All my psychological work Maslow connects with the issues of personal growth and development, considering psychology as one of the means of promoting social and psychological well-being. He insists that an adequate and viable theory of personality must address not only the depths, but also the heights that each individual is capable of achieving. Maslow is one of the founders of humanistic psychology. He made significant theoretical and practical contributions to the creation of an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis, which sought to “explain to the point of destruction” creativity, love, altruism and other great cultural, social and individual achievements of mankind.

Maslow was most interested in exploring new problems and areas. His works are more a collection of thoughts, points of view and hypotheses than a developed theoretical system. His approach to psychology is well expressed in the opening sentence of one of his most influential books, Towards a Psychology of Being: “There is on the horizon a new idea of ​​human illness and human health—a psychology that is causing such excitement and promising so many wonderful possibilities that I am tempted to imagine it publicly before it has been tested and confirmed, before it can be called solid scientific knowledge."

Personal story

Abraham Maslow was born in New York in 1908, the son of Jewish immigrants. He grew up in New York and attended the University of Wisconsin. He received a bachelor's degree in 1930, a master's degree in humanities in 1931, and a doctorate in 1934. Maslow studied primate behavior under the leadership of Haria Harlow and behaviorism under the leadership of Clark Hull, a famous experimenter.

After receiving his doctorate, Maslow returned to New York, continued his research at Columbia, and then taught psychology at Brooklyn College. New York at this time was a very significant cultural center, hosting many German scientists who fled Nazi persecution. Maslow studied with various psychotherapists, including Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm and Karen Horney. He was strongly influenced by Max Wertheimer, one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, and Ruth Benedict, a brilliant cultural anthropologist.

Maslow's interest in the practical applications of psychology dates back to the very beginning of his career. His dissertation concerns the relationship between dominance and sexual behavior in primates. After Wisconsin, Maslow began extensive research into human sexual behavior. His research in this direction was supported by psychoanalytic ideas about the importance of sex for human behavior. Maslow believed that a better understanding of sexual functioning would greatly improve human fitness. During World War II, when Maslow saw. how little psychology matters in solving the world's major problems, his interests shifted from experimental psychology to social and personality psychology. He wanted to devote himself to "finding a psychology for the affairs of the world."

During a long illness, Maslow became involved in the affairs of the family business, and his experience of applying psychology was eventually expressed in Eupsychic Management, a collection of thoughts and articles related to management and industrial psychology, written during the summer when Maslow worked as a supervisor at a small enterprise in California.

In 1951, Maslow moved to the newly organized Breide University, accepting the post of chairman of the psychology department; there he remained almost until his death in 1970. In 1967-1968 he was president of the American Psychological Association, 1968-1970. – Member of the board of the Laughlin Charitable Foundation in California.

Although Maslow is considered one of the founders of humanistic psychology, he himself does not like limiting labels. “There is no need to talk about “humanistic” psychology, there is no need for an adjective. Don’t think that I am an anti-behaviorist. I am an anti-doctrinaire... I am against everything that closes doors and cuts off opportunities.”

Psychoanalytic theory significantly influenced Maslow's life and thinking. The analysis of himself had a powerful effect on him, showing the vast difference between intellectual knowledge and the actual experience of the "guts."

“To oversimplify a little, we can say that Freud presents us with a sick part of psychology, and we must now complement it with a healthy part.”

Maslow decided that psychoanalysis was the best system of analysis for psychopathology and the best possible psychotherapy (this was in 1955). At the same time, he considered the psychoanalytic system completely unsatisfactory in quality general psychology as theories of all human thinking and behavior. “There appears to be a one-sided, distorted emphasis on human weaknesses and shortcomings, and it purports to be a complete description of man... Virtually all the activities in which a person is proud, which give meaning, value and richness to his life, are either omitted or pathologized by Freud.”

Social anthropology

While studying in Wisconsin, Maslow became seriously interested in the work of social anthropologists such as Malinowski, Mead, Benedict and Linton. In New York he was able to study with leading figures in the field of culture and personality who were concerned with the application of psychoanalytic theories to the analysis of behavior in other cultures. In addition, Maslow was greatly impressed by Sumner's book The Ways of Nations, which analyzed how much of human behavior is determined by cultural patterns and prescriptions. The impression was so strong that Maslow decided to devote himself to this area of ​​research.

Gespalt psychology

Maslow also studied Gestalt psychology seriously. He greatly admired Max Wertheimer, whose work on productive thinking was close to Maslow's own research on cognition and creativity. For Maslow, as a Gestalt psychologist, an essential element in creative thinking and problem solving is the ability to perceive the whole and think in terms of the pattern of the whole rather than isolated parts.

But a less significant influence on Maslow's thinking was the work of Kurt Goldstein, a neuropsychologist who emphasized that the body is a single whole and that what happens in any part affects the whole organism. Maslow's work on self-actualization was to some extent inspired by Goldstein, who first used the term.

Maslow dedicated his book “Towards the Psychology of Being” to him. In the preface he wrote: “If I could sum up in one sentence what humanistic psychology means to me, I would say that it is the integration of Goldstein (and Gestalt psychology) with Freud (and various psychodynamic psychologies), under the auspices of the scientific spirit of my teachers. at the University of Wisconsin."

Basic Views

Self-actualization

Maslow loosely defines self-actualization as “the full use of talents, abilities, opportunities, etc.” . "I imagine a self-actualized person not as ordinary person, to whom something has been added, but as an ordinary person from whom nothing has been taken away. Average person“is a complete human being, with suppressed and suppressed abilities and gifts.”

Maslow's initial research into self-actualization was driven by his desire to more fully understand two of his most inspiring teachers. Ruth Benedict and Max Wertheimer. Although they were very different people and pursued research in different fields, Maslow felt that they shared a level of personal accomplishment in both their professional and personal lives that he rarely observed in others. Maslow saw in them not only brilliant and outstanding scientists, but also deeply accomplished, creative people. He began his personal research to try to discover what made them so special; he kept a notebook to record all the data he could gather regarding their personal lives, values, etc. His comparison of Benedict and Wertheimer was the first step in his lifelong exploration of self-actualization.

Self-actualization research

Maslow began to explore self-actualization in a more formal way, studying the lives, values ​​and attitudes of people who seemed to him the most mentally healthy and creative, those who seemed to be highly self-actualized, that is, who had achieved the most optimal, effective and healthy level functioning than average people.

Maslow argues that it is more reasonable to make generalizations about human nature by studying the best representatives of it that can be found, rather than by cataloging the difficulties and errors of average neurotic individuals. “It is clear that a creature from Mars, having found himself in a colony of congenital cripples, dwarfs, hunchbacks, etc., will not be able to understand what they should be like. So let's study not cripples, but the greatest approximation we can find to a holistic, healthy to man. We will find in them qualitative differences, a different system of motivation, emotions, values, thinking and perception. In a sense, only the saints are humanity."

By studying the best of men, one can explore the limits of human performance. So, to find out how fast people can run, you need to study the best athletes and runners, and it would be pointless to take an “average sample” from the population of a city. Likewise, Maslow argues, to study psychological health and maturity, we need to study the most mature, creative, integrated people.

Maslow selected samples for his first study based on two criteria. Firstly, these were people relatively free from neurosis and other significant personality problems. Secondly, these were people who made the best possible use of their talents, abilities and other abilities. .

“Self-actualized people, without a single exception, are involved in something that goes beyond their selfish interests, in something outside themselves.”

The group consisted of eighteen individuals: nine contemporaries and nine historical figures– Abraham Liakoln, Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jane Adams, William James, Albert Schweitzer, Aldous Huxley and Baruch Spinoza.

Maslow lists the following characteristics of self-actualizing people:

• “a more effective perception of reality and a more comfortable relationship with it”;
• “acceptance (of oneself, others, nature)”;
• “spontaneity, simplicity, naturalness”;
• “task-centeredness” (as opposed to self-centeredness);
• “some isolation and need for solitude”;
• “autonomy, independence from culture and environment”;
• “constant freshness of assessment”;
• "mysticism and experience higher states";
• “a sense of belonging, unity with others (gieinschaflugetuhl);
• “deeper interpersonal relationships”;
• "democratic character structure";
• “distinguishing between means and ends, good and evil”;
• “philosophical, non-hostile sense of humor”;
• “self-actualizing creativity”;
• "resistance to acculturation, transcendence of any common culture."

“Self-actualization is not the absence of problems, but the movement from temporary and unreal problems to real problems.”

Maslow noted that the self-actualizing people he studied were not perfect or even free from major mistakes. A strong commitment to their chosen work and their values ​​makes them sometimes ruthless in the pursuit of their goals; work may crowd out other feelings or needs. They can take their independence to a degree that shocks their more conformist acquaintances. In addition, they may have many of the problems of average people: guilt, anxiety, sadness, internal conflicts, etc.

“There are no perfect people! You can find good people, truly good people, you can find great people. Indeed, there are creators, seers, sages, saints, ascetics and initiators. This will give us the opportunity to look with hope at the future of our kind, even if such people meet rarely, and were remarkable. And at the same time, these same people can experience frustration, irritation, be self-centered, angry, or experience depression. To avoid disappointment in human nature, we must first give up illusions about it.

Self-actualization theory

Maslow's latest book, The Further Advances of Human Nature, describes eight ways in which an individual can self-actualize, eight types of behavior that lead to self-actualization. This is not an example of logically clear thinking, but it is the culmination of Maslow's thinking about self-actualization.

1. “First of all, self-actualization means the experience is complete, living, selfless, with complete concentration and complete absorption.” Usually we are relatively little aware of what is happening in us and around us (for example, when it is necessary to obtain testimony about a certain event, most versions differ). However, we do have moments of heightened awareness and intense interest, and these moments are what Maslow calls self-actualizing.

2. If you think of life as a process of choices, then self-actualization means: in every choice, decide in favor of growth. We often have to choose between growth and security, between progress and regression. Every choice has its positive and negative aspects. To choose the safe means to remain gnome and familiar, but to risk becoming outdated and ridiculous. Choosing growth means opening yourself up to new, unexpected experiences, but taking the risk of finding yourself in the unknown.

3. To actualize means to become real, to exist in fact, and not just in potentiality. By self, Maslow means the core, or essential nature of an individual, including temperament, unique tastes and values. Thus, self-actualization is learning to tune into one's own inner nature. This means, for example, deciding for yourself whether you yourself like a certain food or movie, regardless of the opinions and points of view of others.

“You cannot choose life wisely if you do not dare to listen to yourself, to your own self, at every moment of life.”

4. Honesty and taking responsibility for one’s actions are essential aspects of self-actualization. Maslow recommends looking within for answers rather than posing, trying to look good, or trying to please others with your answers. Every time we look within for answers, we are in touch with our inner self.

5. The first five steps help develop the ability to “better.” life choice"We learn to trust and act on our judgments and instincts. Maslow believes this leads to better choices about what is constitutionally right for each individual - choices in art, music, food, as well as serious problems life, such as marriage or profession.

6. Self-actualization is also a constant process of developing one’s potentialities. This means using your abilities and intelligence and "working to do well what you want to do." Great talent or intelligence is not the same as self-actualization. Many gifted people have not been able to fully utilize their abilities, while others, perhaps with average talent, have done incredible things.

Self-actualization is not a “thing” that you can have or not have. It is a process that has no end, similar to the Buddhist Path of Enlightenment. It is a way of living, working and relating to the world, not a single achievement.

7. "Peak experiences" - transitional moments of self-actualization." We are more holistic, more integrated, more aware of ourselves and the world during moments of "peak." At such moments, we think, act and feel most clearly and accurately. We love more and are more accepting of others, more free from internal conflict and anxiety, and more able to use our energy constructively.

8. The further step of self-actualization is the discovery of one’s “defenses” and the work of abandoning them. We need to become more aware of how we distort our self-images and our external world images through repression, projection, and other defense mechanisms.

Self-actualization, according to Goldstein

Since the concept of self-actualization is Maslow's most important contribution to psychology, it may be useful to look at how its creator, Kurt Goldstein, developed the concept. His ideas differ significantly from Maslow's later formulations. As a neuroscientist working primarily with brain-damaged patients, Goldstein viewed self-actualization as a fundamental process in every organism that can have both positive and negative consequences for the individual. Goldstein wrote that “the organism is governed by the tendency to actualize to the greatest possible extent its individual abilities, its nature in the world.”

Goldstein argues that the release of tension is a strong urge only in sick organisms. For a healthy body, the primary goal is “the formation of a certain level of tension, one that will make further orderly activity possible.” A drive such as hunger is a special case of self-actualization in which tension-resolution is sought in order to return the organism to an optimal state for further expression of its abilities. However, only in abnormal situations does this attraction become too urgent. Goldstein argues that a normal organism can temporarily put off eating, sex, sleep, etc. if other motives, such as curiosity or the desire to play, trigger it.

According to Goldstein, successful handling of the environment often involves a certain amount of uncertainty and shock. A healthy self-actualizing organism often causes such a shock by entering new situations in order to use its capabilities. For Goldstein (as for Maslow), self-actualization does not mean the end of problems and difficulties; on the contrary, growth can often bring a certain amount of pain and suffering. Goldstein wrote that the body's abilities determine its needs. Having a digestive system makes food a necessity; the presence of muscles requires movement. The bird needs to fly, and the artist needs to create, even if the act of creation requires painful struggle and considerable effort.

"Peak Experience"

“Peak-experiences” are especially joyful and exciting moments in the life of each individual. Maslow notes that "peak experiences" are often caused by strong feeling love, works of art, experiencing the exceptional beauty of nature.

“Abilities persistently demand use and cease their demands only when they are sufficiently and fully used.”

“Any “peak experience” can be fruitfully understood as the fullness of action or as the completion of a gestalt in terms of Gestalt psychology, or “full orgasm” in the Reichian paradigm, as complete release, catharsis, climax, completion, ending, devastation.

“The term “peak experience” is a generalization for the best moments of human existence, for the happiest moments of life, for the experience of ecstasy, delight, bliss, greatest joy.”

Most of us have had our fair share of “peak experiences,” although we don’t call them that. A beautiful sunset or a particularly impressive piece of music are examples of a “peak experience.” According to Maslow, “peak experiences” are caused by intense, inspiring events. "Apparently, any experience of real excellence... can cause a 'peak experience.'" Most people's lives are filled with long periods of comparative inattention, lack of engagement, even boredom. those moments when we become deeply involved, excited and connected to the world.

The most significant "peak experiences" are relatively rare. Poets described them as moments of ecstasy, people of religion - as deep mystical experiences. According to Maslow, the higher Incas are characterized by “a sense of opening up limitless horizons, a feeling of being both more powerful and more helpless than ever before, a feeling of ecstasy, delight and awe, a loss of the sense of space and time.”

"Plateau Experience"

“Peak experiences” are peaks that can last several minutes or several hours, rarely longer. Maslow also describes more stable and long-term experiences, calling them “plateau experiences.” They represent a new and deeper way of seeing and experiencing the world. This involves a fundamental change in attitude towards the world, changing one's point of view and creating new appreciation and heightened awareness of the world. Maslow himself experienced this late in life, after his first heart attack. His intensified consciousness of life and the impending possibility of death produced a revolution in the perception of the world (for more detail, see the section “First-hand Theory”).

Transcending self-actualization

Maslow found that some self-actualizing individuals tended to experience many peak experiences, while others experienced them rarely, if at all. He came to distinguish between self-actualizing people, psychologically healthy, productive, but with little or no experience of transcendence, and people for whom transcendental experience is important or even central.

“At the highest levels of human development, knowledge is correlated, more positively than negatively, with a sense of the mysterious, awe, humility, extreme ignorance, reverence and a sense of sacrifice” (19, p. 290).

Maslow wrote that people who transcend self-actualization are more likely to recognize the mysticism of everything, the transcendent dimension of life among everyday activities. "Peak" or mystical experiences are regarded by them as the most important aspect of their lives. They think more holistically than “only healthy” self-actualizing people; they are more capable of transcending the categories of past, present and future, good and evil, and perceiving the unity behind the apparent complexity and inconsistency of life. They are innovators and original thinkers rather than systematizers of the ideas of others. As knowledge develops, a sense of humility and ignorance develops in them, and they perceive the universe with majestic awe.

Transcending people are more likely to see themselves as owners of their talents and abilities because they are less selfishly involved in their work. They may honestly say, “I am the best candidate for this job, so I should be given it,” or, in another case, admit, “You are the best candidate for this job, so it would be better if you took it from me.”

Not everyone who has had mystical experiences is a transcendent self-actualizer. Many people who have mystical experiences lack the psychological health and productivity that Maslow considers essential to self-actualization. Maslow also points out that he has encountered just as many transcendent people among businessmen. managers, teachers and politicians, as well as those who are socially considered closer to this - poets, musicians, priests, etc.

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow defines neurosis and psychological maladjustment as “diseases of deprivation,” that is, he believes that they are caused by deprivation of certain fundamental needs, just as the lack of certain vitamins causes physical illness. Examples of fundamental needs are physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, or the need to sleep. Failure to satisfy these needs definitely leads ultimately to illness, which can only be cured by satisfying them. Fundamental needs are inherent in all individuals. The extent and manner of their satisfaction varies in different societies, but fundamental needs (such as hunger) can never be completely ignored.

To maintain health, certain psychological needs must also be satisfied. Maslow lists the following fundamental needs: the need for safety, security and stability: the need for love and a sense of belonging; the need for self-esteem and the respect of others. In addition, each individual has growth needs, that is, the need to develop his inclinations and abilities and the need for self-actualization.

Hierarchy of fundamental needs, according to Maslow:

• physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.)
• need for security (stability, order)
• need for love and belonging (family, friendship)
• need for esteem (self-esteem, recognition)
• self-actualization needs (development of abilities)

According to Maslow, earlier-named needs dominate, that is, they must be satisfied before later-named needs. “A person can live by bread alone - if he does not have enough bread. But what happens to a person’s desires when there is enough bread, when his stomach is constantly full? Other broader needs immediately appear and begin to dominate in the body. When they are satisfied, new, even higher needs come into play, and so on."

“The emotional nature of man relies on his lower nature, needs it as a basis and fails without this basis. That is, for the majority of humanity, the highest nature of man is unattainable without satisfying the lower nature as its support.”

Metamotivation

Metamotivation refers to behavior driven by growth needs and values. According to Maslow, this kind of motivation is most characteristic of self-actualizing people, who, by definition, have lower needs satisfied. Metamotivation often takes the form of devoting oneself to certain ideals or goals, something “outside oneself.” Maslow points out that metaneeds are on a continuum with fundamental needs, so that frustration of these needs causes “metapathologies.” Metapathologies can manifest as a lack of values, meaninglessness or purposelessness in life. Maslow argues that a sense of belonging, a rewarding profession, and a sense of value are as essential to psychological well-being as security, love, and self-esteem.

"Growth is theoretically possible only because the taste of the “higher” is better than the taste of the “lower”, and because the satisfaction of the “lower” becomes boring.”

Complaints and meta-complaints

Maslow believes that there are different levels of complaints corresponding to levels of frustrated needs. In a factory, for example, low-level complaints may concern lack of safety precautions, arbitrariness of management, lack of guarantee of work the next day, etc. These are complaints regarding the failure to meet the most fundamental needs of physical safety and security. Complaints more high level may relate to a lack of job-appropriate recognition, threats of loss of prestige, and a lack of group solidarity; these complaints concern needs for belonging or esteem.

“When representatives of the women’s committee burst into your room and excitedly complain that the roses in the greenhouse are not well-groomed enough, this in itself is wonderful, because it indicates the height of the standard of living of those complaining.”

Meta-complaints concern the frustration of meta-needs, such as the needs for contemplation, justice, beauty and truth. This level of complaints is a good indicator of that. that everything is going relatively well. When people complain about an unsightly environment, it means that in terms of more fundamental needs they are more or less satisfied.

Maslow believes that there can be no end to complaints: one can only hope for their level to increase. Complaints about the imperfection of the world. lack of perfect justice, etc. - these are healthy indications of that. that despite fairly high levels of fundamental satisfaction, people strive for further improvement and growth. In fact, Maslow suggests that the level of complaints can be an indicator of how enlightened a society is.

Deficit and existential motivation

Maslow points out that most psychologists deal only with deficit motivation, i.e. behavior aimed at satisfying some need that is not satisfied or frustrated. Hunger, pain, fear are primary examples of deficit motivation.

However, a careful look at the behavior of people and animals reveals a different kind of motivation. When the body does not experience hunger, pain, or fear, new motivations appear, such as curiosity or the desire to play. Under such conditions, activity can bring satisfaction and joy as such, and not just as a means of satisfying some underlying need. Existential motivation refers primarily to pleasure and satisfaction in the present or to the desire to seek positive value goals (growth motivation or meta-motivation). Deficit motivation consists of the need to change a given state of affairs because it is perceived as unsatisfactory or frustrating.

"Peak experiences" generally relate to the world of being, and the psychology of being seems to be most applicable to self-actualizing people. Maslow distinguishes between B- and D- (existential and deficit) cognition, B- and D-values, B- and D-love.

Deficit and existential cognition

In deficit cognition, objects are viewed solely as satisfying needs, as means to other ends. This is especially true when needs are strong. Maslow points out that strong needs tend to channel thinking and perception so that the individual is aware only of those aspects of the environment that are relevant to need satisfaction. A hungry man notices only food, a beggar only notices money.

B-cognition is more accurate and effective because the perceiver is less likely to distort his or her perceptions to suit needs and desires. B-cognition does not judge, evaluate, or compare. The fundamental attitude here is the perception of what is and the ability to appreciate it. Stimuli elicit full attention. The perception seems richer and more complete.

“A cancer specimen, when viewed under a microscope, if we can forget that it is cancer, may appear as a beautiful and intricate pattern that evokes wonder.”

The perceiver remains in some sense independent of what is perceived. External objects are valued as such, in themselves and in themselves, and not in their relation to personal concerns. In fact, in the state of B-cognition the individual tends to remain immersed in contemplation or passive observation; active intervention seems inappropriate. One of the benefits of D-cognition is that a person can be motivated to take action and try to change an existing state.

Deficiency and existential values

Maslow does not explicitly address D-values, although he describes B-values ​​in detail. He believes that there are certain values ​​inherent in every individual: “The highest values ​​exist in human nature itself and can be found there. This contradicts the older and more common views that the highest values ​​come only from a supernatural God or some other source external in relation to human nature itself."

Maslow lists the following B-values: truth, goodness, beauty, integrity, overcoming dichotomy, vitality, uniqueness, perfection, necessity, completeness, justice, order, simplicity, richness, ease without effort, play, self-sufficiency.

Scarcity and existential love

Deficit love is loving others because they satisfy some need. The greater the satisfaction, the more this kind of love increases. This is love out of a need for self-esteem or sex, or out of fear of loneliness, etc.

Existential love is love for the essence, for the “being” or “being” of another. Such love does not strive for possession and is more occupied with the good of the Other than with egoistic satisfaction. Maslow often described B-love as exhibiting a Taoist attitude of laissez-faire, the ability to let things take their course and appreciate what is without trying to “improve” anything. B-love of nature is expressed in the ability to appreciate flowers, observe their growth, leaving them alone. D-love is rather expressed in picking flowers and arranging bouquets of them. B-love is the ideal of unconditional love from parents to a child, which may even include love for the child’s little imperfections.

Maslow argues that B-love is richer, more satisfying, and more lasting than D-love. It remains alive and fresh, while D-love loses its freshness and spice over time. B-love can be the cause of "peak experiences" and is often described in the same exalted words used to describe religious experiences.

Eupsyche

This term, which he himself created. Maslow called an ideal society, in contrast to “utopia,” the idea of ​​which seemed visionary and impractical to him. He believed that an ideal society could be created as a union of psychologically healthy, self-actualizing individuals. All members of such a society strive for personal development. so to the fulfillment of one's work and excellence in one's life.

"There is a kind of inverse relationship between 'good society' and 'good people'. They need each other."

However, even an ideal society cannot create self-actualizing individuals. "A teacher or a culture does not create a person. They do not instill in him the ability to love or be curious, or philosophize, create symbols, create. Rather, they enable, facilitate, encourage, help that which exists in the embryo to become real and actual."

Maslow also described eupsychic or enlightened management as opposed to authoritarian business management. The authoritarian manager assumes that workers and management have fundamentally opposing, incompatible goals, that workers want to earn as much as possible with minimal effort, and therefore must be carefully supervised.

Enlightened management assumes that workers want to be creative and productive and that they need support and encouragement rather than management's restriction and control. Maslow, however, points out that the enlightened approach is best applied to resilient, psychologically healthy workers. Hostile, suspicious people may work better in an authoritarian structure and use freedom unproductively. Eupsychic management is only applicable to those who can take responsibility and exercise self-government. Therefore, Maslow believed that a eupsychic society should consist of self-actualizing people.

Synergy

The term "synergy" was originally used by Maslow's teacher, Ruth Benedict, to refer to the degree of interpersonal cooperation and harmony in society. Synergy means unified action or "cooperation." It also means a combined action in which the overall result is greater than all the elements would have had if they had acted separately.

As an anthropologist, Benedict was aware of the dangers of making value judgments in comparing societies and assessing other civilizations in terms of how they measure up to our cultural standards. However, in her studies of other civilizations, Benedict clearly saw that some societies had happier, healthier, and more efficient people than others. Some groups have beliefs and practices that are harmonious and satisfying to their members, while the practices of other groups create suspicion, fear and anxiety.

In conditions of low social synergy, the success of one is a loss or failure for another. For example, if each hunter shares his kill only with members of his close family, hunting becomes a highly competitive affair. Anyone who improves his hunting technique or finds new game places will try to hide his achievements from others. How more success one hunter, the less game there may be left for other hunters and their families.

In conditions of high social synergy, cooperation is maximized. An example is the same hunt, with one significant difference - the division of products for everyone. In such conditions, each hunter benefits from the success of others. In conditions of high social synergy cultural system beliefs enhances cooperation and positive feelings between individuals, helping to minimize conflict and disagreement.

Maslow also wrote about synergy in individuals. Identification with others promotes high individual synergy. If the success of others is a source of true satisfaction for the individual, then help is offered freely and generously. Here, in a sense, “selfish” and altruistic motives are combined. By helping another, the individual receives satisfaction himself.

Synergy can also exist within an individual as a unity between thought and action. Forcing oneself to act indicates a certain conflict of motives. Ideally, a person does what he should do. The best medicine is the one that not only works, but also tastes good.

Transpersonal psychology

Maslow proclaimed the development of a new field - transpersonal psychology - in the preface to the second edition of the book: "I must also say that I consider humanistic psychology, the psychology of the third force, transitional, preparatory to an even higher. Fourth psychology, transpersonal, transhuman, centered on cosmos, and not on human needs and interests, beyond the human, self-determination, self-actualization, etc. ... We need something “greater than ourselves” that we can revere, that we can. to devote oneself in a new, naturalistic, empirical, non-ecclesiastical way, like, perhaps, Thoreau and Whitman, William James and John Dewey."

"Without transcendence to the transpersonal we become sick or furious, nihilistic or hopeless or apathetic."

Many of the topics covered by transpersonal psychology are essential to the theories developed by Maslow: "peak experiences", existential values, meta-needs, etc. Anthony Sutich, founder and first editor of the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, defined it as the study of "the ultimate abilities and capabilities of man." those abilities that have not found a place in the taxonomy of conventional psychological concepts.

Transpersonal psychology involves the study of religion and religious experience. Historically, ideas about the limits of human performance have been formulated primarily in religious terms, and most psychologists have been reluctant to take these areas seriously because of the unscientific, dogmatic, or mystical ways in which they have been described. The popularity of Eastern religions in the West is partly due to their less theological and more psychological approach to human nature. These traditions also clearly describe techniques for psychological and spiritual development.

Maslow discovered the presence of a spiritual “dimension” in the self-actualizing people he continually studied. "A few centuries earlier they would have been perceived as people walking in the Ways of God, God's people... If religion is defined in socio-behavioral terms, all of them can be considered religious people, even atheists."

“The human being needs a value frame of reference, a philosophy of life... in accordance with which one can live and understand life in the same sense in which it needs the sun, calcium and love” (17, p. 2061.

Transpersonal psychology empirically studies meditation, yogic breathing exercises and other spiritual disciplines (an excellent bibliography can be found in and), as well as parapsychology, the nature of consciousness and altered states of consciousness, hypnosis, sensory deprivation etc. (see, for example, , , .

Obstacles to growth

Maslow points out that growth motivation is relatively weak in relation to physiological needs and the needs of safety, respect, etc. The process of self-actualization can be limited by 1) the negative influence of past experiences and resulting habits that lock us into unproductive behavior; 2) social influences and group pressure, which often act against our tastes and judgments; 3) internal defenses that tear us away from ourselves.

Bad habits often hinder growth. According to Maslow, they include addiction to drugs and alcohol, poor diet and others that affect health and productivity. Maslow points out that a destructive environment and a rigid authoritarian education easily lead to unproductive habit patterns based on a deficit orientation. In general, strong habits hinder psychological growth because they reduce the flexibility and openness needed to function most productively and effectively in different situations.

“Two kinds of forces act on an individual, not just one. Some forces push him towards health, while others, the forces of fear and regression, push him back to illness and weakness.”

Group pressure and social propaganda also limit the individual. They reduce independence of judgment, so that the individual is forced to replace his own tastes and judgments with external, social standards. Society may also impose distorted views of human nature: for example, the Western view that most human instincts are essentially sinful and must be controlled and subjugated. Maslow believes that this negative attitude frustrates growth, but the opposite attitude is true: our instincts are essentially good, and impulses to growth constitute the main source of human motivation.

Ego defenses are seen by Maslow as internal barriers to growth. The first step in working with ego defenses is to become aware of them and see how they operate. The individual must then try to minimize the distortions created by these defenses. Maslow adds two more types of defenses to the traditional psychoanalytic list: desacralization and the “Jonah complex.”

Desacralization is the impoverishment of one's life by refusing to treat anything with deep seriousness and involvement. Today, few cultural and religious symbols command the respect and care that were once associated with them, and accordingly they have lost their inspiring, motivating, uplifting and even just motivating power. As an example of desacralization, Maslow often cites modern views for sex. A lighter attitude towards sex, really; reduces the possibility of frustration and trauma, but at the same time, sexual experience loses the significance that inspired artists, poets, and simply lovers.

“Although self-actualization is easy in principle, in practice it rarely occurs (by my criteria, certainly less often than in 1% of the adult population).”

The “Jonah complex” is a refusal to try to realize the fullness of one’s abilities. Just as Jonah tried to avoid the responsibility of prophecy, so most people are actually afraid of using their abilities to the maximum extent. They prefer the security of averages that do not require much achievement, as opposed to goals that require the fullness of their own development. This is also found among students who are content to “pass” a course that requires a fraction of their talents and abilities. This can also be found among women who fear that successful professional work is incompatible with femininity or that intellectual achievements will make them less attractive (see, for example,).

Structure

Body

Maslow does not describe in detail the role of the body in the process of self-actualization. He believes that when physiological needs are satisfied, the individual is freed up for needs higher in the hierarchy. However, he writes that it is necessary that the body be given its due. “Asceticism, self-denial, arbitrary denial of the demands of the body, at least in the West, creates stunted growth, cripples the body; even in the East it brings self-actualization to only a few exceptionally strong individuals.”

Maslow notes the importance of intense stimulation of the physical senses in “peak experiences,” which are often evoked by natural beauty, art, or sexual experiences. He points out that instruction in dance, art, and other physical expressions is an important complement to traditional, cognitively oriented education, and that physical and sensory-oriented academic subjects require active student involvement that can be included in all forms of education.

Social relations

According to Maslow, love and respect are fundamental needs that are essential for everyone and precede self-actualization in the hierarchy of needs. Maslow often laments that most psychology textbooks do not even mention the word “love,” as if psychologists consider love to be something unreal that should be reduced to other concepts, such as projection or sexual reinforcement.

“In fact, people are good if only their fundamental desires (affection and security) are satisfied... Give people affection and security, and they will in turn respond with affection and providing security in their feelings” (Maslow in .

Will

Will is a vital ingredient in the long process of self-actualization. Maslow shows that self-actualizing individuals work long and hard to achieve their chosen goal.

"If you deliberately set out to be less than you can be, I warn you that you will be miserable for the rest of your life."

"Self-actualization means working to do well what one wants to do. Becoming a second-rate doctor is not the way to self-actualization. One wants to be first-class or so good doctor, to the extent possible for him." Because of his belief in health and goodness in human nature, Maslow did not set the will the task of overcoming unacceptable instincts and impulses. According to Maslow, a healthy individual is relatively free from internal conflict, except perhaps the need to overcome bad habits. Will is needed in order to develop abilities and achieve difficult, time-consuming goals.

Emotions

Maslow emphasizes the importance of positive emotions for self-actualization. He believes it is necessary to explore such states as happiness, equanimity, joy, laughter, games, etc. He believes that negative emotions, tensions and conflicts drain energy and interfere with effective functioning.

Intelligence

Maslow emphasizes the need for holistic thinking, focusing on relationships and the whole rather than the individual parts. He discovered that "peak experiences" are often striking examples of thinking that breaks through the dichotomies in which we usually perceive reality. In such cases, they often talk about experiencing the past, present and future in unity, seeing life and death as parts of a single process, realizing good and evil in unity.

Holistic thinking is also characteristic of creative thinkers who overcome the past and go beyond conventional categories to explore possible new relationships. This requires freedom, openness and the ability to deal with the uncertain and ambiguous.

This kind of uncertainty, which may be scary for some, is for others the essence of the joy of creative problem solving.

Maslow writes that creative people are task-centered, not means-centered. Problem-centered activity is determined primarily by the requirements of the goal being achieved. Means-oriented people are preoccupied with technology and methodology, so they often do very well-thought-out work with a trivial task. Problem-centeredness is also opposed to ego-centeredness, which often distorts the vision of things towards what is desired as opposed to what is real.

Self

Maslow defines the self as the inner nature or core of an individual—his or her own tastes, values, and goals. Understanding one's inner nature and acting in accordance with it is essential for the actualization of the self.

“Self-actualizing people who have reached the highest levels of maturity, health and accomplishment have so much to teach us that sometimes it just seems like they are a different breed.”

Maslow approaches the understanding of the self through the study of individuals who live most in harmony with their own nature, who represent best examples self-expression and self-actualization. However, Maslow does not specifically discuss the self as a specific structure in personality.

Therapist

According to Maslow, psychotherapy is effective primarily because it involves intimate and trusting relationships between people. Like Adler, Maslow sees a good therapist as being like an older brother or sister, helping another with care and love. Maslow proposes a model of “Taoist helping”—help without intervention. This is how a good coach works with an athlete, naturally developing and improving his individual style and not at all trying to mold all students in a similar way.

“It has been said more than once that a therapist can repeat the same mistakes for 40 years and then call it “rich clinical experience.”

Maslow rarely touches on psychotherapy in his writings. Although he himself has been psychoanalyzed for several years and has received informal psychotherapeutic training, he is more interested in research and writing than in therapy.

Maslow views psychotherapy as a way to satisfy the fundamental needs for love and respect, which are frustrated in almost everyone who seeks help. psychological help. In he argues that warm human relationships can provide much of the same support as that provided by psychotherapy.

A good therapist must be loving and caring about the essence of those with whom he works. Maslow points out that those who seek to manipulatively change others show a lack of just these qualities. As an example, he points out that a person who really loves dogs will not cut their ears or tail, but a person who really loving flowers, will not cut them off for the sake of a “beautiful design”.

Grade

Maslow's strength lies in his interest in areas of human life that have been ignored by most psychologists. He is one of the few psychologists to seriously explore the positive dimensions of human experience.

Maslow's experimental work is generally incomplete; it would be more correct to call them “reconnaissance” rather than experimental, and he himself fully admitted this: “I don’t seem to have enough time for thorough experiments. They take too much time, if you look at it from the point of view of my years and the fact that I want to do more. So I myself do only small "pilot" studies with a few subjects, which are not suitable for publication, but enough for me to be convinced that they are apparently valid and will someday be confirmed.

“I am a new kind of psychologist, a theorist, like representatives of theoretical biology... I consider myself a scientist, not an essayist or philosopher. I feel tied to facts and connected by facts, although I rather perceive them than engage in their creation."

This procedure has its drawbacks. For example, data from small and biased samples are statistically unreliable. However, Maslow never sought to experimentally “prove” or verify his ideas. His research was rather aimed at clarifying and detailing his theorizing.

Nevertheless, Maslow sometimes resembles an armchair philosopher, remaining alien to possible contradictions with new facts and new experience. As a rule, he was quite confident in what he wanted to demonstrate in his research, and rarely did he discover new data that changed his previous ideas. For example, Maslow constantly emphasized the positive sources of “peak experiences”: experiences of love, beauty, beautiful music, etc. The emergence of a “peak experience” due to negative experiences, as a rule, they are ignored, although many report that their most profound “peak experiences” were preceded by negative emotions– fear or depression – which were overcome, turning into strong positive states (see, for example, W. James “The Variety of Religious Experience”). For certain reasons, Maslow's studies rarely discovered this kind of new information.

“I was soon forced to come to the conclusion that great talent is not only more or less independent of goodness of character or health, but that we generally know little about it.”

Be that as it may, this criticism of Maslow is quite trivial. His significant achievements as a psychologist consisted of emphasizing the positive dimensions of human experience, the possibilities of achievement for people. Maslow was the inspiration of almost all humanistic psychologists. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology (2. 197 P. IV) called him "the greatest American psychologist since James." Although such an assessment may seem somewhat extravagant, it is unlikely that any humanistic psychologist would deny his centrality as an original thinker and pioneer in the field of psychology of human potentiality.

Theory first hand

The following excerpts from a discussion between Maslow and several other psychologists are taken from the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology (1972. ї4.P.112-115).

"I have found that as I age, my peak experiences become less intense and also less frequent. In discussing this with other people approaching old age, I have learned that they experience similar things. I think this has something to do with the process aging. This makes sense because I have found that to some extent I am kind of afraid of "peak experiences" because I am not sure that my body can handle them. "Peak experiences" can create a lot of havoc in the autonomic nervous system. system. Maybe weakening the “peak experiences” is a natural way of protecting the body..

As these acute emotional discharges subsided over me, something very subtle began to arise in my consciousness, a kind of sediment deposited from epiphanies, insights and other life experiences that were important, including tragic ones. This is a kind of unified consciousness, and it has its advantages, as well as its disadvantages, in relation to “peak experiences”. For myself, I define this single creation simply as the simultaneous perception of the sacred and the ordinary, or the mysterious, something very permanent and achieved without any effort.

I perceive from the point of view of eternity, mythically, poetically or symbolically, all everyday things. It's like a Zen experience. There is nothing excluded and nothing special here; a person lives in a world of miracles all the time. There is a paradox in this because it is wonderful, but it does not create a breakthrough.

This type of consciousness has something in common with “peak experiences” - awe, mystery, amazement, aesthetic delight. But here the presence of these elements is more constant than climactic. If one wants to use as a paradigm or model for the "peak experience" the sexual orgasm, which rises to a peak or climax and then subsides to completion and ends, then this other type of experience must be imagined differently. I would use the image of a “high plateau” here. It means living at a constantly high level in the sense of enlightenment or awakening, or Zen. in the lightness of the wonderful, but without anything special. It means accepting the quite unintentional sharpness and precision of the beauty of things, but not making a big fuss about it, because it happens every hour, you know, all the time.

Another aspect that I noted is that you can sit and look at something wonderful for hours and marvel at it every second. An orgasm cannot last an hour! In this sense, the “plateau experience” is better; it has great advantages over the climactic, orgasm or peak. There is a descent down into the valley, but life on the high plateau does not involve this, it is more everyday.

Another aspect of this experience is that it is associated with serenity rather than emotionality. We usually think of emotionality as something explosive. However, peace and serenity are also needed in psychology. We need serenity as much as we need intense emotionality.

I think; that someday “plateau experiences” will become accessible to instrumental observation. “Peak experiences” are associated with automatic discharge, which can be easily noted with the appropriate tools. EEG, or biological technique feedback, perhaps, suitable for this kind of measurement, detection and teaching of serenity, peace and peace. If we learn to work with this, it will mean that we can teach our children serenity...

It is important that “plateau experiences” are essentially cognitive. Almost by definition they are a witness to the world. The “plateau experience” is evidence of reality. This means seeing symbolically, mythically, poetically, transcendentally, seeing the miraculous, the incredible - all this I consider part of the real world, and not just the property of dreamers.

There is a sense of certainty in the “plateau experience.” It seems that it is very, very good to be able to see the world as mysterious, and not just concrete, not to reduce it to the behavioral, not to limit it to the simple “here and now”. You know, if you limit yourself to a simple “here and now” - this is a reduction.

It's easy to get sentimental when talking about the beauty of the world, but in fact "plateau experiences" are well documented in a vast literature. This is not the standard description of mystical experiences themselves, but rather what the world looks like when mystical experiences actually occur. If a mystical experience changes your life, you handle your affairs like great mystics. For example, great saints could have mystical revelations, but at the same time they could run a monastery. You can sell groceries and pay taxes, but maintain this sense of witnessing the world, like the great moments of mystical perception."

Exercises

An exercise in existential love

According to Maslow, existential love is unselfish, selfless, it does not require anything in return. The very act of love, the perception of the essence and beauty of the object of love, is its own reward. In our daily experience, we usually experience a mixture of beingness and deficiency love. We usually expect and receive something as a reward for our feelings of love.

This exercise is taken as a reward from ancient Christian practice and is intended to develop a feeling of pure love. Sit in a dark room in front of a lit candle. Relax and gradually feel your body, come into contact with your surroundings. Allow your body to slow down, become calm and peaceful.

Look at the candle flame. Spread the feeling of love from your heart to the flame. Your feeling of love for the flame is not connected with any thought about the value of the flame as such. You love him for love's sake. (It may seem strange to try to love an inanimate object, but that's what it's all about - experiencing the feeling of love in a situation where there is no answer, no reward, except the feeling of love itself.) Spread your feeling of love throughout the room, to everything, what is in it.

Peak Experience Analysis

Try to clearly remember any “peak experience” from your life - a moment of joy, happiness, delight that arises in your memory. Relive this experience again.

• What did this experience bring? What else was unique about the situation in which it arose?
• How did you feel? Was this feeling different from what you usually feel - emotionally, physically, intellectually?
• Did you seem different to yourself? Did the world around you seem different?
• How long did the experience last? How did you feel after it?
• Did your experience have any aftereffects (in your vision of your environment or your relationships with others, for example)?
• How does your own experience compare to Maslow's theories about peak experiences and human nature?

To understand the peak experience more clearly, compare your experience with that of others. Find both commonalities and differences. Are the differences due to differences in situations or differences in personality types or cultural background? What do the similarities say about Maslow's ideas about human performance in general?

Annotated bibliography

Maslow, A. Achievements of human nature. – In many ways best book Maslow. A collection of articles on psychological health, creativity, values, education, society, metamotivation and transcendence. Also a complete bibliography of Maslow's works.

Maslow, A. Towards the psychology of being. – Maslow’s most popular and widely known book. Includes material concerning the opposition of existential and scarcity, the psychology of growth, creativity, and values.

Maslow, A. Motivation and personality. – A psychology textbook that provides a more technical interpretation of Maslow's work. Chapters on the theory of motivation, hierarchy of needs, self-actualization.

Literature

1. Benedict, R. 1970. Sunergy: patterns of the good culture. American. Anthropologist 72: 320-333.
2. Goble, F. 1971 The third force: the psychology of Abraham Maslow. New York: Pocket Books.
3. Gotdstein, K. 1939. The organism. New York: American Book Co.
4. Gotdstein, K. 1940. Human nature in the light of psychopathology. New York: Schocken.
5. Huxfey, A. 1963. Island. New York: Bantam.
6. Hall, M. 1968. A conversation with Abraham Maslow. Psychology Today 2(2): 34-37, 54-57.
7. Harner, M. 1972. The motive to avoid success and changing aspirations of college women. In Readings on the psychology of women, edited by J. Bandwick, pp. 62-67. New York: Harper and Row.
8. International Study Project. 1972. Abraham H. Maslow: a miorial volume. Monterey, Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
9. James W. 1943. The varieties of religion experience. New York; Modern Library.
10. Journal of Transpereonal Psychology Editorial Staff. 1970. An appreciation. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology (2)2: iv.
11. Krippner S., ed. 1972. The plateu experience. A.H. Mallow and others. Journal of Transpereonal Psychology 4: 107-120.
12. Lewrey, R., ed. 1973 a. Dominance, self-estei, self-actualization: germinal papers of A.H. Mallow. Monterey. Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
13. Lowrey, R., ed. 1973b. A.H. Maslow: an intellectual portrait. Monterey. Calif.: Brooks/Cole.
14. Maslow, A. 1964. Religions, values ​​and peak experiences. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
15. Maslow, A. 1965. Eupsychian managient: a jounal. Homewood, III.: lrwin-Dorsey.
16. Maslow, A. 1966. The psychology of science: a reconnaissance. New York: Harper and Row.
17. Maslow, A. 1968. Toward a psychology of being, 2d ed. New York: Van Nostrand.
18. Maslow, A. 1970. Motivation and personality. Rev. ed. New York: Harper and Row.
19. Maslow, A. 1971. The father reaches of human nature. New Yolk: Viking.
20. Maslow, A.H., with Chiang H., 1969. The healthy personality: readings. New Yoik: Van Nortrand.
21. Ornstein, R. 1972. The psychology of conscioagocss. New York: Viking.
22. Ornstein, R. 1973. The nature of human consciousness. New York: Viking.
23. Summer,W. 1940. Folkways. New York: New American Library.
24. Sutich, A. 1969. Some considerations regarding transpersonal psychology. Journal of Transpersonal Psycliology 1: 11-20.
25. Tart, S. 1969. Altered states of consciousness. New York: Wiley.
26. Timmons, B., and Kamiya, J. 1970. The psychology and physiology of meditation and related phenomena: a bibliography. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. 2: 41-59.
27. Timmons, B., and Kanellakos, D. 1974. T he psychology and physiology of meditation and related phenomena: bibliography II. Journal of Transpersonal psychology 6: 32-38.

Maslow laid the foundation. humanistic principles psychology, proposing as a model personal. a responsible person, doing his best in life. choice. Avoiding freedom and responsibility does not make it possible to achieve authenticity. It is inappropriate to focus your attention on a detailed analysis of individual events, reactions, experiences; Each person should be studied. as a single, unique, organized whole.

Maslow believed that we should move away from the practice of studying neurotic individuals and finally focus our attention on a healthy person, since it is impossible to understand mental illness without studying mental health.
It is worth noting that the main the theme of people's lives. yavl. self-improvement, which cannot be identified by studying only people with mental disorders.

Man by his nature is good, or at least neutral. Each contains potential opportunities for growth and improvement. All fencing people are creative. potencies, which for the majority fade away as a result of “cultivation”. The destructive forces in them are manifest. the result of unmet basic needs.

Man is a “desiring creature” who rarely and briefly achieves complete satisfaction. All his needs are innate, or instinctoid. He has no powerful instincts left in the animal sense of the word, he has only their rudiments, remnants that easily perish under the influence of education, cultural restrictions, fear, disapproval. Authentic selfhood the ability to hear weak, fragile internal data. voices-impulses.

The hierarchy of needs, according to Maslow, is the following sequence: physiological needs, i.e., to satisfy the needs of the body; in safety, security and protection; in involvement, i.e. belonging to a family, community, circle of friends, loved ones; needs for respect, approval, dignity, self-esteem; in the body necessary for the fullest development of all inclinations and talents, for the realization of selfhood, self-actualization. Person It is extremely important to satisfy the lower needs first in order to be able to satisfy the needs of the next level.

Satisfying the needs located at the base of the hierarchy provides the opportunity to recognize the needs of higher levels and their participation in motivation. True, individual creative individuals can demonstrate this talent, despite serious social problems, preventing them from satisfying the needs of lower levels. Some people, thanks to the peculiarities of their biography, can create their own hierarchy of needs. In general, the lower the need is located in the hierarchy, the stronger and more priority it is. Needs can never be satisfied on an all-or-nothing basis, man. usually motivated by needs at multiple levels.

All the motives of people. can be divided into two global categories: deficit (or D-motives) and growth motives (or existential, B-motives) D-motives are phenomena. persistent determinants of behavior, contributing to the satisfaction of deficiency states (hunger, cold, etc.) Their absence causes illness. D-motivation is aimed at changing unpleasant, frustrating, and stressful conditions.

Growth motives, also called meta-needs, have distant goals associated with personal desire. actualize this potential. It is worth noting that they enrich life. experience, broaden one’s horizons, not reducing, as in the case of D-motives, but increasing tension. Metaneeds, unlike deficit needs, are equally important and are not ranked in order of priority. Examples of metaneeds are: the need for integrity, perfection, activity, beauty, kindness, truth, uniqueness. The material was published on http://site
It is important to know that most people do not become metamotivated because they deny their deficit needs, which inhibits personal growth.

Motivational status of a healthy person. consists primarily of the desire for self-actualization, understood as the accomplishment of one’s mission, the comprehension of one’s calling and destiny. Self-actualization involves the release of a person’s deep nature. to the surface, reconciliation with the internal. self, the core of the personality, its maximum self-expression, i.e., the realization of hidden abilities and potentialities, “ideal functioning.”

Self-actualization is an extremely rare phenomenon. It is achieved, according to Maslow, by less than one percent of people, since the majority simply do not know about their own. potential, doubts himself, is afraid of their abilities. This phenomenon is called the Jonah complex, characterized by a fear of success that hinders people. strive for self-improvement. Quite often people lack beneficial external influences. environment. An obstacle to self-actualization is also a strong negative influence of the need for security. The process of growth requires a constant willingness to take risks, make mistakes, and give up comfortable habits. The realization of the need for self-actualization requires people. courage and openness to new experiences.

Among the valuable ideas expressed by Maslow, one should mention the position on the role of the so-called. peak experiences in personality. growth, thanks to which transcendence occurs, going beyond one’s own limits and spontaneously experiencing an approach to one’s true essence. Perception can rise above the Ego, become disinterested and non-egocentric, which is a normal phenomenon for self-actualizing individuals, but for the average person. occurs periodically, during peak experiences. We must remember that such experiences are only positive and desirable. The peak experience of pure joy is one that makes life worth living. He is received with reverence, surprise, admiration and humility, sometimes with exalted, almost religious worship. At moments of peak experiences, the individual becomes like God in his loving, non-judgmental, cheerful perception of the world and humanity. beings in their fullness and integrity.

A. Maslow, in his concept of self-actualization, offers the following interpretation of the nature of personality: a person is naturally good and capable of self-improvement, people are conscious and intelligent creatures, the very essence of a person constantly moves him in the direction personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency.

To study a person as a unique, holistic, open and self-developing system, A. Maslow used the concept of self - actualization (English). Human development in this theory is represented as climbing a ladder of needs, which has levels in which it is “highlighted”, on the one hand, a person’s social dependence, and on the other hand, his cognitive nature associated with self-actualization. The author believed that “people are motivated to find personal goals, and this makes their lives significant and meaningful.” Issues of motivation are central to humanistic personality theory and describe man as a “desiring being” who rarely achieves satisfaction.

A. Maslow considers all human needs as innate. The hierarchy of needs, according to A. Maslow, can be traced from the first level, which consists of physiological needs associated with maintaining the internal environment of the body. As these needs are satisfied, the next level of needs arises. The second level consists of the needs for safety, stability, confidence, freedom from fear, and security. These needs function similarly to physiological needs and, when satisfied regularly, cease to be motivators. The next, third level includes the need for love and affection, communication, social activity, and the desire to have one’s place in a group or family. This is followed by the fourth level, which consists of the needs for respect, self-esteem, independence, independence, mastery, competence, confidence in the world, the desire to have a certain reputation, prestige, fame, recognition, dignity. Dissatisfaction with the needs of this level leads a person to a feeling of inferiority, uselessness, and leads to various conflicts, complexes and neuroses. And finally, the last, fifth level of needs is the need for self-actualization, self-realization and creativity.

A. Maslow identified two types of needs that underlie personality development:

“scarcity”, which cease after their satisfaction and “growth”,

which, on the contrary, only intensify after their implementation. In total, according to Maslow,

There are five levels of motivation:

1) physiological (needs for food, sleep);

2) security needs (need for an apartment; work)

3) needs for belonging, reflecting the needs of one person in

another person, for example in starting a family;

4) level of self-esteem (need for self-actualization, competence,

dignity);

5) the need for self-actualization (meta-needs for creativity, beauty,

integrity, etc.).

13. Logotherapy c. Frankl.

Logotherapy is a method of psychotherapy and existential analysis created by V. Frankl (from the ancient Greek logos - meaning). Logotherapy is a complex system of philosophical, psychological and medical views on the nature and essence of man, the mechanisms of personality development in normal and pathological conditions, and ways to correct anomalies in personality development.

Logotherapy deals with the meaning of human existence and the search for this meaning. According to logotherapy, the desire for a person to search and realize the meaning of his life is an innate motivational tendency inherent in all people and is the main driver of behavior and personal development. Therefore, Frankl spoke of the “striving for meaning” as opposed to the pleasure principle (otherwise known as the “striving for pleasure”), on which psychoanalysis is concentrated. A person does not require a state of balance, homeostasis, but rather a struggle for some goal worthy of him.

Logotherapy is not a treatment that competes with other methods, but it may well compete with them due to the additional factor that it includes. As one of the areas of modern psychotherapy, logotherapy occupies a special place in it, opposing, on the one hand, psychoanalysis, and on the other, behavioral psychotherapy. It differs from all other systems of psychotherapy not at the level of neurosis, but when it goes beyond its limits, in the space of specific human manifestations. Specifically, we are talking about two fundamental anthropological characteristics of human existence: its self-transcendence and the ability to self-detachment.

There are specific and non-specific areas of application of logotherapy. Psychotherapy of various types of diseases is a non-specific field. A specific area is noogenic neuroses generated by the loss of the meaning of life. In these cases, the Socratic dialogue technique is used to push the patient to discover the adequate meaning of life. The personality of the psychotherapist himself plays an important role in this, although imposing one’s own meanings on them is unacceptable.

The position about the uniqueness of meaning does not prevent Frankl from giving a meaningful description of possible positive meanings. Values ​​are semantic universals that are the result of a generalization of typical situations in the history of society. There are 3 groups of values: 1) values ​​of creativity, 2) values ​​of experience and 3) values ​​of attitude.

Priority belongs to the values ​​of creativity, the main way of implementation of which is work. Among the values ​​of experience, Frankl dwells in detail on love, which has rich semantic potential.

Paradoxical intention. The method proposed by V. Frankl (in 1929, described by him only in 1939, and published under this name in 1947. As we noted above, logotherapy includes two specific human manifestations, such as self-transcendence and the ability to self-detachment .

A person with noogenic neurosis is constantly in search of meaning. Paradoxical intention is used in neuroses when the following pathogenic response patterns are present:

1. A certain symptom causes the patient to fear that it may recur; a phobia arises - the fear of waiting for a repetition of the symptom, which leads to the fact that the symptom actually appears again, and this only strengthens the patient’s initial fears. Sometimes fear itself can be something that the patient is afraid of repeating, but more often they are afraid of fainting, heart attack, etc. Patients react to their fear by escaping reality (life), for example, trying not to leave the house.

2. The patient is under the yoke of obsessive ideas that have taken possession of him, tries to suppress them, counteract them, but this only increases the initial tension. The circle closes, and the patient finds himself inside this vicious circle.

The paradoxical intention is based on the fact that the patient must want what he fears so much to come true. (In case of a phobia, others realized it, in case of obsession, so that he himself realized what he was afraid of). In this case, the paradoxical proposal should be formulated, if possible, in a humorous form.

Dereflection is a psychotherapeutic method that helps the patient neutralize compulsive introspection by focusing on the positive aspects of his existence. For example, one of V. Frankl’s patients suffered from a compulsive desire to observe her act of swallowing: experiencing uncertainty, she anxiously expected that food would “go down the wrong way” or that she would choke. Anticipatory anxiety and compulsive self-observation disrupted her eating process to such an extent that she became completely thin. During therapy, she was taught to trust her body and its automatically regulated functioning. The patient was therapeutically dereflexed through the formula: “I don’t need to observe swallowing, because I actually don’t need to swallow, because it’s not actually me who swallows, but rather the unconscious does it.” And thus the patient got rid of the neurotic fixation on the act of swallowing.

Option number 2.

1. Correlation of the concepts methodology, technique and method

2. Self-actualization theory by A. Maslow..

3. Attention as a mental state. Methodological recommendations. Reveal the essence of the concept and give its characteristics (types of attention, properties, applied aspect - application of knowledge about the characteristics of attention in learning and everyday life); physiological basis of attention.

Method is a set of rules, techniques, operations for the practical or theoretical development of reality. It serves to obtain and substantiate objectively true knowledge.

The nature of the method is determined by many factors: the subject of research, the degree of generality of the tasks, accumulated experience, the level of development of scientific knowledge, etc. Methods suitable for one area scientific research, turn out to be unsuitable for achieving goals in other areas. At the same time, many outstanding achievements in science are consequences of the transfer and use of methods that have proven themselves in other areas of research. Thus, based on the methods used, opposite processes of differentiation and integration of sciences occur.

The doctrine of methods is methodology. Methodology is the entire set of techniques and means of theoretical knowledge. It determines the ways and methods of searching for truth, and at the same time protects the scientist and science as a whole from eclecticism, limits the scope of certain paradigms and methods of their use. Without a choice of methodology, scientific research is practically fruitless, and sometimes it is completely impossible.
Another thing is that there are methodologies of different scope and different levels research. General and specific methodologies are usually distinguished:

General methodology is a certain set of necessary and sufficient scientific principles for considering a social phenomenon, for example, a psychological phenomenon in general.

Private methodology (it is also sometimes called special) - determines the specifics of the application general principles research for a specific area of ​​psychology, for example, social.

Methodological techniques are specific research techniques.

Methodology is a specific implementation of a method in accordance with the purpose of the study.

The variety of human activities determines the use of various methods, which can be classified on a variety of grounds. In scientific knowledge, methods are used: general and specific, empirical and theoretical, qualitative and quantitative, etc.

Classification of psychological methods according to B.G. Ananyev.

It combines four large groups of methods:

Organizational.

Empirical.

Techniques for processing experimental data.

Interpretive.

The group of organizational methods includes: comparative, longitudinal and complex. Organizational methods, judging by their name, are designed to determine the research strategy. The course of the entire study and its final theoretical and practical result depend on the choice of one or another method of organization.

The empirical block serves to collect facts and combines a fairly large group of methods:

observational (all types of observation and self-observation);

experimental (natural, laboratory, field, formative or psychological-pedagogical);

psychodiagnostic (standardized and projective tests, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversation);

praximetric (techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity - chronometry, cyclography, professionography, qualitative assessment of products and work performed);

modeling (mathematical, cybernetic, etc.);

biographical (analysis of facts, dates, life events, documentation, evidence, etc.).

Techniques for processing experimental data were divided by B.G. Ananyev into: quantitative and qualitative. The first include mathematical and statistical techniques for processing psychological information. The second includes a description of cases that not only most fully reflect the types and variants of mental phenomena, but also are exceptions or violations of general rules.

Interpretive methods are synthetic and include genetic (phylogenetic, ontogenetic, sociogenetic, etc.) and structural (psychography, typological classification). Reflect connections both between phases and levels of development, and between the studied personality characteristics. The genetic method interprets all research material in the characteristics of development, highlighting phases, stages, critical moments in the formation of mental functions, formations, and personality traits. The structural method interprets all the collected material in the characteristics of systems and types of connections between them that form an individual and a social group.

Having examined the classification of different methods, we can conclude that science is trying to find answers to how the human psyche works, but each time the result is different. Therefore, there is an opinion that human psychology is inexplicable and mysterious. No matter how many methods of studying the human psyche exist, it will never be possible to fully study it.

Abraham Maslow's (1908-1970) personality theory is based on a study of mentally mature, progressive, creative people who form the so-called “growing elite” of society.

Maslow defines self-actualization as “the full use of talents, abilities, opportunities, etc.”

Maslow described eight ways in which an individual can self-actualize, eight types of behavior leading to self-actualization:

“First of all, self-actualization means an experience that is complete, living, selfless, with full concentration and complete absorption, complete concentration and absorption, that is, an experience without teenage shyness. At the moment of self-actualization, the individual is entirely human. This is the moment when the Self realizes yourself... The key to this is unselfishness. “Usually we are relatively little aware of what is happening in us and around us. However, we do have moments of heightened awareness and intense interest, and these moments are what Maslow calls self-actualizing.

If you think of life as a process of choices, then self-actualization means: in every choice, decide in favor of growth. At every moment there is a choice: advance or retreat. Or move to another more protection, security, fear, or the choice of advancement and growth. Self-actualization is a continuous process; it means multiple separate choices: to lie or remain honest, to steal or not to steal. Self-actualization means choosing from these opportunities opportunities for growth. This is what the self-actualization movement is.

To actualize means to become real, to exist in fact, and not just in potentiality. By self, Maslow means the core, or essential nature of an individual, including temperament, unique tastes and values. Thus, self-actualization is learning to tune into one's own inner nature. This means, for example, deciding for yourself whether you yourself like a certain food or movie, regardless of the opinions and points of view of others.

Honesty and taking responsibility for one's actions are essential aspects of self-actualization. Maslow recommends looking within for answers rather than posing, trying to look good, or trying to please others with your answers. Every time we look within for answers, we are in touch with our inner self. Whenever a person takes responsibility, he self-actualizes.

The first five steps help you develop the ability to make better life choices. We learn to trust our judgments and instincts and act on them.

Self-actualization is also a constant process of developing one’s capabilities and potential. This, for example, is the development of mental abilities through intellectual activities. This means using your abilities and intelligence and "working to do well what you want to do." Great talent or intelligence is not the same as self-actualization. Many gifted people have not been able to fully utilize their abilities, while others, perhaps with average talent, have done incredible things.

“Peak experiences” are transitional moments of self-actualization. At these moments, a person is more whole, more integrated, more aware of himself and the world at “peak” moments. These are the times when we think, act, and feel most clearly and accurately. We love and accept others more, are freer from internal conflict and anxiety, and are more able to use our energy constructively.

The further step of self-actualization is the discovery of one’s “defenses” and the work of abandoning them. Finding yourself, discovering what you are, what is good and what is bad for you, what is the purpose of your life - all this requires exposing your own psychopathology. We need to become more aware of how we distort images of ourselves and images of the external world through repression, projection and other defense mechanisms.

HIERARCHY OF FUNDAMENTAL NEEDS, ACCORDING TO MASLOW:

1. physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.)

2. need for security (stability, order)

3. need for love and belonging (family, friendship)

4. need for respect (self-esteem, recognition)

5. self-actualization needs (development of abilities)

The underlying assumption of this framework is that the dominant needs located below must be more or less satisfied before a person can become aware of and be motivated by the needs located above.

Consequently, needs of one type must be fully satisfied before another, higher need, manifests itself and becomes active. Satisfaction of needs located at the bottom of the hierarchy makes it possible to recognize needs located higher in the hierarchy and their participation in motivation. Thus, physiological needs must be sufficiently satisfied before safety needs arise; physiological and safety and security needs must be satisfied to some extent before they arise and will require satisfaction of the needs of belonging and love.

Maslow concluded that self-actualizing people have the following characteristics.

1. The highest degree of perception of reality. It means increased attention, clarity of consciousness, balance of all ways of understanding reality. It is hardly possible to describe this property more accurately.

2. A more developed ability to accept yourself, others and the world as a whole as they really are. This property does not at all mean reconciliation with reality, but speaks of the absence of illusions regarding it. A person is guided in life not by myths or collective ideas, but, if possible, by scientific and, in any case, sober opinions about the environment dictated by common sense.

3. Increased spontaneity. In other words, to be, not to seem. This means revealing your personality, freely expressing it, the absence of inferiority complexes, fear of seeming funny, tactless, profane, etc. In other words, simplicity, trust in life.

4. Greater ability to focus on a problem.

It seems that this ability is more understandable: stubbornness, perseverance, digging into a problem and the ability to consider and discuss it with others and alone.

5. More pronounced detachment and a clear desire for solitude. A mentally healthy person needs mental concentration; he is not afraid of loneliness. On the contrary, he needs it because it supports his continuous dialogue with himself and helps his inner life. A person must work within himself, educate his soul, must be able to talk with God if he is a religious person.

6. More pronounced autonomy and resistance to joining any one culture. The continuous feeling of being part of some culture, family, group, some society is generally a sign of mental inferiority. In general, in important things in life, a person should not represent anyone, not be anyone’s delegate. This means that he must draw from all sources, be able to perceive all cultures and not be subordinate to any of them. The regulator of the behavior of a healthy person is not the opinion of others, not their views, not their approval and not their rules, but a code of conduct developed in dialogue with a higher principle within oneself. In short, it is not an impersonal culture of shame, but a culture of guilt, not external coercion to the same behavior, but multivariate behavior based on an independent vision of life as a whole that characterizes a mentally healthy person.

7. Great freshness of perception and richness of emotional reactions.

This characteristic probably does not need further clarification. If a person is a unity of the emotional, intellectual and physiological spheres, then he must take the best of all of them.

8. More frequent breakthroughs to the peak of experience. This quality just needs comment. Maslow calls peak experiences moments of awareness, insight, revelation. This is the time of highest concentration, when a person joins the truth, something beyond his strength and abilities. At such moments, he seems to move to a higher level, the secrets and meanings of existence suddenly become clear to him, the secrets and meanings of existence are revealed. Such experiences do not necessarily include, for example, scientific discoveries or the joy of artistic inspiration of the creator. They can be caused by a moment of love, the experience of nature, music, merging with a higher principle. The main thing is that in such moments a person does not feel detached, but connected with higher powers.

9. Stronger identification with the entire human race.

All-humanity, a sense of unity is much greater than what separates us all. The uniqueness and dissimilarity of people is the basis for closeness, and not for their enmity.

10. Changes in interpersonal relationships. A mentally healthy person is self-sufficient and independent, she is less dependent on other individuals. And this means that she has no fear, envy, need for approval, praise or affection. She has no need to lie and adapt to people, does not depend on their preferences and social institutions. She is generally indifferent to signs of encouragement and censure, she is not carried away by orders and glory; they find rewards within, and not outside, themselves.

11. More democratic character structure. A self-realizing personality does not need any social hierarchy, authorities or idols. She also has no desire to rule over others, to impose her opinions on them. She creates islands of cooperation around herself, rather than the execution of instructions; for her, the team is not a hierarchically structured organization, but a collection of irreplaceable specialists. In the social structure, such a person corresponds to a democratic social structure. In general, such people, no matter what position and no matter what public place they occupy, even the most inconspicuous one, have no superiors. They know how to arrange themselves everywhere so as not to have controllers and people financially dependent on them over them.

12. High creative abilities. In some higher sense, the concepts of man and creator coincide. If we don’t see this, if there are, as it seems to us, gray, insignificant, unnoticeable people around, it means that this society is poorly structured, it does not give a person the opportunity, the scope for self-actualization.

13. Certain changes in the value system. People who have achieved a certain degree of self-realization have a very high opinion of others. They believe in people, in humanity, in its destiny, in its better future, although they cannot necessarily articulate this in words. In other words, they have a positive attitude, they are not only friendly towards others, but they have a certain and, as a rule, strong positive philosophy of life, a system of interconnected values.

14. Creativity. Maslow discovered that all self-actualizing people, without exception, have the ability to be creative. However, the creativity of his subjects did not manifest itself in the same way as outstanding talents in poetry, art, music or science. Maslow spoke, rather, about the same natural and spontaneous creativity that is inherent in unspoiled children. This is the creativity that is present in everyday life as a natural way of expressing an observant, perceptive and invigoratingly simple personality.

To be creative, a self-actualizing person does not have to write books, compose music, or create paintings. Speaking about his mother-in-law, whom he considered self-actualizing, Maslow emphasized precisely this fact. He said that although his mother-in-law did not have the talents of a writer or an actor, she was highly creative in preparing soup. Maslow observed that first-rate soup always contains more creativity than second-rate poetry!

15. Resistance to cultivation. Self-actualizing people are in harmony with their culture, while maintaining a certain internal independence from it. They have autonomy and self-confidence, and therefore their thinking and behavior are not subject to social and cultural influence. This resistance to enculturation does not mean that self-actualizing people are unconventional or antisocial in all areas of human behavior. For example, in matters of dress, speech, food and behavior, unless they have obvious objections, they are no different from others. Likewise, they do not waste energy fighting existing customs and rules. However, they can be extremely independent and unconventional if any of their core values ​​are affected. Therefore, those who do not take the trouble to understand and appreciate them sometimes consider self-actualizing people to be rebellious and eccentric. Self-actualizing people also do not demand immediate improvement from their environment. Knowing the imperfections of society, they accept the fact that social change may be slow and gradual, but it is easier to achieve by working within that system.

From everything we can conclude that every person is a talent and everything he can do is also a talent. You can’t stop at just one thing, you need to educate yourself throughout your life, discover your talents, and look for something new in yourself. Whatever we do moves us up the “ladder” of life.

psychology. liter. Ananyev B.G. human psychology. Galperin. P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. Gamezo.N.V Domashenko I.A. Atlas of Psychology, M., 2000. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology, M., 1988

A. Maslow's theory of self-actualizing personality

The founder of humanistic psychology is A. Maslow. Humanistic psychology- third force psychology, which arose as an opposition to behaviorism and introspection. Representatives of humanistic psychology criticized behaviorism for transferring the results of experiments on animals to people, and psychoanalysis for the fact that from this position a person acts as an irrational, aggressive and asocial being, and all productive forms of behavior are a sublimation of sexual energy.

Humanistic psychology says that the essence of man - the desire for self-actualization - is the highest human need. It manifests itself in a person’s desire to realize his inner potential in his life, to be and become himself, to realize his abilities.

A. Maslow relied on the analysis of the behavior of a mentally healthy person, creative personality(their teachers).

Personality structure – A. Maslow’s hierarchy of motives (Fig.).

Rice. A. Maslow's pyramid of needs

General characteristics of the motivational sphere according to Maslow:

1. All needs are inherent in a person by his nature, i.e. have an innate or instinctoid character.

2. All needs form a hierarchical structure based on the principle of dominance or priority, i.e. the lower the need is located in the general hierarchy. It is all the more important and priority for the individual.

3. The transition from one level of need to another occurs only if the underlying needs are satisfied. If the needs of a certain level are not met, then a return to lower levels is carried out. The hierarchy of needs is universal.

Later, A. Maslow introduced meta-needs into the pyramid, or needs that are built on top of the others. These are B-motives, existential motives or growth motives. Meta-needs include spiritual needs: truth (cognitive needs), beauty (aesthetic), goodness (ethical), justice, meaningfulness of life, perfection, self-sufficiency or autonomy, etc. Metaneeds are represented by 15 varieties.

Metaneeds, like deficit ones, are innate in nature. But unlike deficiency needs, they are non-hierarchized, i.e. have equal significance for a person. They are less conscious to humans. Satisfaction of deficiency needs is aimed at relieving (reducing) tension, and the desire to satisfy meta-needs makes a person’s life more stressful, because these needs are directed towards distant goals.

Mental maturity is achieved by those people who reach the level of meta-needs and self-actualization needs. Awareness of higher needs is hampered by defense mechanisms. Ion complex – refusal of the individual to self-actualize, conscious reduction of one’s own level of aspirations.

What is the cause of neuroses? Neurosis is a failure of personal growth. The cause of neurosis is not the suppression of lower needs, but the dissatisfaction of higher ones, i.e. their deprivation. Internal deprivation is associated with the ion complex.

A special type of neurosis is associated with the dissatisfaction of meta-needs - existential neurosis (this is a type of metapathology). Metapathologies arise when meta-needs are not met. Metapathology most often affects fairly prosperous people who have all their basic needs satisfied.

Types of metapathologies:

Apathy is indifference to everything;

Boredom, which is often combined with melancholy;

Persistent depression;

Alienation from other people;

Excessive selfishness;

A feeling of meaninglessness and uselessness of one’s own existence - loss of the meaning of life;

Death wish;

Loss of self and identity (the person feels constantly changing and anonymous).

Criteria of mental maturity(characteristics of a self-actualizing personality):

I.Creativity, i.e. creativity. Maslow understands creativity not as a new contribution to science or art, but as a person’s desire and ability to do exactly what he does, i.e. achieve mastery in your craft. This is the leading characteristic.

II.Direction centeredness– this is passion for one’s work, devotion to it. Self-actualizing individuals live in a sphere of complete competence; they are professionals. They live to work, not work to live.

III.Distinguishing between means and ends. Using only those means that comply with moral standards. A manifestation of this feature is a person’s passion for the process of activity itself, and not for the final result.

IV.Objective perception of reality– intellectual maturity, when a person, when assessing events, relies on facts, and not on his emotions generated by the event.

V.Acceptance of yourself and others just the way they are. Self-actualizing individuals are characterized by high tolerance and tolerance. This is the lack of psychological defense mechanisms.

VI.Spontaneity of behavior– simplicity and naturalness, absence of posturing, desire to “show off.” High need for privacy. They protect their inner world from outside interference, but loneliness does not bother them, because the motto of such a person is: I am my own best friend, and being alone, they are left alone with themselves.

VII.Autonomy. The individual is the master of his own destiny, he chooses who to be. This is a manifestation of a high level of self-sufficiency. Such people do not strive for honors, fame, external honor; internal growth and self-improvement, in which they rely on self-approval, are important for them.

VIII.Resistance to acculturation– non-conformism, low susceptibility to other people’s influence.

IX.Depth of interpersonal relationships. Such people are not prone to wide contacts; they are characterized by communication in a narrow circle of a deep nature. Communication is built on kinship of souls, unity of values ​​and interests. The circle of people is small and very limited.

X.Democratic character- respectful attitude towards other people. A mentally mature person shows respect towards everyone. Lack of authoritarian tendencies.

XI.Public interest. People are concerned not only with their own fate, but with the fate of their country and its citizens.

XII.Freshness of perception: Every event is perceived as if it were the first time.

XIII.Summit or mystical (peak) experiences– this is a state of ecstasy, peace, harmony, a special kind of bliss.

XIV.Sense of humor(philosophical).

Phenomenological theory of personality by C. Rogers (self theory)

The leading and only motive of behavior is the tendency to actualization, and all other motives are only the embodiment of this tendency.

Update– is to preserve and develop oneself, i.e. realize the qualities, abilities, and inner potential inherent in us by nature. Trend of actualization- This is the tendency inherent in the body to develop all its abilities in order to preserve and develop personality. That. Human behavior is motivated by the need to develop and improve. Man is governed by the process of growth.

Ultimate Goal, which the trend of actualization is aimed at, is achieving autonomy and self-sufficiency, i.e. self-actualization. The need for self-actualization (according to Maslow) is the main manifestation of the self-actualization tendency. To realize this need (i.e. realize one’s inner potential), a person needs to know himself well. The central concept of Rogers’ personality theory is the concept of I (self, self-concept) - this is a person’s generalized and consistent idea of ​​himself.

The concept of personality comes down to self-awareness or self-concept.

Personality(or Self) is a differentiated part of the phenomenal field (the entire human experience), which consists of conscious perception and assessments of Self, i.e. a person's awareness of himself and his experience.

The self-image includes ideas about what we can become, so the self-concept is divided into 2 types: the ideal self and the real self. For harmonious development For a person, the coordination between the real self and the ideal self is important. A sharp gap between them can give rise to neurosis or increase the need for self-improvement.

Rogers focuses on the formation of self-concept and its role in the life of each of us. Self-concept is a product of socialization and is formed under the influence of a person’s experience. To form a positive self-esteem, it is important for the child to receive approval from an adult.

Normal harmonious development of personality is possible only in the case of correspondence (congruent relationships) between experience and self-concept. If there is a contradiction between experience and the self-concept, a conflict arises and, as a consequence, the threat of destruction of the self-concept or self-esteem. This threat can be either conscious or unconscious. A perceived threat, when we understand that our behavior does not correspond to our image of ourselves, causes feelings of guilt, internal emotional discomfort and tension, and remorse. If a person is not aware of the discrepancy between experience and self-concept, then he is filled with anxiety.

Anxiety from Rogers’s position, it is a person’s emotional reaction to a threat that signals personality. That the formed self-concept is in danger of destruction (disorganization). Unlike guilt, anxiety occurs when a person feels threatened but is not aware of it. The frequent occurrence of anxiety associated with a mismatch between experience and self-concept leads to neurosis.

To get rid of anxiety, a person develops psychological defense mechanisms. Defenses are a behavioral response to a threat. Main goal– preserve and support the existing self-concept.

Highlight 2 types of protection :

1. Distortion of perception(rationalization): the incongruent experience is allowed into consciousness, but in a form that makes it compatible with the self-concept. An interpretation of the event occurs that makes it possible to harmonize with the self-concept.

2. Denial is ignoring negative experiences.

The purpose of defense is to eliminate the conflict between experience and self-concept. If defense mechanisms turn out to be weak and ineffective, then neurosis begins.

The main condition for the harmonious development of personality and the achievement of mental health is the flexibility of the self-concept.

Criteria for mental health (fully functioning personality):

Openness to experience or experiences. This manifests itself in the fact that a person is subtly and deeply aware of his entire experience. Lack of psychological defense mechanisms.

The existential way of life is the desire to live fully and richly, to lead such a way of life when the Self-concept follows from experience, and not experience is transformed to please the Self-concept.

Flexibility of self-concept.

Organismic trust is the independence of the individual, the desire of a person to rely on himself in everything, trust in himself, autonomy.

Empirical freedom is freedom of choice, which is combined with ultimate responsibility.

Creativity or creativeness combined with non-conformity and adaptability.