Art of Ancient Egypt
“There is something before which both the indifference of the constellations and the eternal whisper of the waves retreat - the deeds of man who robs death of its prey”... (From an ancient Egyptian papyrus)
Egypt is a country whose population has lived in the Sahara region since the Neolithic, that is, it was autochthonous. A deep connection with the primitiveness that gave birth to it permeates the entire Egyptian culture. Thus, the idea of ​​a pyramid could have been born from the idea of ​​a sacred mountain. The idea of ​​the sacred meaning of a free-standing stone is realized in the form of an obelisk. Egyptian culture slowly grew out of primitiveness, maintaining connections with such primitive beliefs as animism, fetishism and totemism. Animism was manifested in the creation of janitor statues, mummification of the bodies of pharaohs, in the paintings of pyramids and rock tombs, the theme of which was the journey of the soul of the deceased in the kingdom of Hades. The fundamentals of the iconography and stylistics of Egyptian art will be preserved for thousands of years.

Art in Egypt had as its goal the affirmation of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe omnipotence of the “good god”, this was the official title of the pharaoh. Another distinctive feature of the art of Ancient Egypt is the connection with the funeral cult, caused by the desire to prolong life after death. To do this, it was necessary to preserve the body of the deceased and provide it with everything necessary for the afterlife, not only to mummify the body, but also to create a likeness - a statue. That is why the sculptor in Ancient Egypt was called “sankh” - “creator of life”.
Art Ancient kingdom(XXVIII-XXIII centuries BC)
More than ten thousand years ago, nomadic tribes of hunters, under the influence of the drying up of the Sahara, switched to settled agriculture in the Nile Valley. Initially, Egypt consisted of separate regions - nomes, constantly at war with each other. Each of the nomes had its own patron in the form of a crocodile, ibis or snake. After the conquest of the North by Southern Egypt, the country was unified.
Sculpture

Hathor, the goddess of the sky, was depicted in the guise of a cow, later with cow horns, between which the solar disk was placed.

According to the ideas of the Egyptians, each person had Sah - a body, Shunt - a shadow, Ren - a name, Ah - a ghost, Ba - a manifestation of the essence and Ka - a soul, which is an immortal double. Basic condition afterlife- preservation of the body, for which mummification began to be used. Strict adherence to frontality and symmetry in the construction of the figure, the solemn calmness of the pose conveyed a stay in the other world. At first, noble people were depicted either sitting with their hands on their knees or standing with their left leg extended forward. During the IV dynasty, figures of nobles appear in the form of a scribe. The heads of the statues are placed upright, and the obligatory attributes are in their hands. The bodies of men were painted brick red, women - yellow, hair - black, clothes - white. The bodies were depicted as extremely developed. The Lord was shown more than the other figures depicted. The Egyptians believed that the soul would be protected inside the pyramid. Figurines depicting various servants of the pharaoh were placed in the tomb. Unlike the statues of nobles, whose poses are canonical, the statues of servants conveyed various moments their activities, which led to a wide variety of positions of their bodies.

The sculpture, which had cult significance in Egypt, was also subject to the canon. A significant part of the sculptural images of the pharaohs that have come down to us show the rulers of Egypt sitting on a throne, wrapped in a funeral shroud. These sculptures were objects of a special ritual, which was based on the ritual murder of a leader, known since ancient times and now practiced by some African tribes. Another type of Egyptian sculpture were the cult statues of the pharaohs that stood near the pyramids. In these sculptures, the pharaoh appeared seated or standing. There is a loincloth on the body and a headdress. The face is impassive. Another type of sculptural image was called the sculpture “for life” - it was placed together with the mummified body of the pharaoh in the burial chamber, it depicted guards, scribes, water carriers - all those who would continue to serve the pharaoh after their death.

The walls of mortuary churches were decorated not only with reliefs, but also with picturesque compositions. The Egyptian artist showed not what he saw from a certain point of view, but what he knew about the figure, trying to bring out the most expressive - the eyes shown from the front on the face shown in profile, the shoulders turned directly towards the viewer and the legs shown from the side. The figures rest on the ground with their entire feet. The artist does not know the laws of perspective; the size of the figures depends on their social status. Each scene is a complete whole and at the same time part of the overall composition. Each relief belt is like new line, is linked to the following. The reliefs and paintings of the tombs of the nobility are dedicated to the idea of ​​​​providing the deceased with everything necessary for the afterlife.

Since ancient times, sculptors have been faced with the task of creating portrait images necessary for the soul to return to the preserved body. The established type of statue of the Old Kingdom is represented by the statue of Pharaoh Sneferu: the neck has the correct proportions, the eyes are slightly recessed in the orbits. The statue of Pharaoh Mikerin shows full cheeks, a straight, slightly upturned nose, and a beautifully defined, distinctive mouth. The sculptures of Snofru's son Rahotep and his wife Nefert are among the most perfect monuments of ancient Egyptian art. Rahotep and Nefert are depicted sitting on cube-shaped thrones. Rahotep's hands are clenched into fists, the left one lies on his knee, the right one is pressed to his chest. The hair and mustache are black, the eyes are inlaid. Nefert is dressed in a tight, figure-hugging dress, with a fluffy wig on her head, over which a ribbon is tied. The scribe Kaya is depicted sitting cross-legged, with a papyrus scroll unfolded on his knees. He has tightly compressed lips, a slightly flat nose and prominent cheekbones.
Thus, both idealized and realistic images were found in the tombs of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms. Realistic statues always have loose aprons, and tight-fitting headbands on their heads; idealized statues have fluffy wigs, tight-fitting aprons on their hips, and wide necklaces. The exact ritual functions of the two different statues are not clear.

In the era of the Old Kingdom, to decorate the royal mortuary temples and tombs of noble people, they created large number reliefs and paintings. The reliefs were low and embedded (i.e. counter-reliefs). The silhouette of the figures is always clear and graphic. The reliefs of the Old Kingdom are characterized by a frieze development of the plot. Wall paintings were also of two types: tempera on dry plaster and the same technique in combination with inlays made of colored crusts. Mineral paints were used: red and yellow ocher, green from grated malachite, blue from grated lapis lazuli, white from limestone, black from soot. The entrance was decorated with two figures of the owner of the tomb, depicted in full growth; a procession of gift bearers unfolded along the walls of the chapels and corridors, directed towards the front niche, in the center of which there was a false door. Above the niche with the image of the statue of the deceased was his image at the sacrificial table. The relief compositions were arranged in such a way that they were more readable than looked at. The content of reliefs and paintings was determined by their name. The main position is occupied by the figure of a king or nobleman, much larger than all the others, with a staff or staff - symbols of power.

Relief is one of the types of sculpture, unlike a round sculpture, located on a plane and oriented towards it.

Time reigns V-IV dynasties - the period of the highest flowering of tomb reliefs and paintings of the Old Kingdom.
A feature of the art of Ancient Egypt was the development of sustainable forms of architectural structures. This is how the canon of the funeral church was formed. Initially, the burial took the form of a mastaba. Mastaba - the modern name for the tombs of the Old Kingdom - is a ground-based rectangular structure with walls slightly inclined towards the center. The mastaba comes from the mound of earth and sand created when digging a grave. The mastaba included an underground burial chamber, a vertical well extending from it leading to the above-ground part, as well as a rectangular building made of raw brick or stone, which in section has the shape of a trapezoid. The ground part of the mastaba had a false door carved from stone, through which the double of the deceased could leave and return, a stone slab - a stele placed above the false door, covered with inscriptions with sacrificial spells and reliefs depicting the deceased, and a stone altar, installations in front of the false door. Depending on the nobility of the deceased, the mastaba had additional elements such as a serdab, in which steles were placed; in the above-ground part there could be chapels and upper chambers where the relatives of the deceased were buried. The mastaba complex has survived to this day on the west bank of the Nile in the Memphis area.

Mastaba - above-ground rectangular structure with walls slightly inclined towards the center above an underground burial chamber

The next stage in the design of the mortuary temple is the creation by the architect Imhotep of the step pyramid of Djoser in the 28th century. BC It consisted of six stacked
made of stone and decreasing in size mastabas. The burial chambers were carved into the rocky base beneath the pyramid. The plan of the pyramid is rectangular, which indicates that it follows the tradition of mastaba construction. The pyramid of Djoser reached 62 m in height. Initially, the entrance to it was on the north side and led down the stairs. The second entrance was in the floor of the mortuary temple, which also adjoined the pyramid on its northern side. U east wall there was a serdab built of limestone blocks. Under the pyramid there were underground galleries with two alabaster sarcophagi and 30 thousand stone vessels. The entire burial complex of Djoser's pyramid occupied an area of ​​550 by 280 m and was surrounded by a wall dissected by projections. To the south of Djoser's pyramid, a building with the same layout of burial chambers was discovered; its outer walls were crowned with a frieze depicting cobras; there was also a complex of prayer houses dedicated to the royal anniversary. The buildings of the ensemble reproduced in stone the forms of wooden and brick buildings: the ceilings were cut out in the form of log ceilings. In the ensemble, for the first time, semi-column capitals are found in the form of a stylized open panicle of papyrus, capitals in the form of a stylized lotus flower, as well as proto-Doric ones - with flutes that actually repeat bundles of reeds in stone.

The half-columns have not yet separated from the masonry walls. The walls of the halls were decorated with alabaster slabs, in some - panels of green faience tiles, reproducing reed wickerwork. The creation of Djoser was of decisive importance in the sense that buildings began to grow upward and stone was identified as the main material of monumental architecture. Near the pyramid of Djoser, scientists found fragments of his statue and a pedestal with the name of Imhotep.
During the IV Dynasty in the 28th century BC. happened further development forms of monumental tombstone - from the step pyramid to the classical one. The transition period was marked by the construction of the pyramid of Sneferu, the first pharaoh of the IV dynasty in Dahshur, which had a height of more than 100 m. Under Sneferu, the geometric shape of the pyramid was finally formed, the slope of its walls was slightly more than 46 degrees, still quite gentle compared to the classical ones. The formation of the canon ended with the creation of pyramids of the classical type. The pyramid of Cheops, son of Snofru, is the most famous of them. For about 10 years, 4 thousand people leveled the site for the future pyramid and carried out preparatory work. The road alone, along which stone blocks weighing up to 7.5 tons were moved on special sleds, took about 10 years to build. The builders dragged runners with stone blocks along the 20 m wide inclined entrance, built of bricks from Nile silt. The upper block - the “pyramidon”, 9 m high, completed construction, which took 20 years. Then the steps of the pyramid were filled with stones and at the end the sides of the pyramid were lined with slabs of white limestone. The polished red granite sarcophagus was placed in a small room located at a height of 4.5 m from the base of the pyramid. Below there was another chamber, possibly for the king's wife. It is surprising and has no explanation that the burial chamber has no decorations, the sarcophagus is only roughly hewn, has no lid and is wider than the passage into the chamber, i.e. could not have been brought into it after the construction of the pyramid. In the thickness of the pyramid there are several narrow long passages leading to the chambers and a large gallery 50 m long. To protect the burial room from the colossal pressure of the rows of stones located above, 5 blind unloading chambers were located above the ceiling of the tomb. The pyramid is part of a grandiose funeral ensemble. A covered corridor led from the lower mortuary temple, along which the participants of the procession passed to the upper temple, consisting of a main corridor and a central courtyard. In the depths there was a chapel with false gates and an altar. On four sides, in the recesses of the rock, 4 wooden boats were placed, intended for the pharaoh’s journey through the other world. Near the pyramid there was a huge burial ground with the scale of nobility and high dignitaries. The ratio of the height and base of the pyramid contained the number “pi”; with a height of 318 cubits and a base of 500 cubits, the ratio of twice the base to the height corresponded to the number sacred to the Egyptians. The base area could accommodate five of the world's largest cathedrals: St. Peter's in Rome, St. St. Paul's and Westminster Abbey in London, Florence and Milan cathedrals. From the building stone used for its construction, it was possible to build all the churches in Germany created in our millennium.

Another pyramid of the classical type, the Pyramid of Khafre is the established form of a mortuary temple of the Old Kingdom, consisting of two parts - the first, accessible to believers, and the second, where only a select few were allowed. The lower temple of Khafre was square in shape and was built from large blocks of granite. In front of the temple there was a pier, two entrances of the temple were guarded by two sphinxes. In the middle of the temple there was possibly a statue of the pharaoh; narrow corridors ran from both entrances, which led to a hypostyle with monolithic granite pillars. This E-shaped hall contained 23 statues of a seated pharaoh. The pyramid of Mikerin, like the two previous ones, had a square base in plan, each side of which was 108.4 m. It reached a height of 66.5 m, and the angle of inclination of its walls was 51 degrees. To the south of the pyramid there were three small pyramids connected to it by a common wall. In the pyramids of Giza, free-standing columns with round trunks and tetrahedral ones are found for the first time.

The pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty pharaohs have never been surpassed. It is in classical pyramids that the column is separated from the wall. The type of palm-shaped, papyrus-shaped and lotus-shaped capitals of the columns is formed. The basis of the Sphinx from Giza was made of limestone rock; the missing parts were hewn out of limestone slabs.
The Sphinx wears a royal scarf on her head, a uraeus - a sacred snake - is carved on her forehead, and an artificial beard is visible under her chin. The Sphinx's face was painted brick-red, the stripes of her scarf were blue and red, her face conveyed the features of Pharaoh Khafre.

Another canon of the Egyptian temple is the “Solar Temple”.
The enormous costs of building the pyramids weakened the country. Troubles and wars with neighbors began. After the collapse of Egypt around the 23rd century. BC a long struggle begins to reunite him. The Theban rulers of the South completed the unification of the country, but they failed to subjugate the nomarchs of Central Egypt. At this time, local art centers emerged.

Art of the Middle Kingdom (XXI-XVIII centuries BC)
The heyday of the Middle Kingdom is associated with the reign of the XII Dynasty. At this time, the Egyptians waged wars with neighboring peoples and built fortresses on the borders with Nubia. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, to prominent places in government
Unknown people begin to come forward. Bronze production is developing, glass production is emerging. Significant changes have occurred in the field of architecture.
There is a revaluation of values. Moral cults are more strongly felt in a funeral cult! aspect. He who enters the world of the dead must appear before Osiris.

During the Middle Kingdom, the entrance design appeared in the form of two pylons - towers with a passage between them. A new type of capital is being created - with the head of the goddess Hathor. In the construction practice of the first half of the Middle Kingdom, a new type of mortuary temple was developed, an example of which is the tomb of Mentuhotep I in Deir el Bahri. The temple was erected near the rocks of the Libyan Highlands. Porticoes ran along the façade and sides of the temple, which rose above two terraces; gentle slopes - ramps - led to the terraces. The columns were tetrahedral. The portico wall, lined with limestone, was covered with colored reliefs. On the second terrace there was a second portico, surrounding the columned hall on three sides. The pharaoh's tomb was carved under the hypostyle hall. Behind the main part of the temple there was an open courtyard carved into the rock, surrounded by a colonnade, and a covered second hypostyle hall. A road enclosed by walls led from the mortuary to the lower temple, along which painted statues of the king were installed.

In front of the facade of the mortuary temple there was a huge front courtyard, and on the side of the ramp leading to the roof of the lower terrace there were two reservoirs. The construction of pyramids was revived again, but not as huge as before. Construction material Now raw brick served. The base of the pyramid consisted of eight main stone walls, radiating radii from the center of the pyramid to its corners and to the middle of each side. Eight other walls extended from these walls at an angle of 45 degrees, the gaps between which were filled with fragments of stone, brick and sand. The pyramids were faced with limestone slabs. Unlike the pyramids of the Old Kingdom, these pyramids turned out to be short-lived.
At Amenemhete III the irrigation system in Fayum was completed and a funerary complex was built, which included a brick pyramid lined with limestone slabs and a grandiose mortuary temple with an area of ​​72 thousand square meters. m, consisting of many halls and chapels, decorated with sculptures and reliefs. The colonnades played a leading role in the design and were its characteristic feature. The architects also used a new type of columns with flutes and rectangular abaci. The Greeks later called this temple the “Labyrinth” (after the throne name of Alienemhet III - Nimatra, in Greek - Labira).

From the XII Dynasty, sculptures of pharaohs began to be installed in temples along with deities. In this regard, volumetric modeling of the rulers’ facial features intensified, and more attention was paid to conveying age. Sculptural images of pharaohs acquire realistic features. Thus, the sculptural images of the pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III are realistic: the eyes are already set at an angle and sit deep in the orbit, the faces are detailed. There have also been changes in the construction of reliefs. Their themes became more diverse, for example, in the reliefs of the nomarch of the Middle Kingdom Senbi in Meir, in hunting scenes, animals are depicted among the hilly expanses of the desert. The reliefs depict scenes of everyday life - the collection of papyrus, the work of artisans, etc.
Art of the New Kingdom (XVI-XI centuries BC)

After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Thebes again became the capital of Egypt, where colossal construction took place. The architecture of this period is characterized by pomp and decorative sophistication. The main temple construction was dedicated to the funeral cult and the god Amon, whose veneration also combined the worship of the solar deity Ra. Most widespread receives a temple type with a clear rectangular plan including an open courtyard,
surrounded by a colonnade, a columned hall and a sanctuary. The façade of the temples faced the Nile, from which a road ran, framed on either side by stone sphinxes or rams. The entrance was bordered by stone pylons - walls tapering upward in the shape of a trapezoid, separated by a narrow passage in the middle. In front of the pylons stood obelisks and colossal statues of pharaohs. Behind the pylon opened a rectangular open courtyard surrounded by columns. A stone colonnade in the center of the courtyard along the main axis marked a direct line of path to the columned halls, chapels and storerooms. The walls of the temples are covered with monumental reliefs.
Architecture

By the beginning of the New Kingdom, the temple is separated from the tomb. Temples of the New Kingdom are built at the base of rock formations. Special significance acquire the sanctuaries of the main god Amun-Ra, called Karnak and Luxor by the Greeks. Karnak was an official Egyptian sanctuary. On its walls were excerpts from chronicles, descriptions of campaigns and victories. Luxor was an example of a New Kingdom temple: a pylon-shaped entrance, a courtyard surrounded by porticoes, an abundance of columns with capitals in the form of blossoming papyrus flowers.
Of all the temples of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty, the mortuary temple of the female pharaoh Hatshepsut stands out. The temple stood on three terraces and amazed with the abundance of columns. The temple reliefs depicted a journey to Punt, from where the Egyptians exported exotic animals.

Another rock temple of the New Kingdom is the mortuary temple of Ramesses II in Abu Simbel, created in the first half of the 13th century. in Nubia, on the west bank of the Nile. The façade of the temple was facing east; from the bank of the Nile, a staircase led to the terrace of the temple. On both sides of the entrance there were four twenty-meter sandstone portrait statues of Ramesses II. Above the entrance is a six-meter carved image of the bird-headed sun god Ra. The total length of the enfilade of underground rooms (two halls and a sanctuary) was 55 m. The ceiling of the first hall rested on 8 pillars placed in 2 rows, two ten-meter sculptures of Ramesses II leaned against them, and on the ceiling was the sky with stars.

The sculpture has undergone a number of changes. Female statues have become softer and more flexible.
A special period of ancient Egyptian art represents the reign of the reformer pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1368-1351 BC). This period was called Tell al Amarna.
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV produced religious reform and introduced the worship of the god Aten. The property of the priests was confiscated, the royal court was moved to the new capital - Akhetaten with a single plan, with a clearly organized center, which included palaces, halls, pavilions with columns (papyrus-shaped, lotus-shaped and palm-shaped), statues of the pharaoh, a temple - the House of Aten.

A pylon is a monolithic trapezoidal structure in the architecture of ancient Egypt with symbolic and philological compositions and a rectangular vertical entrance.

The Amarna style is characterized by: an expressive manner of depicting the pharaoh and members of his family, lyrical coloring, and appeal to natural human feelings. Best works The Amarna period is distinguished by its humanity and soulfulness, covered with a genuine breath of life, and full of inner charm. For the first time in the history of Egyptian art, an image of a king with his family appeared. The best that was created during this period are the sculptural portraits of Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti. Nefertiti is shown wearing a high crown of painted limestone, with a slightly elongated chin, tightly closed, slightly smiling lips, and high arched eyebrows. Another portrait of Nefertiti, made of crystalline golden sandstone, remained unfinished.
At the end of the era there is a return to canonicity.

Art of the Late Period (1085-332 BC)
By the end of the 1st millennium BC. In Egypt, a decline in economic and cultural life begins, which leads to a reduction in temple construction and a decrease in the number of decorative reliefs.
During this period, the power of the Theban priesthood strengthened and centralized control weakened. The power of representatives of the Libyan nobility is established first, then the dynasties of Kush, Ethiopia and Assyria. The fight against the Assyrians was carried out by the rulers of the western Delta. Having expelled the invaders, they formed the XXVI Dynasty with its capital in the city of Sais.
In all areas of culture of this period, a turn towards antiquity is planned. The statues reproduce ancient examples, but at the same time, departing from the canons, the masters create wonderful sculptural portraits. The buildings of the late period are guided by the canon of antiquity. The sculpture becomes conventional.
The conquests of Alexander the Great marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in the development of Egyptian art.

When exactly the oldest statue in the world, the sculpture of the Sphinx, was erected, scientists still have not determined: some believe that the world saw this grandiose structure back in the thirtieth century BC. But most researchers are still more cautious in their assumptions and claim that the Sphinx is no more than fifteen thousand years old.

This means that already at the time of the creation of the most grandiose monument of mankind (the height of the Sphinx exceeded twenty meters and the length - more than seventy), art, in particular sculpture, was already well developed in Egypt. It turns out that the Sphinx statue is actually much older than the Egyptian culture, which appeared in the 4th millennium BC.

Most researchers question this version and so far agree that the face of the Sphinx is the face of Pharaoh Hebren, who lived around 2575 - 2465. BC e. - which means it indicates that this grandiose structure from monolithic limestone rock was carved by the Egyptians. And he guards the pyramids of the pharaohs in Giza.

Almost all researchers agree that the funeral cult of the inhabitants of ancient Egypt played an important role in the development of sculpture - if only because they were convinced: the human soul could well return to earth to its body, a mummy (it was for this purpose that huge tombs were created, structures in which the deceased bodies of pharaohs and nobles were supposed to be located). If the mummy could not be preserved, it could well move into its likeness - a statue (which is why the ancient Egyptians called the sculptor “creator of life”).

They created this life according to once and for all established canons, from which they did not deviate for several millennia (special instructions and guidelines were even provided and developed specifically for this purpose). Ancient masters used special templates, stencils and grids with canonically established proportions and contours of people and animals.

The sculptor’s work consisted of several stages:

1. Before starting to work on the statue, the master chose a suitable stone, usually rectangular in shape;
2. After that, using a stencil, I applied the desired design to it;
3. Then, using the carving method, I removed the excess stone, after which I processed the details, grinded and polished the sculpture.

Characteristics of Egyptian sculptures

Mostly ancient Egyptian statues depicted rulers and nobles. The figure of a working scribe was also popular (he was usually depicted with a roll of papyrus on his lap). Sculptures of gods and rulers were usually displayed for public viewing in open spaces.

The statue of the Sphinx was especially popular - despite the fact that structures of the same size as in Giza had never been made anywhere else, there were many smaller duplicates of it. Alleys with its copies and other mystical beasts could be seen in almost all the temples of ancient Egypt.

Considering that the Egyptians considered the pharaoh to be the incarnation of god on earth, the sculptors emphasized the greatness and indestructibility of their rulers with special techniques - the arrangement of figures and scenes, their sizes, poses and gestures (poses intended to convey any moment or mood were not allowed).

The ancient Egyptians depicted gods only according to strictly defined rules (for example, Horus had the head of a falcon, while the god of the dead, Anubis, had a jackal). The poses of the human statues (both sitting and standing) were quite monotonous and the same. All the sitting figures were characterized by the pose of Pharaoh Khafre sitting on the throne. The figure is majestic and static, the ruler looks at the world without any emotion and it is obvious to anyone who sees him that nothing can shake his power, and the character of the pharaoh is imperious and unyielding.

If a sculpture depicting a man is standing, his left leg always takes a step forward, his arms are either lowered down, or he is leaning on the staff he is holding. After some time, another pose was added for men - the “scribe”, a man in the lotus position.

At first, only the sons of the pharaohs were depicted this way. The woman stands straight, legs are closed, right hand lowered, left - at the waist. Interestingly, she does not have a neck; her head is simply connected to her shoulders. Also, the craftsmen almost never drilled out the spaces between her arms, body and legs - they usually marked them in black or white.

The masters usually made the bodies of the statues powerful and well-developed, giving the sculpture solemnity and grandeur. As for faces, portrait features are, of course, present here. When working on the statue, the sculptors discarded minor details and gave their faces an impassive expression.

The coloring of ancient Egyptian statues also did not differ in particular variety:

• male figures were painted red-brown,
• women's - yellow,
• hair – black;
• clothes - white;

To the eyes of the sculptures the Egyptians had special treatment- they believed that the dead could very well observe through them earthly life. Therefore, masters usually inserted precious stones into the eyes of statues. semi-precious stones or other materials. This technique allowed them to achieve greater expressiveness and even liven them up a little.

Egyptian statues (this does not mean fundamental structures, but smaller products) were not designed to be viewed from all sides - they were completely frontal, many of them seemed to lean back against a stone block, which served as a background for them.

Egyptian sculptures are characterized by complete symmetry - the right and left halves of the body are absolutely identical. Almost all the statues of ancient Egypt have a sense of geometricity - this is most likely explained by the fact that they were made from rectangular stone.

The evolution of Egyptian sculptures

Since creativity cannot help but respond to changes that occur in the life of society, Egyptian art did not stand still and over time changed somewhat - and began to be intended not only for funeral rites, but also for other buildings - temples, palaces, etc.

If at first they depicted only gods (a large statue of one or another deity made of precious metals was located in the temple dedicated to him, in the altar), sphinxes, rulers and nobles, then later they began to depict ordinary Egyptians. Such figurines were mostly wooden.

Many small figurines made of wood and alabaster have survived to this day - and among them there were figurines of animals, sphinxes, slaves, and even property (many of them subsequently accompanied the dead to the other world).

Early Kingdom statues (IV millennium BC)

Sculpture during this period developed mainly in the three largest cities of Egypt - Ona, Kyptos and Abydos: it was here that there were temples with statues of gods, sphinxes, and mystical animals that the Egyptians worshiped. Most of the sculptures were associated with the ritual of renewing the physical power of the ruler (“heb-sed”) - these are, first of all, figures of sitting or walking pharaohs carved into the wall or presented in a round sculpture.

A striking example This type of statue is a sculpture of Pharaoh Khasekhem sitting on a pedestal, dressed in ritual clothing. Already here you can see the main features of ancient Egyptian culture - correct proportions, in which straight lines and monumental form predominate. Despite the fact that his face has individual facial features, they are overly idealized, and his eyes have the convex eyeball traditional for all sculptures of that era.

At this time, canonicity and conciseness are established in the form of expression - secondary signs are discarded and attention is focused on the majesty in the image.

Statues of the Old Kingdom (XXX – XXIII centuries BC)

All statues of this period continue to be made according to previously established canons. It cannot be said that preference is given to any particular pose (especially for male figures) - both full-length statues with the left leg extended forward, as well as those seated on a throne, sitting with legs crossed in the shape of a lotus, or kneeling, are popular.

At the same time, precious or semi-precious stones began to be inserted into the eyes, and raised eyeliner was applied. Moreover, the statues began to be decorated with jewelry, thanks to which they began to acquire individual features (examples of such works are the sculptural portraits of the architect Rahotep and his wife Nofret).

At this time, wooden sculpture was significantly improved (for example, the figure known as the “Village Headman”), and in the tombs of those times you can often see figurines that depict working people.

Statues of the Middle Kingdom (XXI–XVII centuries BC)

During the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, there were a huge number of different schools - accordingly, the development of sculpture underwent significant changes. They are beginning to be made not only for tombs, but also for temples. At this time, the so-called cubic statue appeared, which is a figure enclosed in a monolithic stone. Wooden statues are still popular, which the craftsmen, after carving from wood, covered with primer and painted.

Sculptors are increasingly paying attention to the individual characteristics of a person - with the help of perfectly crafted elements, in their works they show the character of a person, his age and even his mood (for example, just by looking at the head of Pharaoh Senusret III, it becomes clear that he was once a strong-willed , imperious, ironic ruler).

Statues of the New Kingdom (XVI–XIV centuries BC)

During the New Kingdom period, monumental sculpture received special development. Not only does it increasingly go beyond the boundaries of the funerary cult, but it also begins to show individual features that are not typical not only of official, but even of secular sculpture.

And secular sculpture, especially when it comes to the female figure, acquires softness, plasticity, and becomes more intimate. If earlier female pharaohs, according to the canons, were often depicted in full royal garb and even with a beard, now they get rid of these features and become elegant, graceful, and refined.

Amarna period (beginning of the 14th century BC)

At this time, sculptors began to abandon the highly idealized, sacred image of the pharaoh. For example, using the example of the huge statues of Amenhotep IV, you can see not only traditional techniques, but also an attempt to convey as accurately as possible the appearance of the pharaoh (both his face and figure).

Another innovation was the depiction of figures in profile (previously the canon did not allow this). During this period, the world-famous head of Nefertiti in a blue tiara, created by sculptors from the Thutmes workshop, also appeared.

Late Kingdom Statues (XI – 332 BC)

At this time, masters begin to adhere less and less to the canons, and they gradually fade away and become conditionally idealized. Instead, They began to improve their technical skills, especially in the decorative part (for example, one of the best sculptures of that time is the head of the statue of Mentuemhet, made in a realistic style).

When Sais was in power, the masters again returned to monumentality, staticity and canonical poses, but they interpreted this in their own way and their statues became more stylized.

After in 332 BC. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, this country lost its independence, and cultural heritage ancient Egypt finally and irrevocably merged with ancient culture.

The Art of the Ancient East: a textbook Petrakova Anna Evgenievna

Topic 5 Sculpture, reliefs and paintings of the Old Kingdom (XXVIII–XXIII centuries BC), 3–6 dynasties

Chronological framework of the period, brief description political and economic situation - the first long-term and stable unification of Egypt with the capital in Memphis, centralization, development of the bureaucratic apparatus, the “golden age” of Egyptian art, the final formation of the canon in the fine arts. Architecture is the basis for all types of fine arts. The main types of round sculpture in the era of the Old Kingdom, its location and purpose, materials, the nature of the master’s work, the position of the sculptor in society. Statues of pharaohs and their features (postures, transmission of movement, age, problem of similarity): sculpture of Khafre with Horus, sculptural group of Mikerin with Hathor and the goddess of the 7th nome, sculptural group of Merira-ankhnes with Pepi II on his knees. Statues of nobles (types, poses, occupations, transmission of movement, age, problem of similarity, difference in clothing and coloring of male and female statues): sculpture of the architect Hemiun, sculptures of Rahotep and Nofret, sculptural group of Seneb with his wife and children, two statues of the scribe Kaya, wooden statue of the nobleman Kaaper, copper statues of Pepi I and II. General and special in the statues of pharaohs and nobles. "Reserve heads." Images of animals in sculpture of the Old Kingdom. Small figurines of workers and servants (types, coloring features, problem of transferring movement). The main types of relief (bas-relief, in-depth relief) and painting (paintings and inlays of colored pastes) in the era of the Old Kingdom, colors and paints for paintings, themes, formal features, location in the mortuary complex. Reliefs and paintings from funerary complexes of the 5th–6th dynasties. The problem of the canon in reliefs and paintings (canon in composition, depiction of figures, transmission of action and its sequence).

Literature on the topic:

History of art of foreign countries. Primitive society, Ancient East, Antiquity. Ed. M.V. Dobroklonsky, A.P. Chubovoy. M., 1980. pp. 41–44

V.K. Afanasyeva, V. Lukonin, N. Pomerantseva. Art of the Ancient East. M., 1976. (series: “Small History of Art” under the general editorship of I.S. Katsnelson). pp. 231–252

V. Afanasyeva, I. Dyakonov, V. Lukonin, M. Mathieu. Art of the Ancient East. M., 1968. Series: “Monuments of World Art.” pp. 11–15

M.E. Mathieu. Art of Ancient Egypt. M, 1970. Series: “Essays on the history and theory of fine arts.” pp. 39–66

A.L. Punin. Art of Ancient Egypt. Early Kingdom. Ancient kingdom. St. Petersburg, 2008. Series: “New History of Art.” pp. 351–394

M.E. Mathieu. Art of Ancient Egypt. L, 2001. pp. 113–179

A. Siliotti. Egypt. Pyramids. (Atlas of Wonders of the World). M., 2001.

Illustrations for the topic:

Triad of Mikerin - sculpture of Pharaoh Mikerin with Hathor and the goddess-personification of the 7th Nome (Cairo, Egyptian Museum, inv. JE 46499). Characteristic is the man's left leg pushed forward and the feet of the female characters brought together.

Sculptures of the nobleman Rahotep and his wife Nofret (Cairo, Egyptian Museum) - characterized by the dark color of the male body (tan, active life position - warrior, official) and the light color of the female (life in the house, protecting the skin from the scorching sun, in contrast to the dark color skin in sculptures of maids).

Statue of the noble scribe Kaya (Paris, Louvre, inv. E 3023) - a traditional pose for a scribe, detailed body elements and a very expressive face. In this way, the statue of Kaya, in accordance with his life and profession, differs from his static and inexpressive sculpture from the burial

Wooden statue of the nobleman Kaper (Cairo, Egyptian Museum, inv. CG 34). During the excavations, he was called by the workers “Sheikh el-Balad” (in Russian literature - “village elder”). In the statues of nobles, the transfer of the body is not as idealized as in the statues of the pharaohs. In addition, wood, as a softer material, allows for more detailed work than stone.

Statue of Merira-ankhnes with Pepi II on his knees (New York, Brooklyn Museum of Art, inv. 39119), each of the characters is designed for a frontal point of view, the sculpture does not have one common point of view

A fragment of a relief from an Old Kingdom tomb - clarity of the image against the background, repetition of poses in several figures, a combination of different points of view when depicting different parts of the body of one figure.

Geese from the tomb at Medum, fragment of a painting from the mastaba of the architect Nefermaat and his wife Itet (Cairo, Egyptian Museum, inv. CG 1742). The predominance of the linear-graphic principle in paintings.

Security questions for the topic:

What is the chronological framework of the Old Kingdom period?

What are the features of the political and economic structure of Egypt during the Old Kingdom?

Where were most of the surviving Old Kingdom statues found?

What materials were statues made from during the Old Kingdom?

How were statues painted during the Old Kingdom?

What are the basic poses for Old Kingdom pharaonic statues?

What is the measure of resemblance to life in the sculptures of the pharaohs?

What is the difference in the depictions of men and women in sculptures of nobles from the Old Kingdom era?

How were children depicted in sculptures of the Old Kingdom?

How did the sculptor work with the stone block?

To what extent is the round sculpture “tied” to architecture?

What is the difference between statues of nobles/pharaohs and statues of workers and servants?

What is men's suit during the era of the Old Kingdom?

What is a woman's costume like in the era of the Old Kingdom?

What are "backup heads"?

What materials were used to produce red, yellow, black, white?

What materials were used to produce green and blue colors?

What types of terrain do you know?

What types of terrain were used in Egypt?

What was depicted in the reliefs and paintings on the walls of the funerary complexes of the 5th and 6th dynasties?

What are the ways to convey space in reliefs and paintings of the Old Kingdom era?

What are the features of the depiction of figures in reliefs and paintings of the Old Kingdom era?

Cards: Map of Egypt from the Old Kingdom - be able to show Memphis and Medum

Terms

Bas-relief

Deep relief

Canon

Personalities

Mikerin

Rahotep

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The tombs of the pharaohs, temple premises, and royal palaces were filled with various sculptures that formed an organic part of the buildings.

The main images developed by sculptors were images of reigning pharaohs. Although the needs of the cult required the creation of images of numerous gods, the image of the deity, made according to rigid patterns, often with the heads of animals and birds, did not become central in Egyptian sculpture: in most cases it was a mass-produced and inexpressive product. Of much greater importance was the artistic development of the type of earthly ruler, his nobles, and, over time, ordinary people. From the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. A certain canon has developed in the interpretation of the pharaoh: he was depicted sitting on a throne in a pose of dispassionate calm and grandeur, the master emphasized his enormous physical strength and size (powerful arms and legs, torso). During the Middle Kingdom, masters overcome the idea of ​​cold grandeur and the faces of the pharaohs acquire individual features. For example, a statue of Senusret III with deep-set, slightly slanted eyes, big nose, with thick lips and prominent cheekbones, quite realistically conveys an incredulous character, with a sad and even tragic expression on his face.

The masters felt more free when they portrayed nobles and especially commoners. Here the constraining influence of the canon is overcome, the image is developed more boldly and realistically, and its psychological characteristics are more fully conveyed. The art of individual portraiture, deep realism, and a sense of movement reached their peak in the era of the New Kingdom, especially in short period Akhenaten's reign (Amarna period). The sculptural images of the pharaoh himself, his wife Nefertiti, and members of his family are distinguished by their skillful conveyance of the inner world, deep psychologism, and high artistic skill.

In addition to round sculpture, the Egyptians willingly turned to relief. Many walls of tombs and temples, various buildings are covered with magnificent relief compositions, most often depicting nobles with their families, in front of the altar of the deity, among their fields, etc.

A certain canon was also developed in relief paintings: the main “hero” was depicted larger than others, his figure was depicted in a double plan: the head and legs in profile, the shoulders and chest in front. All figures were usually painted.

Along with reliefs, the walls of the tombs were covered with contour or pictorial paintings, the content of which was more varied than the reliefs. Quite often, these paintings depicted scenes of everyday life: artisans at work in the workshop, fishermen fishing, peasants plowing, street vendors with their goods, court proceedings, etc. The Egyptians achieved great skill in depicting wildlife - landscapes, animals, birds , where the restraining influence of ancient traditions was felt much less. A striking example is the painting of the tombs of the nomarchs discovered in Beni Hasan and dating back to the Middle Kingdom.

All ancient Egyptian art was subject to cult canons. Relief and sculpture were no exception here. The masters left outstanding sculptural monuments to their descendants: statues of gods and people, figures of animals.

The man was sculpted in a static but majestic pose, standing or sitting. In this case, the left leg was pushed forward, and the arms were either folded on the chest or pressed to the body.

Some sculptors were required to create figures of working people. At the same time, there was a strict canon for depicting a specific occupation - the choice of a moment characteristic of this particular type of work.

Among the ancient Egyptians, statues could not exist separately from religious buildings. They were first used to decorate the retinue of the deceased pharaoh and were placed in the tomb located in the pyramid. These were relatively small figures. When kings began to be buried near temples, the roads to these places were lined with many huge statues. They were so big that no one paid attention to the details of the image. The statues were placed near pylons, in courtyards and already had artistic significance.

During the Old Kingdom, the round form was established in Egyptian sculpture, and the main types of composition emerged. For example, the statue of Mikerin depicts a standing man with his left leg extended and his arms pressed to his body. Or the statue of Rahotep and his wife Nofret represents a seated figure with his hands placed on his knees.

The Egyptians thought of the statue as the “body” of spirits and people. According to information from Egyptian texts, the god descended from the temple dedicated to him and was reunited with his sculptural image. And the Egyptians revered not the statue itself, but the embodiment of the invisible god in it.

Some statues were placed in temples in memory of “participation” in a certain ritual. Others were donated to temples in order to ensure the permanent patronage of the deity for the person depicted. Associated with prayers and appeals to the dead for the gift of offspring is the custom of bringing female figurines to the tombs of ancestors, often with a child in their arms or nearby (ill. 49). Small figurines of deities, usually reproducing the appearance of the main cult statue of the temple, were presented by believers with prayers for well-being and health. Images of women and ancestors were an amulet that promoted the birth of children, because it was believed that the spirits of ancestors could inhabit women of the clan and be reborn again.

The statues were also created for ka deceased. Because ka it was necessary to “recognize” exactly its own body and enter it, and the statue itself “replaced” the body, each face of the statue was endowed with a certain unique individuality (with the commonality of indisputable rules of composition). Thus, already in the era of the Old Kingdom, one of the achievements of ancient Egyptian art appeared - a sculptural portrait. This was facilitated by the practice of covering the faces of the dead with a layer of plaster - the creation of death masks.

Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, a narrow, closed room was built in the mastabas next to the prayer house ( serdab), in which a statue of the deceased was placed. At eye level of the statue there was a small window so that the one living in the statue ka the deceased could take part in funeral rites. It is believed that these statues served to preserve the earthly form of the deceased, as well as in case of loss or death of the mummy.

The spirit of the deceased endowed the statues with vitality, after which they “came to life” for eternal life. For this reason, we never see images of people, for example, in a pre-mortem or post-mortem form; on the contrary, there is exceptional vitality. The statues were made life-size, and the deceased was depicted exclusively as a young man.

In statues and reliefs, a person was always depicted as sighted, since the symbolism of the deceased’s “sighting” and his acquisition of vitality was associated with the eye. Moreover, the sculptor made the figures’ eyes especially large. They were always inlaid with colored stones, blue beads, faience, and rock crystal (ill. 50). For the eye for the Egyptians is the seat of the spirit and has a powerful influence on the living and on spirits

Since the life-giving power of the lotus, symbolizing magical revival, was “inhaled” through the nostrils, the human nose was usually depicted with an emphasized cut of the nostrils.

Since the lips of the mummy were endowed with the ability to pronounce the words of the afterlife confession, the lips themselves were never abstracted into a schematized sign.

In the creation of the type of sitting statues (with hands placed on their knees), statues of pharaohs made for the holiday played a large role heb-sed. His goal was the “revival” of an elderly or sick ruler, for there was from the earliest times the idea that the fertility of the earth was due to physical condition king During the ritual, a statue of the ritually “killed” pharaoh was erected, and the ruler himself, “rejuvenated” again, performed a ritual beᴦ in front of the tent. Then the statue was buried and the coronation ceremony was repeated. After which it was believed that the ruler, full of strength, was again sitting on the throne.

Statues of the same person placed in tombs may have been different types, because they displayed various aspects of the funeral cult˸ one type conveyed the individual features of a person, without a wig, in fashionable clothes, the other had a more generalized interpretation of the face, was in an official apron and a fluffy wig.

The desire to ensure the “eternal” performance of the funeral cult led to the fact that statues of priests began to appear in tombs. The presence of figurines of children is also natural, since their indispensable duty was to take care of the funeral cult of their parents.

First hurt(they were discussed in question No. 2) date back to the 21st century. BC If it was not possible to achieve a portrait resemblance between the ushabti and the deceased, the name and title of the owner whom it replaced was written on each figurine. Tools and bags were placed in the hands of the ushabti, and they were painted on their backs. Statues of scribes, overseers, and boatmen appear (ill. 51-a). For ushabti, baskets, hoes, hammers, jugs, etc. were made from faience or bronze. The number of ushabtis in one tomb could reach several hundred. There were those who bought 360 pieces - one person for each day of the year. The poor bought one or two ushabti, but along with them they put a list of three hundred and sixty such “helpers” in the coffin.

During some rituals, sculptures of bound prisoners were used. Οʜᴎ probably replaced living prisoners during the corresponding rituals (say, killing defeated enemies).

The Egyptians believed that the constant presence of sculptural images of participants religious ritual in the temple, as it were, ensures the eternal performance of this ritual. For example, part of the sculptural group has been preserved, where the gods Horus and Thoth put a crown on the head of Ramses III - this is how the coronation rite was reproduced, in which the roles of the gods were played by priests in appropriate masks. Its installation in the temple was supposed to contribute to the long reign of the king.

Found in tombs wooden the statues are associated with the funeral ritual (the repeated raising and lowering of the statue of the deceased as a symbol of the victory of Osiris over Set).

Statues of pharaohs were placed in sanctuaries and temples in order to place the pharaoh under the protection of the deity and at the same time glorify the ruler.

The giant colossal statues of the pharaohs embodied the most sacred aspect of the essence of the kings - their ka.

In the era of the Old Kingdom, canonical figures of the pharaoh appear standing with his left leg extended forward, in a short girdle and crown, sitting with a royal scarf on his head (ill. 53, 53-a), kneeling, with two vessels in his hands (ill. 54) , in the form of a sphinx, with the gods, with the queen (ill. 55).

In the eyes of ancient Eastern people, the physical and mental health of the king was understood as a condition for the successful fulfillment of his function as a mediator between the world of people and the world of gods. Since the pharaoh for the Egyptians acted as the guarantee and embodiment of the “collective” well-being and prosperity of the country, he not only could not have flaws (which could also cause disasters), but also surpass mere mortals in physical strength. With the exception of the brief Amarna period, pharaohs have always been depicted as endowed with enormous physical strength.

The main requirement for the sculptor is to create the image of the pharaoh as the son of god. This determined the choice of artistic means. Despite the constant portraiture, there was a clear idealization of the appearance, developed muscles and a gaze directed into the distance were invariably present. The divinity of the pharaoh was complemented by details, for example, Khafre is guarded by a falcon, the sacred bird of the god Horus

The Amarna period was marked by a completely new approach to conveying the image of a person in sculpture and relief. The pharaoh’s desire to be different from the images of his predecessors - gods or kings - resulted in the fact that in the sculpture he appeared, it is believed, without any embellishment on a skinny, folded neck - an elongated face, with drooping half-open lips, a long nose, half-closed eyes, puffy belly, thin ankles with full hips

Statues of private individuals.

The Egyptians have always imitated official sculpture - images of pharaohs and gods, strong, strict, calm and majestic. The sculptures never express anger, surprise, or smile. The spread of statues of private individuals was facilitated by the fact that nobles began to build their own tombs.

The statues were of different sizes - from several meters to very small figures of several centimeters.

Sculptors, sculpting private individuals, were also obliged to adhere to the canon, primarily frontality and symmetry in the construction of the figure (ill. 60, 61). All statues have the same straight head, and almost the same attributes in their hands.

During the era of the Old Kingdom, sculptural statues of married couples with children appeared (ill. 62, 63), scribes sitting cross-legged, with an unrolled papyrus scroll on their knees - at first only royal sons were depicted this way

Temple of Horus in Edfu

Material and processing.

Already in the Old Kingdom there were sculptures made of red and black granite, diorite, quartzite (ill. 68), alabaster, slate, limestone, and sandstone. The Egyptians loved hard rocks.

Images of gods, pharaohs, and nobles were made mainly of stone (granite, limestone, quartzite). It is worth saying that for small figurines of people and animals, bone and faience were most often used. Servant statues were made of wood. Ushabti were made of wood, stone, glazed faience, bronze, clay, and wax. Only two ancient Egyptian copper sculptures are known.

Inlaid eyes with contoured relief rims of the eyelids are characteristic of statues made of limestone, metal or wood.

The limestone and wood sculptures were originally painted.

Sculptors of late Egypt began to prefer granite and basalt to limestone and sandstone. But bronze became the favorite material. Images of gods and figurines of animals dedicated to them were made from it. Some were composed of separately manufactured parts; the cheap ones were cast in clay or plaster molds. Most of these figurines were made using the “lost wax” technique, widespread in Egypt; the sculptor made a blank of the future image from clay, covered it with a layer of wax, worked out the intended shape, coated it with clay and put it in the oven. The wax flowed out through a specially left hole, and liquid metal was poured into the resulting void. When the bronze cooled, the clay mold was broken and the product was removed, and its surface was carefully processed and then polished. For each product, its own form was created and the product turned out to be unique.

Bronze items were usually decorated with engraving and inlays. For the latter, thin gold and silver wires were used. Gold stripes were used to outline the eyes of the ibis, and necklaces of gold threads were placed on the necks of bronze cats.

The famous ancient Egyptian colossal statues are of interest from the point of view of the complexity of processing hard materials.

On the west bank of the Nile, opposite Luxor, there are two statues dating from the New Kingdom, called the Colossi of Memnon. According to one version of Egyptologists, the Greek name Memnom comes from one of the names of Amenhotep III. According to another version, after the earthquake on 27 ᴦ. BC one of the statues was significantly damaged, and, probably due to differences in night and day temperatures, the cracked stone began to make continuous sounds. This began to attract pilgrims who believed that in this way the Ethiopian king Memnon, a character in Homer’s Iliad, greeted the goddess of the dawn Eos, his mother.

At the same time, there are no intelligible explanations of how colossi made of quartzite, 20-21 meters high, each weighing 750 tons, were placed on a pedestal also made of quartzite weighing 500 tons manually, can't be found. Moreover, it was still necessary to deliver stone monoliths (or parts thereof?) 960 kilometers away up along the Nile.

Sculpture from the Early Dynastic period comes mainly from three major centers, where the temples of Ona, Abydos and Koptos were located. The statues served as objects of worship, rituals and had a dedicatory purpose. Large group monuments was associated with the “heb-sed” ritual - a ritual of renewing the physical power of the pharaoh. This type includes the types of sitting and walking figures of the king, executed in round sculpture and relief, as well as the image of his ritual running. The list of Kheb-sed monuments includes a statue of Pharaoh Khasekhem, represented seated on a throne in ritual attire. This sculpture indicates an improvement in technical techniques: the figure has correct proportions and is volumetrically modeled. The main features of the style have already been identified here - monumental form, frontal composition. The pose of the statue is motionless, fitting into the rectangular block of the throne; straight lines predominate in the outlines of the figure. Khasekhem's face is portrait-like, although his features are largely idealized. The placement of the eyes in the orbit with a convex eyeball is noteworthy. A similar technique of execution extended to the entire group of monuments of that time, being a characteristic stylistic feature of portraits of the Early Kingdom. By this same period, the canonicity of the pre-dynastic period standing at full height was established, giving way in the plastic arts of the Early Kingdom to the correct rendering of the proportions of the human body.

Old Kingdom Sculpture

Significant changes in sculpture occur precisely in the Middle Kingdom, which is largely explained by the presence and creative competition of many local schools that gained independence during the period of collapse. Since the XII Dynasty, they have been increasingly used (and, accordingly, made in large quantities) ritual statues: they are now installed not only in tombs, but also in temples. Among them, images associated with the rite of heb-sed (ritual revival of the pharaoh's life force) still dominate. The first stage of the ritual was associated with the symbolic murder of the elderly ruler and was performed over his statue, which in composition resembled canonical images and sculptures of sarcophagi. This type includes the gray-haired statue of Mentuhotep-Nebkhepetra, depicting the pharaoh in a pointedly frozen pose with his arms crossed on his chest. The style is distinguished by a large degree of conventionality and generality, generally typical for sculptural monuments of the early era. Subsequently, the sculpture comes to a more subtle modeling of faces and greater plastic dismemberment: first of all, this is manifested in female portraits and images of private individuals.

Over time, the iconography of the kings also changes. By the time of the 12th Dynasty, the idea of ​​the divine power of the pharaoh gives way in images to persistent attempts to convey human individuality. The heyday of sculpture with official themes occurred during the reign of Senusret III, who was depicted at all ages - from childhood to adulthood. The best of these images are considered to be the obsidian head of Senusret III and sculpted portraits of his son Amenemhat III. An original find by craftsmen local schools can be considered a type of cubic statue - an image of a figure enclosed in a monolithic stone block.

The art of the Middle Kingdom is the era of the heyday of the plastic arts of small forms, mostly still associated with the funeral cult and its rituals (sailing on a boat, bringing sacrificial gifts, etc.). The figurines were carved from wood, covered with primer and painted. Entire multi-figure compositions were often created in round sculpture (similar to how it was customary in the reliefs of the Old Kingdom

New Kingdom sculpture

In the art of the New Kingdom, a sculptural group portrait appears, especially images of a married couple.

The art of relief acquires new qualities. This artistic field is noticeably influenced by certain genres of literature that became widespread during the New Kingdom: hymns, war chronicles, love lyrics. Often texts in these genres are combined with relief compositions in temples and tombs. In the reliefs of Theban temples there is an increase in decorativeness, free variation of bas-relief and high-relief techniques in combination with colorful paintings. This is the portrait of Amenhotep III from the tomb of Khaemkhet, which combines different heights of relief and in this regard is an innovative work. Reliefs are still arranged according to registers, allowing the creation of narrative cycles of enormous spatial extent

Wooden sculpture of one of the Egyptian gods with the head of a ram

Late Kingdom sculpture

During the time of Kush, in the field of sculpture, the skills of ancient high craftsmanship partly fade away - for example, portrait images on funeral masks and statues are often replaced by conditionally idealized ones. At the same time, the technical skill of sculptors is improving, manifesting itself mainly in the decorative field. One of the best portrait works is the head of the statue of Mentuemhet, made in a realistic and authentic manner.

During the period of Sais's reign, staticity, conventional outlines of faces, canonical poses, and even the semblance of an “archaic smile”, characteristic of the art of the Early and Old Kingdoms, again became relevant in sculpture. However, the masters of Sais interpret these techniques only as a theme for stylization. At the same time, Sais art produces many wonderful portraits. In some of them, deliberately archaic forms imitating ancient rules are combined with rather bold deviations from the canon. Thus, in the statue of the close associate of Pharaoh Psametikh I, the canon of a symmetrical image of a seated figure is observed, but, in violation of it, the left leg of the seated person is placed vertically. In the same way, canonically static body shapes and the modern style of depicting faces are freely combined.

In the few monuments from the era of Persian rule, purely Egyptian stylistic features also predominate. Even the Persian king Darius is depicted on the relief in the garb of an Egyptian warrior with sacrificial gifts, and his name is written in hieroglyphs.

The majority of sculptures of the Ptolemaic period are also made in the traditions of the Egyptian canon. However, Hellenistic culture influenced the nature of the interpretation of the face, introducing greater plasticity, softness and lyricism.

Ancient Egypt. Male head from the Salt collection. First half of 3 thousand BC.

Figurine of the porter Meir. Tomb of Niankhpepi. VI dynasty, reign of Peggy II (2235-2141 BC). Cairo Museum

PEASANT WITH A HOE. For earthworks a hoe was used, which was originally wooden, then metal ones appeared, consisting of two parts: a handle and a lever.

Three bearers of sacrificial gifts. Wood, painting; height 59 cm; length 56 cm; Meir, tomb of Niankhpepi the Black; excavations by the Egyptian Antiquities Service (1894); VI dynasty, reign of Pepi I (2289-2255 BC).

Despite the fact that the canons determined the definite and constrained poses of the portraits, the impassiveness of facial expressions, the masters were able to bring true authenticity of life into these motionless statues. Family portraits are often found in tombs. The simplicity of generalized forms and the noble perfection of execution are inherent in the paired statues of Rahotep and his wife Nofret (first half of the 3rd millennium BC, Cairo, Egyptian Museum). They sit on hard cubic thrones, separated from each other not only by distance, but also by the direction of their gaze, directed straight ahead. According to tradition, the male statue is painted red-brown, the female - yellow, hair - black, clothes - white. The motionless, laconic images are humane, full of charm, purity and enlightened clarity. Portraits of pharaohs standing inside tombs and temples are striking in their vitality and at the same time they convey a sense of the mass of the stone block from which the statues are carved. Their poses are canonical. Left leg placed forward, as if they were slowly taking their first step into eternity. Seated statues are built according to the principles of symmetry and balance, often they are full of internal tension, like the imperious pharaoh Khafre (first half of the 3rd millennium BC, Cairo, Egyptian Museum), frozen in proud grandeur, guarded by a falcon - Horus, stretched over him their hard wings.

An important role was played by reliefs and paintings made on the walls of tombs and temples and also associated with the funeral cult. Their purpose was determined by the desire to glorify the power of the buried ruler and ensure his prosperity in the afterlife. Reliefs and paintings were placed in such a way as to establish the plane of the wall and emphasize the laconicism and severity of the architectural image as a whole. This explains the lack of multifaceted in-depth construction, the unfolding of the narrative with friezes on the wall, and the specific depiction of figures. Pharaoh and the gods were depicted above other people. Conventionality in colors and in the construction of reliefs was associated with a long artistic selection of images, established canons; Egyptian masters chose the most acute and characteristic points of view on the subject, combining them into one. The reliefs themselves are usually flat; they hardly protrude above the surface of the wall. The ancient Egyptians used two relief techniques - bas-relief and incised relief with a deep contour, bringing them closer to paintings. The silhouette of the figures is always clear and graphic, the person is depicted in such a way that the width of the shoulders, shown in front, and the muscular slenderness of the legs, turned in profile, are visible. Thus, in a wooden relief depicting the architect Khesir (beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, Cairo, Egyptian Museum), the entire appearance is powerful shoulders deployed according to the traditional pattern to their full width, narrow hips shown in profile, a thick mane hair, a bold and proud face - enhances the feeling of the extraordinary inner strength of this person, the beauty and rhythm of his elastic movement. Subtle modeling of barely perceptible volumes gives the relief a special completeness and softens the rigidity of the silhouette.

The principle of frieze development of the plot is typical for the reliefs of the Old Kingdom. He helps the artist recreate scene by scene, various everyday episodes unfolding over time. The repetition of identical figures walking in a line in the relief from the mastaba of Ahuthotep, located one under the other, like line after line, makes one feel the slow smoothness and significance of the solemn procession, as if directed into eternity, the rhythmic beauty of the ritual dance.