with the Novgorodians had on the fate of the Order. The author of the chronicle talks about the capture and subsequent loss of Izborsk and Pskov by the Order as major events of this war. However, the Chronicle does not mention any battle on the ice of Lake Peipsi.

The Livonian Chronicle of Ryussow, published in 1848 on the basis of earlier editions, says that during the time of Master Conrad (Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in 1239-1241. Died from wounds received in the battle with the Prussians on April 9, 1241) there was King Alexander. He (Alexander) learned that under Master Hermann von Salt (Master of the Teutonic Order in 1210-1239), the Teutons captured Pskov. With a large army, Alexander takes Pskov. The Germans fight hard, but are defeated. Seventy knights and many Germans died. Six brother knights are captured and tortured to death.

Some Russian historians interpret the messages of the Chronicle of Ryussov in the sense that the seventy knights whose deaths he mentions fell during the capture of Pskov. But it's not right. In the Chronicle of Ryussow, all the events of 1240-1242 are combined into one whole. This Chronicle does not mention such events as the capture of Izborsk, the defeat of the Pskov army near Izborsk, the construction of a fortress in Koporye and its capture by the Novgorodians, the Russian invasion of Livonia. Thus, “seventy knights and many Germans” are the total losses of the Order (more precisely, the Livonians and Danes) during the entire war.

Another difference between the Livonian Chronicles and the NPL is the number and fate of captured knights. The Ryussov Chronicle reports six prisoners, and the Novgorod Chronicle reports fifty. The captured knights, whom Alexander proposes to exchange for soap in Eisenstein’s film, were “tortured to death,” according to LRH. NPL writes that the Germans offered peace to the Novgorodians, one of the conditions of which was the exchange of prisoners: “what if we captured your husbands, we will exchange them: we will let yours go, and you will let ours go.” But did the captured knights live to see the exchange? There is no information about their fate in Western sources.

Judging by the Livonian Chronicles, the clash with the Russians in Livonia was a minor event for the knights of the Teutonic Order. It is reported only in passing, and the death of the Livonian Lordship of the Teutons (Livonian Order) in the battle on Lake Peipsi does not find any confirmation at all. The order continued to exist successfully until the 16th century (destroyed during the Livonian War in 1561).

Battle location

according to I.E. Koltsov

Until the end of the 20th century, the burial places of soldiers who died during the Battle of the Ice, as well as the location of the battle itself, remained unknown. The landmarks of the place where the battle took place are indicated in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL): “On Lake Peipsi, near the Uzmen tract, at the Crow Stone.” Local legends specify that the battle took place just outside the village of Samolva. In ancient chronicles there is no mention of Voronii Island (or any other island) near the site of the battle. They talk about fighting on the ground, on the grass. Ice is mentioned only in later editions of the “Life” of Alexander Nevsky.

The past centuries have erased from history and human memory information about the location of mass graves, the Crow Stone, the Uzmen tract and the degree of population of these places. Over many centuries, the Crow Stone and other buildings in these places have been wiped off the face of the earth. The elevations and monuments of mass graves were leveled with the surface of the earth. The attention of historians was attracted by the name of Voroniy Island, where they hoped to find the Raven Stone. The hypothesis that the massacre took place near Voronii Island was accepted as the main version, although it contradicted chronicle sources and common sense. The question remained unclear which road Nevsky took to Livonia (after the liberation of Pskov), and from there to the site of the upcoming battle at the Crow Stone, near the Uzmen tract, beyond the village of Samolva (one must understand that on the opposite side of Pskov).

Reading the existing interpretation of the Battle of the Ice, the question involuntarily arises: why did Nevsky’s troops, as well as the heavy cavalry of knights, have to go through Lake Peipus on the spring ice to Voronii Island, where even in severe frosts the water does not freeze in many places? It is necessary to take into account that the beginning of April for these places is a warm period of time. Testing the hypothesis about the location of the battle at Voronii Island dragged on for many decades. This time was enough for it to take a firm place in all history textbooks, including military ones. Our future historians, military men, and generals gain knowledge from these textbooks... Considering the low validity of this version, in 1958 a comprehensive expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences was created to determine the true location of the battle of April 5, 1242. The expedition worked from 1958 to 1966. Large-scale research was carried out, a number of interesting discoveries were made that expanded knowledge about this region, about the presence of an extensive network of ancient waterways between Lakes Peipus and Ilmen. However, it was not possible to find the burial places of the soldiers who died in the Battle of the Ice, as well as the Voronye Stone, the Uzmen tract and traces of the battle (including at Voronii Island). This is clearly stated in the report of the complex expedition of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The mystery remained unsolved.

After this, allegations appeared that in ancient times the dead were taken with them for burial in their homeland, therefore, they say, burials cannot be found. But did they take all the dead with them? How did they deal with the dead enemy soldiers and the dead horses? A clear answer was not given to the question of why Prince Alexander went from Livonia not to the protection of the walls of Pskov, but to the region of Lake Peipsi - to the site of the upcoming battle. At the same time, historians for some reason paved the way for Alexander Nevsky and the knights through Lake Peipsi, ignoring the presence of an ancient crossing near the village of Mosty in the south of Lake Warm. The history of the Battle of the Ice is of interest to many local historians and lovers of Russian history.

For many years, a group of Moscow amateur enthusiasts also independently studied the Battle of Peipsi. ancient history Rus' with the direct participation of I.E. Koltsova. The task before this group was seemingly almost insurmountable. It was necessary to find burials hidden in the ground related to this battle, the remains of the Crow Stone, the Uzmen tract, etc., on a large territory of the Gdovsky district of the Pskov region. It was necessary to “look” inside the earth and choose what was directly related to the Battle of the Ice. Using methods and instruments widely used in geology and archeology (including dowsing, etc.), the group members marked on the terrain plan the supposed locations of the mass graves of soldiers of both sides who died in this battle. These burials are located in two zones east of the village of Samolva. One of the zones is located half a kilometer north of the village of Tabory and one and a half kilometers from Samolva. The second zone with the largest number of burials is 1.5-2 km north of the village of Tabory and approximately 2 km east of Samolva.

It can be assumed that the wedge of knights into the ranks of Russian soldiers occurred in the area of ​​the first burial (first zone), and in the area of ​​the second zone the main battle and encirclement of the knights took place. The encirclement and defeat of the knights was facilitated by additional troops from the Suzdal archers, who arrived here the day before from Novgorod, led by A. Nevsky’s brother, Andrei Yaroslavich, but who were in ambush before the battle. Research has shown that in those distant times, in the area south of the now existing village of Kozlovo (more precisely, between Kozlov and Tabory) there was some kind of fortified outpost of the Novgorodians. It is possible that there was an old “gorodets” here (before the transfer, or the construction of a new town on the site where Kobylye Settlement is now located). This outpost (gorodets) was located 1.5-2 km from the village of Tabory. It was hidden behind the trees. Here, behind the earthen ramparts of a now defunct fortification, was the detachment of Andrei Yaroslavich, hidden in ambush before the battle. It was here and only here that Prince Alexander Nevsky sought to unite with him. At a critical moment in the battle, an ambush regiment could go behind the knights' rear, surround them and ensure victory. This happened again later during the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.

The discovery of the burial area of ​​the dead soldiers allowed us to confidently conclude that the battle took place here, between the villages of Tabory, Kozlovo and Samolva. This place is relatively flat. Nevsky's troops on the northwestern side (on the right hand) were protected by the weak spring ice of Lake Peipsi, and on the eastern side (on the left hand) by the wooded part, where the fresh forces of the Novgorodians and Suzdalians, entrenched in a fortified town, were in ambush. The knights advanced from the southern side (from the village of Tabory). Not knowing about the Novgorod reinforcements and feeling their military superiority in strength, they, without hesitation, rushed into battle, falling into the “nets” that had been placed. From here it can be seen that the battle itself took place on land, not far from the shore of Lake Peipsi. By the end of the battle, the knightly army was pushed back onto the spring ice of the Zhelchinskaya Bay of Lake Peipus, where many of them died. Their remains and weapons are now located half a kilometer northwest of the Kobylye Settlement Church at the bottom of this bay.

Our research has also determined the location of the former Crow Stone on the northern outskirts of the village of Tabory - one of the main landmarks of the Battle of the Ice. Centuries have destroyed the stone, but its underground part still rests under the strata of cultural layers of the earth. This stone is presented in the miniature of the chronicle of the Battle of the Ice in the form of a stylized statue of a raven. In ancient times, it had a cult purpose, symbolizing wisdom and longevity, like the legendary Blue Stone, which is located in the city of Pereslavl-Zalessky on the shore of Lake Pleshcheevo.

In the area where the remains of the Crow Stone were located, there was an ancient temple with underground passages that led to the Uzmen tract, where there were fortifications. Traces of former ancient underground structures indicate that there were once above-ground religious and other structures made of stone and brick here.

Now, knowing the burial places of the soldiers of the Battle of the Ice (the place of the battle) and again turning to the chronicle materials, it can be argued that Alexander Nevsky with his troops walked to the area of ​​​​the upcoming battle (to the Samolva area) from the south side, followed on the heels of the knights. In the "Novgorod First Chronicle of the Senior and Younger Editions" it is said that, having freed Pskov from the knights, Nevsky himself went to the possessions of the Livonian Order (pursuing the knights west of Lake Pskov), where he allowed his warriors to live. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle testifies that the invasion was accompanied by fires and the removal of people and livestock. Having learned about this, the Livonian bishop sent troops of knights to meet him. The Nevsky stopping place was somewhere halfway between Pskov and Dorpat, not far from the border of the confluence of the Pskov and Tyoploye lakes. Here was the traditional crossing near the village of Mosty. A. Nevsky, in turn, having heard about the performance of the knights, did not return to Pskov, but, having crossed to the eastern shore of Lake Warm, hurried in a northern direction to the Uzmen tract, leaving a detachment of Domash and Kerbet in the rear guard. This detachment entered into battle with the knights and was defeated. The burial place of warriors from the detachment of Domash and Kerbet is located at the south-eastern outskirts of Chudskiye Zakhody.

Academician Tikhomirov M.N. believed that the first skirmish of the detachment of Domash and Kerbet with the knights took place on the eastern shore of Warm Lake near the village of Chudskaya Rudnitsa (see “Battle of the Ice”, ed. of the USSR Academy of Sciences, series “History and Philosophy”, M., 1951, No. 1 , vol. VII, pp. 89-91). This area is significantly south of the village. Samolva. The knights also crossed at Mosty, pursuing A. Nevsky to the village of Tabory, where the battle began.

Nowadays, the site of the Battle of the Ice is located away from busy roads. You can get here by transport and then on foot. This is probably why many authors of numerous articles and scientific works about this battle have never been to Lake Peipsi, preferring the silence of the office and a fantasy far from life. It is curious that this area near Lake Peipsi is interesting from historical, archaeological and other points of view. In these places there are ancient burial mounds, mysterious dungeons, etc. Periodic appearances of UFOs and mysterious " Bigfoot"(north of the Zhelcha River). So, carried out important stage work to determine the location of mass graves (burials) of soldiers who died in the Battle of the Ice, the remains of the Crow Stone, the area of ​​​​the old and new settlements and a number of other objects related to the battle. Now more detailed studies of the battle area are needed. It's up to archaeologists.