Borrowed words in Russian. Foreign words in Russian

One of the branches of vocabulary is etymology, which studies the origin of a word against the background of changes in the entire vocabulary of the language. They are originally Russian and are considered precisely from the standpoint of etymology. These are the two layers into which the entire vocabulary Russian language, from the point of view of origin. This section of vocabulary answers the question of how the word came about, what it means, where and when it was borrowed, and what changes it has undergone.

Russian vocabulary

All words that exist in a language are called vocabulary. With their help, we name various objects, phenomena, actions, signs, numbers, etc.

The vocabulary composition is explained by their entry into the system, which determined the presence of their common origin and development. Russian vocabulary goes back to the past of the Slavic tribes and over the centuries has developed along with the people. This is the so-called original vocabulary, which has existed for a long time.

There is also a second layer in the vocabulary: these are words that came to us from other languages due to the emergence of historical connections.

Thus, if we consider vocabulary from the perspective of origin, we can distinguish native Russian and borrowed words. both groups are represented in the language in large numbers.

Origin of Russian words

The vocabulary of the Russian language has more than 150,000 words. Let's see what words are called native Russian.

Original Russian vocabulary has several tiers:

Borrowing process

In our language, native Russian and borrowed words coexist. This is due to the historical development of the country.

Since ancient times, as a people, Russians have entered into cultural, economic, political, military, and trade relations with other countries and states. This quite naturally led to the fact that words of those peoples with whom we collaborated appeared in our language. Otherwise it was impossible to understand each other.

Over time, these linguistic borrowings became Russified, became part of the group, and we no longer perceive them as foreign. Everyone knows such words as “sugar”, “bathhouse”, “activist”, “artel”, “school” and many others.

Native Russian and borrowed words, examples of which are given above, have long and firmly entered into our everyday life and help build our speech.

Foreign words in Russian

Once in our language, foreign words are forced to change. The nature of their changes affects different aspects: phonetics, morphology, semantics. Borrowings are subject to our laws and regulations. Such words undergo changes in endings, suffixes, and gender changes. For example, the word “parliament” in our country is masculine, but in German, where it came from, it is neuter.

The very meaning of a word may change. So, the word “painter” in our country means a worker, and in German it means “painter”.

The semantics are changing. For example, the borrowed words “canned food”, “conservative” and “conservatory” came to us from different languages and have nothing in common. But in their native languages, French, Latin and Italian, respectively, they came from Latin and have the meaning “to preserve.”

Thus, it is important to know which languages words are borrowed from. This will help to correctly determine their lexical meaning.

In addition, it is sometimes difficult to recognize native Russian and borrowed words in the mass of vocabulary that we use every day. For this purpose, there are dictionaries that explain the meaning and origin of each word.

Classification of borrowed words

Two groups of borrowed words are distinguished by a specific type:

came from the Slavic language;
taken from non-Slavic languages.

In the first group, the majority are made up of Old Church Slavonicisms - words that have been used in church books since the 9th century. And now such words as “cross”, “universe”, “power”, “virtue”, etc. are widespread. Many Old Slavonicisms have Russian analogues (“lanits” - “cheeks”, “mouth” - “lips”, etc. ) Phonetic (“gate” - “gate”), morphological (“grace”, “benefactor”), semantic (“zlato” - “gold”) Old Church Slavonicisms are distinguished.

The second group consists of borrowings from other languages, including:

Latin (in the field of science, politics of public life - “school”, “republic”, “corporation”);
Greek (everyday - “bed”, “dish”, terms - “synonym”, “vocabulary”);
Western European (military - “headquarters”, “junker”, from the field of art - “easel”, “landscape”, nautical terms - “boat”, “shipyard” “schooner”, musical terms - “aria”, “libretto”);
Turkic (in culture and trade “pearls”, “caravan”, “iron”);
Scandinavian (everyday - “anchor”, “whip”) words.

Dictionary of foreign words

Lexicology is a very precise science. Everything here is clearly structured. All words are divided into groups, depending on the underlying feature.

Original Russian and borrowed words are divided into two groups based on etymology, that is, origin.

There are various dictionaries that answer specific goals. So, we can call it a dictionary of foreign words, which contains foreign language examples, which came to us over many centuries. Many of these words are now perceived by us as Russian. The dictionary explains the meaning and indicates where the word came from.

Dictionaries of foreign words in our country have a whole history. The first was created at the beginning of the eighteenth century, it was handwritten. At the same time, a three-volume dictionary was published, authored by N.M. Yanovsky. In the twentieth century, a number of foreign dictionaries appeared.

Among the most famous are the “School Dictionary of Foreign Words,” edited by The dictionary article provides information about the origin of the word, provides an interpretation of its meaning, examples of use, and stable expressions with it.

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of a missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase "trade in certain place once a year" in the Russian language it is successfully replaced by the word that came from the German language fair. In modern Russia, unfortunately, we often have to deal with the unlawful and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All kinds shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, without at all decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In this article we bring to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly ingrained in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. Meanwhile, translated from Greek it means "creation". Word poem translated as "Creation", A rhyme – "proportionality", "consistency", the same root word for it is rhythm. Stanza translated from Greek - "turn", A epithet – "figurative definition".

WITH Ancient Greece Related terms are also epic ("collection of tales"), myth ("word", "speech"),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy ("plaintive melody of the flute"), ode ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy ("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month the bears came out of hibernation, which gave these ideas their name. Well scene- this is, of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Regarding parodies, then this is - "singing inside out".

If the Greeks took upon themselves the “responsibility” of giving names to poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin experts will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase “purposeful speech.” The Romans generally loved precise and short definitions. No wonder it is from Latin language the word came to us lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, condensed). Word text means "connection", "compound", A illustration – "clarification"(to text). Legend- This "what must be read",memorandum – "things to remember", A opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "legend", but it came to the Russian language from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- This handwritten document oh well editor- This a person who has to “put things in order”. Madrigal– also a Latin word, it comes from the root “mother” and means a song in the native, “mother” language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", Then - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning "letters", "letters".

But let's return to the Romans, who, as we know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice ("justice", "legality"), alibi ("elsewhere"), verdict ("the truth has been spoken"), advocate(from Latin "I urge"), notary – ("scribe"),protocol("first sheet"), visa ("viewed"), etc. Words version ("turn") And intrigue ("to confuse") also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word blunder – “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. The majority is of Greek and Latin origin medical terms. Examples of borrowings from the Greek language include words such as anatomy ("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis ("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "regime"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are of Latin origin: hospital ("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy – "other action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as you know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") was translated into Old Church Slavonic as "possession"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. Much more often, new terms were accepted without modification. Original meaning many of them have long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- This "messenger", apostle – "messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon – "minister", bishop– "looker from above", A sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "saint"– no more no less! But this is a dirty word nasty came to us from the Latin language and means just "rural"(inhabitant). The fact is that pagan cults held a particularly tenacious hold in rural areas, as a result of which this word became synonymous with pagan. Words used to name representatives of the other world are also foreign in origin. Word demon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means “soul” and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions overwhelming it, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to its doubts either on earth or in heaven,– this is how he explained his position.” What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same – "seducer", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "contradictory", "opponent", Belial- from the phrase "no use". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here's the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel “The Master and Margarita”, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies came from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they came from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old dominance of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them “good people” and “peaceful neighbors.”

Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. Translated from Greek it means "dweller of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark alves" or "ministruists". Brownie in Germany they call "kobold". Later this name was given to the metal, which had "harmful character", – made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel name elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

Word dragon translated from Greek means "sharply seeing". Interestingly, in China this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. Tradition tells that one artist of the Tang era (9th century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, thunder was heard, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones. Sometimes the name refers to the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in ancient times. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is capable of “curbing passions,” so Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments and insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - “bishop’s stone”. And the word agate translated from Greek means "good", which he was supposed to bring to his owner.

There have been cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single-rooted. Two of them come to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other – "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed by combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". That is "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob It is interesting in that, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It comes from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ( "without nobility"), which was shortened to s. nob.: this is how passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called on English ships. Later in English houses this word was placed on guest lists opposite persons who were to be announced without a title.

What about other languages? Did they contribute to Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly affirmative. There are many examples.

So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth". Cabal- This "receipt", "obligation",shackles – "fetters", "shackles" etc. They have long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or evil hand") And toddler ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron indicates its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- This "heavy"(Persian), stage – "platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "lay the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words emergency ("all the way up"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is the “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in corduroy suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie ("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("running"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay ("stirrup") - Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"),compliment ("Hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.

Italian and French gave birth to many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venetian authorities to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian cantara – "sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “goat-like” change of themes and moods), opera –"composition", tutti – "performed by the whole cast".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "putting things in order", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration – "decoration", pointe shoes(solid toes of ballet shoes) – "edge", "tip", divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music the word is very popular plywood, which comes from German "to impose"(voice to already recorded music).

Talking about borrowing from French, you can’t ignore the culinary topic. Yes, word garnish comes from French "to supply", "to equip". Glyase- Means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon". Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many popular dog names in our country are of foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. Landowners, on the contrary, often kept tens and even hundreds hunting dogs in their country estates (and even took bribes with “greyhound puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them have spread widely among the people. What familiar word could a peasant who does not know French hear in the nickname Сheri ("Cutie")? Of course Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname Barbos comes from the French word "bearded", A Rex- This "tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames originated from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of Russian adaptation English name Bobby,Zhuchka and Zhulka descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack don’t even try to hide their foreign origin.

Well, what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he make his contribution to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages of the world man. Word grandmother in English it is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", A pancakes in Britain they call small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity entered the dictionary English language because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, despairing of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

Words satellite And comrade known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner - not a surname, but a name Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal march around the world perestroika and glasnost. Words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika They are used so often and inappropriately by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, is frankly shameful. Words intelligentsia(author – P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian “by origin”, but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their “native”, they moved into many foreign ones and became widespread throughout the world.

In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, the appearance of words acid, refraction, equilibrium we have to M.V. Lomonosov.N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with words of influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, focused. Radishchev introduced the word into the Russian language citizen in its modern meaning. Ivan Panaev was the first to use the word asshole , A Igor Severyanin- word mediocrity . V. Khlebnikov and A. Kruchenykh claim to be the author of the word get crazy .

Of course, in a short article it is impossible to adequately and completely talk about the meaning of words borrowed from foreign languages. We hope that we managed to interest readers who themselves will be able to continue their fascinating journey through the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Borrowed words in Russian

By the nature and volume of borrowings in the Russian language, one can trace the paths of the historical development of the language, that is, the paths of international travel, connections and scientific development, and, as a consequence, the crossing of Russian vocabulary and phraseology with other languages. Observing the transition of words and phrases from any foreign language into the Russian language helps to understand the history of the Russian language, both literary and dialects.

Borrowings and foreign words

It is necessary to distinguish between borrowings and foreign words.

Borrowings (words, less often syntactic and phraseological units) are adapted into the Russian language, undergoing the necessary semantic and phonetic changes. Adaptation to the realities of the Russian language is the main feature that distinguishes borrowings from foreign words. Foreign words retain traces of their foreign origin. Such traces can be phonetic, spelling, grammatical and semantic features.

In the history of the language there were periods of preferential borrowing:

from Germanic languages and Latin (Proto-Slavic period);
from the Finno-Ugric languages (the period of colonization by the Slavs of Northern and North-Eastern Rus');
from Greek and then Old/Church Slavonic (the era of Christianization, further book influence);
from Polish language(XVI-XVIII centuries);
from the Dutch (XVIII), German and French (XVIII-XIX centuries) languages;
from the English language (early 21st century).

Borrowing history

Borrowings in the Old Russian language

Many foreign words borrowed by the Russian language in the distant past have been so internalized by them that their origin is discovered only with the help of etymological analysis. These are, for example, some borrowings from Turkic languages, so-called Turkisms. Words from Turkic languages have penetrated into the Russian language since Kievan Rus neighbored such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Cumans, Berendeys, Pechenegs and others. Approximately the VIII-XII centuries include such Old Russian borrowings from Turkic languages as boyar, tent, hero, pearl, kumiss, gang, cart, horde. It is worth noting that historians of the Russian language often disagree about the origin of certain borrowings. So, in some linguistic dictionaries word horse recognized as Turkism, while other experts attribute given word to the original Russians.

A noticeable mark was left by Greekisms, which came into the Old Russian language mainly through Old Church Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium took an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins. Greek words from the period X-XVII centuries include words from the area religion: anathema, angel, bishop, demon, icon, monk, monastery, lamp, sexton; scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, story, grammar; everyday terms: lime, sugar, bench, notebook, flashlight; names plants and animals: buffalo, beans, beet and others. Later borrowings relate mainly to the area arts and sciences: trochee, comedy, mantle, poem, logics, analogy and others. Many Greek words that received international status entered the Russian language through Western European languages.

By the 17th century, translations from Latin into Church Slavonic had appeared, including the Gennadian Bible. Penetration into the Russian language has begun since then Latin words. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day ( Bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose and others).

Borrowings under Peter I

The flow of borrowed foreign language vocabulary characterizes the reign of Peter I. Peter's transformative activity became a prerequisite for the reform of the literary Russian language. Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the realities of the new secular society. The penetration of a number of foreign words, mainly military and craft terms, the names of some household items, new concepts in science and technology, in maritime affairs, in administration, in art, etc., had a huge impact on the language of that time. in Russian there are such borrowed foreign words as algebra, optics, globe, apoplexy, varnish, compass, cruiser, port, frame, army, deserter, cavalry, office, act, rent, rate and many others.

Dutch words appeared in the Russian language mainly in Peter's times in connection with the development of navigation. These include ballast, buer, spirit level, shipyard, harbour, drift, tack, pilot, sailor, yard, rudder, flag, fleet, navigator and so on.

At the same time, terms from the field of maritime affairs were also borrowed from English: barge, bot, brig, whaleboat, midshipman, schooner, boat and others.

It is known, however, that Peter himself had a negative attitude towards the dominance of foreign words and demanded that his contemporaries write “as intelligibly as possible,” without abusing non-Russian words. So, for example, in his message to Ambassador Rudakovsky, Peter wrote:

“In your communications you use a lot of Polish and other foreign words and terms, which make it impossible to understand the matter itself: for this reason, you will continue to write all your communications to us from now on.” Russian language without using foreign words and terms"

Borrowings in the 18th-19th centuries

M.V. made a great contribution to the study and organization of foreign borrowings. Lomonosov, who in his work “Anthology on the History of Russian Linguistics” outlined his observations about Greek words in the Russian language in general, and in the field of education scientific terms in particular.

“...Avoiding foreign language borrowings, Lomonosov at the same time sought to promote the rapprochement of Russian science with Western European science, using, on the one hand, international scientific terminology, composed mainly of Greco-Latin roots, and on the other hand, forming new Russian terms or rethinking already existing words"

Lomonosov believed that the Russian language had lost its stability and language norm due to “clogging” of living things spoken language borrowings from a variety of languages. This prompted Lomonosov to create “Preface on the benefits of church books,” in which he manages to lay the foundations of the Russian language corresponding to the time.

Active political and social ties with France in the 18th-19th centuries contributed to the penetration of a large number of borrowings from the French language into the Russian language. French is becoming official language courtly aristocratic circles, in the language of secular noble salons. Borrowings from this time include names of household items, clothing, food products: bureau, boudoir, stained glass, couch; boot, veil, wardrobe, vest, coat, bouillon, vinaigrette, jelly, marmalade; words from the field of art: actor, entrepreneur, poster, ballet, juggler, director; terms from military field: battalion, garrison, gun, squadron; socio-political terms: bourgeois, declassed, demoralization, department and others.

Italian and Spanish borrowings are mainly related to the field of art: aria, allegro, Bravo, cello, short story, piano, recitative, tenor(Italian) or guitar, mantilla, castanets, serenade(Spanish) and also with everyday concepts: currency, villa; vermicelli, pasta(Italian) .

By the end of the 18th century. The process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached a high degree of development. The old-language language culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, consciously uses Church Slavonicisms and Western European borrowings.

Borrowings in the XX-XXI centuries

Leonid Petrovich Krysin in his work “On the Russian Language of Our Days” analyzes the flow of foreign language vocabulary at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. In his opinion, the collapse Soviet Union, the intensification of business, scientific, trade, cultural relations, the flourishing of foreign tourism, all this caused an intensification of communication with native speakers of foreign languages. Thus, first in professional, and then in other areas, terms related to computer technology(For example, computer, display, file, interface, printer and others); economic and financial terms (for example, barter, broker, voucher, dealer and others); names of sports ( windsurfing, skateboard, arm wrestling, kickboxing); in less specialized areas of human activity ( image, presentation, nomination, sponsor, video, show).

Many of these words have already been completely assimilated into the Russian language.

Word formation using borrowings

In addition to borrowing foreign language vocabulary, the Russian language actively borrowed some foreign language word-forming elements to create Russian words themselves. Among such borrowings, special mention should be made

consoles A-, anti-, arch-, pan- and others from Greek ( apolitical, antiworlds, archplots, Pan-Slavism); de-, counter-, trance-, ultra- from Latin ( degerization, counteroffensive, transregional, far-right);
suffixes: -ism, -pcs, -izir-a(tb), -er from Western European languages: collectivism, essayist, militarize, suitor.

At the same time, these word-formation elements are often used in the Russian language together with a word-formation model, which is characteristic of foreign words or elements of this model ((French) conductor, intern and (Russian) boyfriend with a French suffix). This reveals the pattern of introduction of foreign language borrowings into the Russian language and their active assimilation to the borrowed language.

Thus, the formation of foreign language structural elements as independent morphemes in the Russian language occurs, in other words, the process of morphemization is carried out. It is clear that this is a long-term, gradual process, involving a number of steps and stages in the acquisition of morphemic properties in the Russian language by a foreign language structural element.

Quotes

Aphorism of the Russian poet V. A. Zhukovsky:

Academician A. A. Shakhmatov:

Notes

Literature

Shcherba L.V. Selected works on the Russian language, Aspect Press, 2007 ISBN 9785756704532.
Sobolevsky A. I. History of the Russian literary language. Languages of Slavic culture 2006 ISBN 5-95510-128-4.
Filkova P. D. On the assimilation of Church Slavonicisms by the lexical system of the Russian literary language // Questions of historical lexicology of East Slavic languages. - M., 1974.
Explanatory dictionary of modern Russian language. Language changes at the end of the twentieth century, Astrel, 2005, ISBN 5-17-029554-5.
Krysin L.P. Russian word, ours and others, 2004, ISBN 5-94457-183-7.
Brandt R.F. Lectures on the history of the Russian language 2005, ISBN 5-484-00038-6.
Demyanov V. G. Foreign language vocabulary in the history of the Russian language of the 11th-17th centuries. Problems morphological adaptation Science, 2001, ISBN 5-02-011821-4.
Uspensky B. A. Historical and philological essays, Languages of Slavic culture, ISBN 5-95510-044-X.
Lotte D.S. Issues of borrowing and organizing foreign language terms and term elements. - M., 1982.
Vinogradov V.V., Essays on the history of the Russian literary language of the 17th-19th centuries. - M., 1938.
Semenova M. Yu. Dictionary of Anglicisms. - Rostov n/d, 2003.

Reasons for borrowing

The life of any people is certainly connected with other countries and states. This usually occurs through economic, cultural and trade relations. The vocabularies of peoples also experience mutual influence during contact. And this is not surprising, because language is the main means of communication. As a result of this influence, foreign words necessarily appear in the dictionary of a particular people.

Borrowing history

Since the eighth century, various foreign words began to enter the Russian language. This phenomenon became one of the ways to develop his vocabulary. There is nothing surprising about this. The fact is that the vocabulary of any people at all times has been sensitive to the changing needs of society. Borrowed words in the Russian language appeared in the process developing relations between countries. They came to us due to the fact that the corresponding concepts were absent in the vocabulary of our people.

The nature and volume of borrowing can indicate the historical paths of scientific, cultural and economic relations, as well as geographical discoveries. The result of all these processes was the penetration into Russian phraseology and the vocabulary of other languages.

Main stages

In history, one can observe certain periods that differ from each other in their preferential borrowing. Yes, at the very ancient period Many words came to us from Latin and Germanic languages. The next stage is associated with the colonization of North-Eastern and Northern Rus' by the Slavs. During this period, numerous borrowed words in the Russian language appeared from the Finno-Ugric vocabulary. At the next historical stage, Christianity began to emerge.

This was a period when borrowings appeared in the Russian language from Old Church Slavonic and Greek. Some changes affected the vocabulary in the 16th-18th centuries. This period is characterized by borrowings from the Polish language. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bulk of foreign words entered our dictionary thanks to connections with the French and German peoples. The next period concerned English words. They began to enrich our vocabulary in large quantities in the 20-21st centuries.

Linguistic signs of borrowings

What can we say about the foreign origin of the word? The main features of borrowing are:

The sound "a" at the beginning of a word. This construction contradicts our phonetic laws. Those starting with the letter "a" are borrowed words in the Russian language. Examples of words of this type are numerous. These are “abbot” and “aria”, “lampshade” and “anathema”, “arba” and “paragraph”, “angel” and “questionnaire”.
The sound "e" at the beginning of a word. This is how Latinisms and Greekisms usually begin. For example, “era” and “epoch”, “exam” and “ethics”, “effect” and “floor”.
The "f" sound in a word. The point is that Eastern Slavs did not have such a sound in their language. It appeared only to denote letters in borrowed words. These are “fact” and “forum”, “sofa” and “scam”, “broadcast” and “form”, “profile” and “film”.
Using a combination of two or more vowels in words. According to the laws of our phonetics, such a construction was simply unacceptable. This is why it is so easy to find borrowed words in Russian. Examples of words: "punctuation" and "radio", "theater" and "out", "poet" and "veil", "cocoa" and "halo".
A harmonious combination of identical vowel sounds. This feature is characteristic of the Turkic language. These are words such as “pencil” and “shoe”, “sarafan” and “caravan”, “drum” and “ataman”.

A morphological feature of foreign words in some cases is their immutability. These are nouns that sound the same in any case and do not have a specific singular or singular form. plural. Examples of such words are the following: “taxi” and “coat”, “coffee” and “maxi”, “beige” and “mini”.

History of borrowing French words

A significant part of the foreign words that are included in the vocabulary of the Russian language are Gallicisms. The term comes from the Latin "Gallic". It means expressions and words that were borrowed from the French people and constructed according to the phonetic laws of their language.

Gallicism became especially pronounced in the 18th century. It was during this period that French words confidently entered Russian speech. They were literally imbued with the spirit of this European country. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from French are “visiter” and “charm”, “compliment” and “favorite”, “curtsy” and “cavalier”, “guverner” and “cocotte”.

Gallicisms have penetrated into all spheres of human activity and life. This especially affected wardrobe items. This is evidenced by such words borrowed from the French language as “costume jewelry” and “accessory”, “jabot” and “veil”, “peignoir” and “manteau”. Quite a few Gallicisms appeared in culinary affairs. The Russian dictionary has been replenished with such words as “mayonnaise” and “meringue”, “mashed potatoes” and “delicacy”.

Many Gallicisms are associated with the sphere of art. These are “accordion” and “overture”, “debut” and “poster”, “applause” and “palette”, “vaudeville” and “ensemble”.

The infusion of Gallicisms into the Russian language did not stop in the 19th and 20th centuries. Foreign words in this era were usually associated with economics, social life and politics. The following examples can be given: “diplomat” and “bureaucracy”, “democrat” and “capitalism”, “shareholder” and “press”, “budget” and “bourgeoisie”. Words such as “run” and “authoritarian” are also borrowed from French. Gallicisms include “exaggerate” and “importer”.

French loanwords in the Russian language are an example of how a foreign culture becomes an example to follow. A particularly strong influence of Gallicisms on Russian vocabulary was observed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the next two centuries, borrowed words began to be considered more prestigious and beautiful. For example, "boutique". In France this is a small shop. In Russia, this word took on a completely different meaning. Boutiques began to be called expensive stores offering customers fashionable clothes.

Phraseologisms borrowed from French

Gallicisms include not only words. Many phraseological units and catchphrases have passed from French into Russian. At one time they were uttered by political or historical figures - kings and politicians, generals, etc.

One of these expressions belongs to Louis VIII. He said: "Precision is the courtesy of kings." era religious wars in France gave us such a phrase as “a state within a state.” It concerned rich youth from the bourgeois-noble classes, wasting their lives. And the “old guard” was the name given to selected units of Napoleonic troops. They included the best soldiers and officers. Everyone knows the expression “Balzac age.” It belongs to the group of literary borrowings.

It is interesting that such a common expression among us as “out of place” is also a Gallicism. Literally it means “to be in an unenviable position.”

The history of the appearance of German words in Russian

The process of penetration of Germanic vocabulary began in the 13th century. It intensified significantly three centuries later. However, borrowed words in Russian from German began to appear most often in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their penetration occurred not only through written means, but also through oral means. The list of German loanwords in Russian is quite impressive. It concerns the following sections of vocabulary:

Military - “assault” and “parade ground”, “carriage”, “corporal” and “bayonet”, “grenade” and “soldier”;

Production - “chisel” and “workbench”, “washer” and “shaft”, “matrix” and “slate”, “template” and “format”;

Merchant - “accountant” and “freight”, “bill” and “cashier”;

Medical - “paramedic” and “bandage”, “plaster” and “cotton wool”, “syringe” and “resort”;

Socio-political - “dictation” and “falsification”, “aggressor” and “priority”, “slogan” and “discrimination”;

Chess art - "grandmaster" and "endgame";

Household - “sandwich” and “pretzel”, “dumplings” and “pate”, “apron” and “rutabaga”, “hairdresser” and “corkscrew”;

Arts - “landscape” and “easel”, “tour” and “dance”, “flute” and “choreographer”.

The main grammatical and phonetic features of borrowed German words are combinations of sounds “ey”, “au”, as well as the initial “shp”, “sht” (“spy”, “stamp”). In addition, they are given out by an addition that does not have connecting vowels (“mouthpiece”, “sideburns”).

The history of the appearance of Anglicisms

Borrowings from Foggy Albion entered our language much later than French and German words. This process began in the 16th century. This period was characterized by successful trade between countries. Borrowed words in Russian from English appeared along with new concepts and goods, as well as scientific works.

The next active period of penetration of Anglicisms into our language began in the times of Peter the Great. During this period, borrowings that came to us from the British Isles concerned trade, everyday relations, as well as scientific activities.

In imperial Russia, the prestige of the English language rested on high level thanks to Britain's significant role on the world stage. The following stages of borrowing date back to the 20s of the twentieth century. This was the period of formation of the independent Russian state.

Examples of Anglicisms

Borrowed words in the Russian language, which came to us from Britain, began to especially replenish our vocabulary after 1925. These are “stand” and “combine”, “tanker” and “container”, “TV” and “trolleybus”, etc.

Strengthening interaction with Western European countries at the end of the 20th century. led to the appearance of numerous borrowed words in Russian from English during this period. Examples are found in all areas of activity. There is nothing surprising in this, because English is the language of the global Internet, the largest radio and television companies, as well as many magazines and newspapers.

Borrowed words in Russian from English, examples from the following areas:

Socio-political - “businessman”, “management”, “dealer”;

Computer technology - "laptop", "hacker", "monitor".

Currently, there is a large list of wardrobe items, the names of which came to us from abroad. Thus, borrowed words in Russian from English are “grinders” and “body”, “cardigan” and “top”. You can also find “foreigners” in the cultural sphere - “promotion”, “remix”, “show business”, etc.

The modern dictionary of the Russian language has a long path of development. And no matter how painful it may be, “great and mighty” consists of a considerable number of words borrowed from other languages. Some were adopted in ancient times, others came quite recently. All this is the result of a constant natural process of interaction different cultures. Can a language do without borrowings? The discussions that arise on this issue try to give a clear answer.

The term "borrowing"

There is no people in the world whose language would be completely free from the influence of foreign words, otherwise it would have to be isolated. Due to long-term political, economic, military, cultural relations between countries, the Russian language is regularly updated with new words of non-Slavic origin.

You can come across foreign words everywhere: in sports, business, politics, science. They have become firmly established in everyday life and most of them have no analogues in native speech. Examples of borrowed words from other languages: office, rating, image, provider, Internet, charisma, speaker. But here are more ancient words of non-Russian origin: pencil, bathhouse, school, lamp, soldier. They have taken root so much that their bearers have no idea about their true roots.

Borrowing refers to the assimilation, copying, adoption of a word from one language to another. This is a long process, the result of which will be the consolidation of a foreign language lexeme in the speech of the native speaker.

Relevance of the topic

Modern man can hardly do without borrowed words. The language continues to be actively replenished with them, changing its vocabulary. Some people find this trend alarming, while others see nothing wrong with it. Public figures, politicians, scientists, and ordinary people never cease to discuss and discuss this topic.

Interestingly, linguists take a neutral position in this debate. They are more concerned about the ignorant use of foreign words than their implementation. They believe that the language itself, sooner or later, will reject unnecessary words. Its self-regulation mechanism operates on the principle of the immune system and will eventually put everything in its place.

The question of excessive borrowing is increasingly being raised. Some native speakers assess this extremely negatively. At the beginning of the 20th century, linguist Alexander Peshkovsky once noted that the kind of conservatism that we encounter in relation to language cannot be seen anywhere else. And on the one hand, this is even good, such a reaction helps to keep the defense against unnecessary excess. On the other hand, as far as it has been noted, a negative attitude towards borrowed words is typical for people of the older generation, who tend to look back and see the negative in modern times.

During all periods of development of the Russian language, it was believed that it was degrading and losing itself. Meanwhile, it developed, enriched itself and adapted to changing realities. Today the picture is the same as many years ago, all these processes occur under the inevitable indignation and murmur of the media.

A little history

Some words were adopted in such a distant past that their origin can only be discovered through etymological analysis. Philologists identify several historical stages that influenced the Russian language.

Acceptance of Christianity. At this moment, the influence of the Greek language occurs, and the words appear in the vocabulary: bench, tower, icon, monastery, Gospel. Names such as Alexander, Nikolai, Ekaterina, Larisa are also of non-Slavic origin.
The next period is the influence of the Turkic peoples, Tatar-Mongol yoke. They come into use: hero, cart, pearls, tent, gang.
Stage of influence of the Polish language, XVI-XVII centuries. Borrowed words from this language are also called Polonisms. Lad, fatherland, scoundrel, permit, bully, lieutenant. The particle “supposedly”, conjunctions “if”, “so that” come into the Russian language.
Dutch influence German languages. The flow of this foreign language vocabulary dates back to the reign of Peter I, through whom a significant contribution to the Russian language occurred, among other things. Previously unknown concepts appear in technology, science, maritime industries, military definitions, craft definitions, names of everyday things. Words: rent, general, globe, algebra, optics, fleet, sailor, harbor and others. This period explains well why a language cannot do without borrowing words from another language. Because the thing or phenomenon itself is new, and accordingly, there is no suitable word in the native language.
19th century French influence. The following came into our language: coat, boots, stained glass, wardrobe, compliment, favorite, mayonnaise.
20th century to this day. There is a huge influence of the English language on Russian vocabulary. It is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world.

Apparently, as history shows, it is unlikely that a language can do without borrowing. According to the existing relationships, no language system can exist in isolation.

Why is this happening

Factors that play a significant role in the occurrence of foreign words:

historical relationship between states;
the need to define new concepts;
discoveries and achievements of a certain nation in any field;
accessibility of tourism;
World Wide Web;
popularity of the word.

The reasons are linguistic. These include:

absence of an identical word in the language;
saving language resources when they try to use one word instead of a phrase (sprint - a short distance, or reception - a registration, reception and check-out hall in hotels, companies);
need for detail (piloting, local).

Windows and doors of entry

The channels through which foreign words enter the Russian language can be oral and written. First of all, this is professional, scientific and technical terminology. Words formerly used by a small circle of people come into mass use through media coverage. For example, marketing or devaluation. In such cases, can the Russian language do without borrowing? Hardly.

Play a significant role public speaking famous people, politicians. Translations of literary and journalistic works. As well as films, music, television.

The movement of a word from language to language can be not only direct, but also indirect. For example, the word “shop,” of Arabic origin (meaning “warehouse, collect”), came first to French, and then through it came into Russian and other languages.

Phases of word acquisition

The process of borrowing a word occurs in several stages. Sometimes it can be very fast, or it can drag on for a long time.

The first stage is when a foreign word is used in its original form, without any changes. Then the word is adapted to and subject to transliteration - taking into account the pronunciation of the word, it is written using the national alphabet. At the third stage, the word loses its foreignness and is actively used along with the native words of the language. The last step of assimilation, when the word passes into general speech circulation and receives registration in the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language.

Borrowed words, having gone through all stages of implementation and received “adoption”, differ from foreign words, which have not changed, maintaining the status of a stranger.

Signs of borrowed words

Foreign words entering the Russian language may lose their original appearance as they adapt. But there are some features by which they can be calculated.

The letter "a" at the beginning of a word.
The presence of the letter "f".
The root of the word is the letter "e".
The root of the word is a combination of vowels.
At the root of the word is a combination of consonants - “gb”, “kg”, “kd”, “kz”.
The root words are “ge”, “ke”, “he”, “bu”, “vu”, “kyu”, “mu”.
Unbreakable words.

Effect on language

As a result of the above, we can conclude that it is impossible for a language to do without borrowed words.

Can foreign vocabulary somehow infringe on or become a threat to native speech? There is a lot of public noise about this, although not much work has been devoted to studying this issue.

The point of view of many researchers on this matter is ambiguous, but some recognize that through the borrowing of words, the language is significantly enriched, replenished and expanded. Experts say that in its openness to foreign languages, post-Soviet Russia can be comparable to the period of Peter the Great's reign.

The increased infusion of alien logos is not as critical as it might seem. Borrowings both replenish the language and leave it. It is enough to compare dictionaries of foreign words different periods. Some foreign words replace others, something takes root, and something goes away: slang “pushes aside” jargon, and the image increasingly replaces the image.

Can a language do without borrowings?

History itself puts forward arguments against this statement. The rich vocabulary of today's Russian language has evolved over centuries. Words coming from outside, during certain events and phenomena, were inevitable in their use. And even if the native speech had an analogue, the new word brought a new connotation or could provide clarification in one area or another, the ability to be more specific.

Now they are trying to introduce restrictions on the use of foreign words at the legislative level. But any interference in language processes will lead to nothing, according to Professor Anatoly Baranov, doctor

At one time they also actively opposed the foreign language vocabulary of I.S. Aksakov (publicist, leader of the Slavic movement) and N.S. Leskov (writer). They proposed establishing appropriate fines and supervision, but “evacuation” and “extradition” today “feel” quite well in the Russian language.

Denoting the realities of a rapidly changing world, it is unlikely that a language can do without borrowing. This is all its uniqueness. As long as the interpenetration of cultures and the progress of humanity continues, this process cannot be stopped.