Which territories voluntarily joined Russia. What territories were annexed to Rus' during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible

FORMATION OF THE TERRITORY OF THE RUSSIAN STATE. FORMATION OF THE EMPIRE (XV – XIX centuries)

History and LED

In the process of formation of the territory of Russia, three stages can be distinguished. The statement of Ivan III that the entire territory of Kievan Rus was his fatherland led to the centuries-long struggle between Russia and Poland for the Western Russian lands of Kievan Rus. Thus, the entire Volga was included in Russia. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov returned this territory to Russia through diplomatic means.

17. FORMATION OF THE TERRITORY OF THE RUSSIAN STATE.

FORMATION OF THE EMPIRE (XV - XIX centuries)

Historically, Russia has developed as a huge multinational state. By the beginning of the 20th century. 165 peoples lived on its territory. The population numbered 174 million 100 thousand people. Orthodox made up 69.9% of people, Muslims 10.8%, Catholics 8.9%, Protestants 4.8%, Jews 4%. The pagans were not counted, but they were there.

The territory of the Russian state was formed through the annexation of new lands both peacefully and by force. From the 14th to the 19th centuries, or more precisely, out of 525 years, 305 years, Russia spent in wars. Either she was attacked or she was attacked. In the process of formation of the territory of Russia, three stages can be distinguished.

In foreign policy during the period under study, researchers usually identify three main directions. The first is the struggle to overthrow the yoke of the Golden Horde and the khanates that emerged from it. Secondly, the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and then with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth for Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian lands. Third fight against Livonian Order for going to Baltic Sea.

Ivan III, who had brilliant diplomatic talent, right moment concentrated all his forces on any one direction. At the end of the 15th century. The princes Vyazemsky, Belsky, Vorotynsky and others, dissatisfied with the Lithuanian rule, recognized the power of Moscow over themselves, which conquered Chernigov, Bryansk, and a total of 19 cities and 70 volosts from Lithuania. The statement of Ivan III that the entire territory of Kievan Rus was his “fatherland” led to the centuries-long struggle between Russia and Poland for the Western Russian lands of Kievan Rus.

At the beginning of the 16th century. The population of the Moscow kingdom was 9 million people. The formation of the Russian people was underway. The Chud, Meshchera, Vyatichi and other tribes were assimilated.

SECOND STAGE (mid-XVI - late XVII centuries). During the time of Ivan IV, there was an urgent need to protect the country's borders in the East. The Kazan and Crimean khanates made frequent raids on Russian lands. When they declared themselves vassals of Turkey, they gave Moscow a reason to seize them. In 1552 Kazan was taken. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate recognized its dependence on Moscow without resistance. The Mordovians, Chuvashs, and Bashkirs voluntarily joined the Russian state. Thus, the entire Volga was included in Russia. A stream of Russian colonization rushed to these lands. In the 80s XVI century the cities of Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa, Penza, Tambov and others were founded here. Many Tatar khans and nobles were baptized and became part of the elite of the Moscow state.

The annexation of the Tatar khanates opened the way to Siberia. A detachment of Cossacks led by Ermak conquered the Siberian Khanate. In 1589 the cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk were founded here. The advance of the Russian people towards the Yenisei, Lena, and the Sea of Okhotsk began.

In the West Moscow State sought access to the Baltic Sea. During the 16th century. Russia fought about ten wars on its western borders, lasting a total of 50 years. Ivan the Terrible lost the Livonian War and lost the only access to the sea that Novgorod owned. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov returned this territory to Russia through diplomatic means.

On the southern and southeastern borders in the XVI-XVII centuries. there was a grueling struggle with Crimean Khanate. In 1571, Khan Davlet Giray burned and plundered Moscow. To protect the state from the South, the Moscow government from the middle of the 16th century. began a systematic advance south from the river. Oki to the Wild Field area. The entire territory from Moscow to Crimea was free. Detachments of Tatars rushed along it, attacking Russian settlements. The Tula defensive line was built. These are cities and villages, with forts between them, i.e. a continuous chain of fortifications. Between Moscow and Tula the land is populated by peasants. Then a new defensive line Belgorodskaya is built. These are the cities of Orel, Kursk, Voronezh, Yelets, Belgorod. And finally, the third line, represented by the cities of Simbirsk, Tambov, Penza, Syzran. As a result, Moscow was protected and new territories were developed.

In 1654, according to the Pereyaslav Rada, Ukraine united with Russia. As a result of this voluntary act and subsequent wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of a single country.

In 1656, in response to the proposal of the ambassadors of Moldova, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent the Moldavian ruler George Stefan a letter of consent to accept the conditions for the transition of Moldova to Russian citizenship. In 1657 representatives for Caucasian peoples Tushins, Khevsurs and Pshavs sent Alexei Mikhailovich a letter with a request to accept them as Russian citizenship.

Thus, at the second stage, Russia expanded its territory according to the eastern type, including the adjacent lands. Russia was closed to Europe by the Iron Curtain and loyal to the East.

THIRD STAGE (XVIII-XIX centuries). During this period, Russia became an empire (1721) and its foreign policy was determined by the tasks of modernization. External expansion solved the following problems: access to global communications; finding sources of raw materials and markets; implementation of other geopolitical interests. Western features can be traced in territorial acquisitions. Russia is included in European politics and European wars.

For more than 100 years, Russia fought for the Baltic states in order to gain a foothold in sea shores. Sweden also claimed these lands. After the victorious ending Northern War Peter I annexed the Baltic states and Karelia to Russia.

In 1724, the Armenian patriarchs Isaiah and Nerses sent a message to Peter the Great asking him to accept the Armenian people under the protection of Russia. By the good will of the peoples living here, the Nogai (from Orenburg to Yuryev) and Kyrgyz lands were annexed to Russia.

The resounding victories of Russian troops under Catherine the Great brought great glory to Russia. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded with the Turks, according to which Crimea was declared free, and in 1783 it became Russian. As a result of three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia included the lands of central and western Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine without Lvov, most of Lithuania and Courland. During the war with Sweden (1808–1809), Finland was annexed. In 18141815 The Congress of Vienna transferred the Duchy of Warsaw (Kingdom of Poland) to Russia.

The struggle for the Caucasus was started by Peter I. He conquered Derbent and Baku. After the death of Peter the Great, the advance into the Caucasus slowed down. In 1799, Georgia, which was being ravaged by Persia, voluntarily became part of Russia. In the 19th century Russian troops moved to Transcaucasia, and by 1810 most of it was included in Russia. This caused resistance from the Caucasian peoples. The war with them lasted 50 years (1917-1864).

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. The lands of Kazakhstan, inhabited by nomadic tribes, were annexed to Russia. Here the Russians began to build cities Orenburg, Troitsk, etc. With the end of the Caucasian War, advancement into Central Asia began. The Bukhara Emirate, Kokand and Khiva khanates were conquered. Russian troops stopped at the borders of Afghanistan.

As already mentioned, Russia’s external expansion was caused by the needs of the Western way of life, but the type of conquest remained Eastern. Russia did not become a metropolis, but the annexed territories became colonies. The conquered lands were included in single state. Hence the indifference to overseas territories. In 1867, Russian America was sold to the United States for a symbolic price of $7.2 million. Since the costs of its maintenance were much higher, by selling Alaska they received savings. The same thing happened when the question of voluntary accession to Russia arose Hawaiian Islands. Alexander II refused him.

The problem of forming the territory of Russia was solved throughout the 20th century. In general, throughout the entire development of the country, one can trace, firstly, the tendency to become part of the state various peoples and leaving it with their lands. Secondly, many peoples who inhabited the Russian empire joined it voluntarily, which protected them from physical destruction by their warlike neighbors. Thirdly, Russia’s borders have practically never been in an unchanged state. The “movement” of territories depended on both external and internal factors. The most important internal issue was the question of centralization and decentralization of power. The territory of the country ultimately depended on this.

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FIRST STAGE (XV - first half of the XVI centuries). During this period, a territory was formed that became the “cradle” of the Russian people. The Moscow kingdom began to take shape under Ivan III - from the middle of the 15th century. Its initial territory - the Moscow Principality - was small. Ivan III increased the territory of the principality five times. Thus, in 1463, Ivan III annexed the Yaroslavl principality to Moscow. In 1472, the vast Perm region was annexed. In 1478, Veliky Novgorod was conquered, which the Muscovites withstood by siege. Later Tver (1485) and Vyatka (1489) were taken.
At the end of the 15th century. The princes Vyazemsky, Belsky, Vorotynsky and others, dissatisfied with the Lithuanian rule, recognized the power of Moscow over themselves, which conquered Chernigov, Bryansk, and a total of 19 cities and 70 volosts from Lithuania. The statement of Ivan III that the entire territory of Kievan Rus was his “fatherland” led to the centuries-long struggle between Russia and Poland for the Western Russian lands of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the 16th century. The population of the Moscow kingdom was 9 million people. The formation of the Russian people was underway. The Chud, Meshchera, Vyatichi and other tribes were assimilated. SECOND STAGE (mid-16th – end of 17th centuries). During the time of Ivan IV, there was an urgent need to protect the country's borders in the East. In 1552 Kazan was taken. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate recognized its dependence on Moscow without resistance. The Mordovians, Chuvashs, and Bashkirs voluntarily joined the Russian state. Thus, the entire Volga was included in Russia. A stream of Russian colonization rushed to these lands. In the 80s XVI century the cities of Samara, Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Ufa, Penza, Tambov and others were founded here. Many Tatar khans and nobles were baptized and became part of the elite of the Moscow state. The annexation of the Tatar khanates opened the way to Siberia. A detachment of Cossacks led by Ermak conquered the Siberian Khanate. In 1589 the cities of Tyumen and Tobolsk were founded here. The advance of the Russian people towards the Yenisei, Lena, and the Sea of Okhotsk began. In the West, the Moscow state sought access to the Baltic Sea. During the 16th century. Russia fought about ten wars on its western borders, lasting a total of 50 years. Ivan the Terrible lost the Livonian War and lost the only access to the sea that Novgorod owned. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, Boris Godunov returned this territory to Russia through diplomatic means. To protect the state from the South, the Moscow government from the middle of the 16th century. began a systematic advance south from the river. Oki to the Wild Field area. The entire territory from Moscow to Crimea was free. Detachments of Tatars rushed along it, attacking Russian settlements. The Tula defensive line was built. These are cities and villages, with forts between them, i.e. a continuous chain of fortifications. Between Moscow and Tula the land is populated by peasants. Then a new defensive line is built - Belgorodskaya. These are the cities of Orel, Kursk, Voronezh, Yelets, Belgorod. And finally, the third line, represented by the cities of Simbirsk, Tambov, Penza, Syzran. As a result, Moscow was protected and new territories were developed. In 1654, according to the Pereyaslav Rada, Ukraine united with Russia. As a result of this voluntary act and subsequent wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Left Bank Ukraine and Kiev became part of a single country. In 1656, in response to the proposal of the ambassadors of Moldova, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich sent the Moldavian ruler George Stefan a letter of consent to accept the conditions for the transition of Moldova to Russian citizenship. In 1657, representatives of the Transcaucasian peoples - Tushins, Khevsurs and Pshavs - sent a letter to Alexei Mikhailovich with a request to accept them into Russian citizenship. THIRD STAGE (XVIII–XIX centuries). During this period, Russia became an empire (1721). For more than 100 years, Russia fought for the Baltic states in order to gain a foothold on the sea shores. After the victorious end of the Northern War, Peter I annexed the Baltic states and Karelia to Russia. In 1724, the Armenian patriarchs Isaiah and Nerses sent a message to Peter the Great asking him to accept the Armenian people under the protection of Russia. By the good will of the peoples living here, the Nogai (from Orenburg to Yuryev) and Kyrgyz lands were annexed to Russia. The resounding victories of Russian troops under Catherine the Great brought great glory to Russia. In 1774, the Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace Treaty was concluded with the Turks, according to which Crimea was declared free, and in 1783 it became Russian. As a result of three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia included the lands of central and western Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine without Lvov, most of Lithuania and Courland.

Description:

Formation of the territory of Russia

How did the development of new lands begin?

The territory of Russia historically began to take shape due to the expansion of the Moscow principality: first by annexing other Russian principalities, and then annexing lands inhabited by other peoples or very sparsely populated. The annexation of new lands to the Moscow Principality, and subsequently to the Russian state, entailed their settlement by Russians, the construction of new cities - fortified centers, and the organization of the collection of tribute from the local population.

For almost six centuries - from the 14th to the 20th - the history of Russia consisted of a constant expansion of its territory. According to the famous Russian historian Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky, the history of Russia is the history of a country that is being colonized.

Only the directions and forms of colonization changed. Since the 12th century. first, Novgorodians, and then Muscovites, actively developed the north European Russia, mixing with the local Finno-Ugric tribes, who, gradually adopting the Russian language and the more developed culture of the settlers, became Slavic and dissolved among them. On the other hand, the Russians also learned from the indigenous peoples the skills of environmental management, the ability to survive in the harsh conditions of the North.

On the coast White Sea Gradually, a specific group of Russian people - the Pomors - was formed, engaged in fishing, hunting sea beast and made long sea crossings. Pomors were the first explorers of the North Seas Arctic Ocean(which they called the Cold Sea), they discovered Spitsbergen (Grumant) and many other islands.

How did the annexation of the eastern territories take place?

In the 16th century, after the annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, Russia ceased to be an almost purely Russian and Orthodox state: it included numerous peoples professing Islam. The annexation of both khanates allowed Russia to rapidly expand eastward.

In 1581, the famous campaign of Ermak began, and already in 1639, the Russian detachment of Ivan Moskvitin reached the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. A huge territory was covered by Russian explorers and assigned to Russia in just 58 years!

The Siberian peoples paid tribute (yasak) to the Russian government in furs, which constituted one of the main Russian exports and sources of income for the treasury. Therefore, first of all, explorers sought to gain a foothold in the forest zone. Mastering suitable for agriculture forest-steppe and steppe regions of Siberia began much later - in the 18th-19th centuries, and was especially active after the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.

In the south of the Far East, on the banks of the Amur, in the middle of the 17th century. The Russians encountered the Chinese Empire, which was then ruled by the Manchu dynasty, and as a result of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, the border of Russian possessions was pushed to the north (approximately along the Stanovoy Range to the Sea of Okhotsk).

The expansion of Russian territory continued in northeastern Eurasia. In 1741, the expedition of Vitus Bering and Alexander Chirikov discovered Alaska, and in 1784 the first Russian settlement was created there.

How did the annexation of the southern territories take place?

Simultaneously with the rapid advance to the east, the Moscow state slowly but steadily expanded its borders to the south - into the zone of forest-steppes and steppes, where Russian cities and villages existed before the Tatar-Mongol invasion. Subsequently, the vast majority of them were destroyed, and this territory became known as the Wild Field, which was used almost exclusively for pastures of nomads. Wild field at the end of the 15th century. began almost immediately beyond the Oka, and the Moscow princes began to strengthen the Oka border - they built fortresses in Serpukhov, Kolomna, then in Zaraysk, Tula, etc. Fortified chains of fortresses and ambushes (blockages in the forest, impassable for cavalry), and in open areas earthen ramparts and wooden walls were gradually built further south. Finally southern part European Russia was protected from raids at the end of the 18th century, when, after several Russian-Turkish wars, Russia reached the Black Sea coast from the Dniester to the Caucasus Mountains.

The newly annexed fertile lands of Novorossiya (the modern south of Ukraine and the North Caucasus) were flooded with peasants who suffered from land shortages - immigrants from the central provinces. This flow especially intensified after the abolition of serfdom (1861).

According to rough estimates, for the 19th - early 20th centuries. (until 1917) about 8 million people moved to Novorossiya, and to Siberia and to Far East- about 5 million people. The population of Siberia, amounting to early XIX V. about 1 million people, by 1916 it increased to 11 million people.

How did Russia gain a foothold in the Far East?

In the south of the Far East, Russia in 1858-1860. annexed the sparsely populated lands of the Amur and Primorye regions, and the border acquired its modern shape.

In 1898, Russia received a lease on the Kwantung Peninsula in the south of Manchuria (where they began to at a fast pace construction of the Port Arthur naval base and the Dalniy commercial port) and the right to build on the territory of Manchuria railways. A powerful military squadron was created in Port Arthur, which became (instead of Vladivostok) the main base of the Pacific Fleet.

But defeat in Russian-Japanese war limited the Russian presence in Manchuria only to the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER), which connected along the shortest route Chita and Vladivostok.

How did the period of expansion of the state's territory end?

In the second half of the 19th century. Russia continued to expand southward. The end of the Caucasian wars with the mountaineers (in 1864) made it possible to secure the Caucasus and Black Sea coast. IN Central Asia Russia's borders were expanded to Persia and Afghanistan.

The shocks of the First World War and the Russian revolutions led initially to the collapse of Russian Empire, and then to its revival in the form of the USSR.

The collapse of the USSR in 1991 led to the fact that the borders of the former union republics, which at one time (1920-1930s) were established as purely administrative, suddenly became state borders, dividing many peoples who had been accustomed for a long time to living in one state.

In the first decades Soviet power The process of settlement by Russians of the national outskirts of the USSR continued. But in the 1970s. There has been a return migration of Russians from the Union republics of the USSR. The collapse of the USSR sharply intensified these processes - the reduction of the territory inhabited by the Russian people began.

Enemies often call Russia a “prison of nations,” but in fact, many lands became part of Russia voluntarily.

Bashkortostan

Territory: From the left bank of the Volga in the southwest to the upper reaches of the Tobol in the east, from the Sylva River in the north to the middle reaches of the Yaik in the south.
When: 1557
Reasons: The Bashkir tribes did not have their own state; they were part of the Nogai, Kazan, Siberian and Astrakhan khanates, which at that time were experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation, which negatively affected the position of the Bashkirs. Despite the weakening of the khanates by Russia in the first half of the 16th century, the unfriendly neighbors had no intention of giving up their power over the Bashkirs, and the latter decided to seek the protection of a powerful ally - the Russian state.
Agreement:"Certificates of Complaint."
Terms of the agreement: When joining the Russian state, the Bashkirs could freely dispose of their territory, have their own army, administration, religion, but they were obliged to pay tribute and provide soldiers for Russian army. Russia, in turn, provided the Bashkirs with complete protection from external enemies.

Georgia

Territory: Kartli-Kakheti kingdom (eastern Georgia).
When: 1801
Reasons: Based on the results Russian-Turkish war 1768-1774 the ruler of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom asked to take his country under the protection Orthodox Russia and save us from the claims of Muslims: “now honor us with such protection so that everyone ... can see that I am an exact subject of the Russian state, and my kingdom is annexed to the Russian Empire.”
Agreement: Georgievsky Treaty.
Terms of the agreement: Tsar Irakli II recognized the patronage of Russia, partially refused foreign policy, while maintaining complete internal independence. The Russian Empire acted as the guarantor of the independence and integrity of the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom.
Exit: In May 1918, Georgia declared independence. Georgian Democratic Republic entered the USSR.

Armenia

Territory: Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates.
When: 1828
Reasons: Religious. Russia sought to become the protector of Orthodox peoples. As a result of the annexation, Christians moved to Eastern Armenia, and Muslims returned to the territory of the Ottoman and Persian empires.
Agreement: Turkmanchay Treaty.
Terms of the agreement: The territories were completely ceded to Russia with the right of free migration of Christians and Muslims.
Exit: In 1918, the Republic of Armenia was formed and became part of the USSR.

Abkhazia

Territory: Abkhazian principality.
When: 1810
Reasons: Numerous attacks from Muslim neighbors: Ottoman Empire and Western Georgia, as a result of which not only the people, but also Christian culture suffered. Prince Keleshbey asked for Russian citizenship in 1803, but was soon killed as a result of a pro-Turkish conspiracy. His son Safarbey suppressed Turkey's supporters and repeated his father's proposal.
Agreement: Manifesto of Alexander I on the annexation of the Abkhazian principality to the Russian Empire.
Terms of the agreement: Abkhazia retained autonomous governance.
Exit: In 1918 it became part of the Mountain Republic, which became part of the USSR.

Republic of Tyva

Territory: Part of the Northern Yuan Empire, as well as the Khotogoit and Dzungar Khanates.
When: 1944
Reasons: As a result of the declaration of independent Outer Mongolia.
Agreement: Memorandum by the Minister of Foreign Affairs S.D. Sazonov with the signature of Nicholas II.
Terms of the agreement: Tuva came under Russian protectorate called Uriankhai Territory.
Exit: In 1921, the Tuvinskaya people's republic, which entered the USSR.

Ossetia

Territory: on both sides of the Main Caucasus Range.
When: The annexation project was developed in 1775.
Reasons: The need for resettlement due to land shortage.
Agreement: It is not known exactly whether the formally approved project of the Astrakhan Governor-General P.N. Krechetnikov.
Terms of the agreement: Until the formation of the Ossetian district in 1843, it maintained internal independence.
Exit: in 1922 South Ossetia entered the Georgian SSR.

Ukraine

Territory: Left Bank.
When: 1654
Reasons: Social and religious oppression of the Polish gentry and the Catholic clergy of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Agreement: Treaty of Pereyaslavl.
Terms of the agreement: Ukraine was included in the Russian state, the local Ukrainian administration was recognized as an organ of the Russian state. The hetman was subordinate to the tsar.
Exit: In 1917 as a result of the Ukrainian revolution.

Russia is the world's largest state. It is almost twice as large as China or Canada. It is interesting to trace how Russia became so huge.

Colonization or development?

IN lately serious controversy has flared up around the expansion of Russia's borders throughout its history centuries-old history. Was this expansion colonial or land development in nature? If the first is true, then the very location of Russia, stretching across almost the entire Eurasian continent, created difficulties in determining where the metropolis ended and the colony began.

Conventionally, Russian possessions in Alaska and California could be called colonies, but there was no typical feature of colonial policy - the enslavement of indigenous peoples.

Director of the Institute Russian history RAS Yuri Petrov notes that “the expansion of the territory of the Russian state and the annexation of other peoples” cannot be considered colonization, since this process was accompanied by “a merging of elites, unusual for classical colonial regimes.”

Western historiography takes the opposite position on this issue. In particular, in the resolution of the US Congress “On Captive Nations”, among other territories and states, “enslaved” and “deprived national independence“Russia includes Ukraine, Belarus, the Volga region, Cossacks and even North Korea.

Historian Konstantin Minyar-Beloruchev, by no means idealizing the “imperial policy” of Russia (Caucasian wars, conquest Central Asia, Stalin's deportations) draws attention to much more comfortable conditions for national survival and development in the annexed lands, in contrast to the indigenous population of the United States.

Three levels of possessions

Due to the geopolitical peculiarities in which it turned out Old Russian state, special conditions were created for the development of the Eurasian space. Inhabited west, south and harsh north left broad prospects for Rus' only in the east. However, as history has shown, Russia's expansion was successful in all directions.

Minyar-Beloruchev proposed using a hierarchical approach to distinguishing the levels of possessions of the Russian Empire. According to the historian, there are three such levels: first, the core of the state - the European part of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus; the second – sparsely populated (“no man’s”) Siberia and the Far East; third - traditional societies North Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia, as well as the Baltic states, Poland and Finland belonging to the “European house”.

Border Security

American political scientist George Friedman connects the process of Russia's expansion with its insecurity, in which it could only rely on its inhospitable climate and harsh natural conditions. The multidirectional nature of the external threat created a precedent for building the state’s aggressive policy. “Russian history is a chronicle of the agony of survival from one aggression to another,” the political scientist notes.

Friedman identifies three phases of Russia's forced expansion.

The first phase, which began under Ivan III, was the creation of “buffer” zones in the west and east that would prevent external threats.

The second phase came into force under Ivan the Terrible and was more aggressive and risky. Having established itself on the northern spurs of the Caucasus, Russia protected itself from the countries of Asia Minor.

The third phase began with the reign of Peter I and related to the western route, along which the enemy was now invading. By strengthening its flanks in the Baltic and Black Seas, Russia, according to Friedman, could feel more secure.

Formation of the state

Historians are unanimous that the impetus for expanding the borders of Russia, first of all, should be associated with the emergence of statehood during the reign of Ivan III, who overcame the time of complex Russian-Horde relations and rivalry between appanage principalities.

The consolidation of central power by Moscow and the “gathering of lands” created the conditions for the state to enter important trade routes, and with it the opportunity to develop its foreign policy.

With the accession of Ivan the Terrible to the throne, the process of annexing lands entered its active phase and was associated with the strengthening of the state and the desire to secure, first of all, its eastern borders. One after another, the heirs of the Golden Horde - the Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberian khanates - became part of the Russian kingdom. This creates reliable outposts and the ability to move further east.

Access to the sea

Isolation from sea routes and, as a consequence, the lack of broad opportunities to develop the military and merchant fleet have become one of the the most important reasons Russia’s desire to access ice-free ports of the Baltic and Black Seas, as well as the Pacific coast of the Far East.

This policy was outlined even under Ivan the Terrible, but it was destined to be fully realized only during the reign of Catherine II.

The success of access to seaports, according to the American historian Richard Pipes, was greatly facilitated by a dense and convenient network of river routes, along which, even using primitive vessels, it was possible to get from the Baltic to the Caspian without any problems.

Echo of the Time of Troubles

Researcher Vitaly Averyanov draws an interesting parallel: the intensification of expansion on the part of Russia arose after the end of the “times of troubles.” This, according to the researcher, was the case after the Time of Troubles of 1598–1613, and this was also the case after the most difficult period of the collapse of the empire at the beginning of the 20th century.

On the other hand, Averyanov also sees increased expansion as a kind of revenge for Russia’s loss of part of its territories. The researcher notes that the rapid development of Siberia in the 17th century followed the loss of a number of western lands, in particular Smolensk, and access to the Gulf of Finland. The expeditions of Rebrov, Poyarkov, Dezhnev and Khabarov more than compensated for these losses, opening up new geographical and economic horizons for Russia.

The next “unprecedented geopolitical revenge” that Averyanov draws attention to occurred at the end of World War II, when the borders of the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova were restored, and additional territorial acquisitions were made in Eastern Europe at the expense of Finland, Prussia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and in Asia - at the expense of South Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and Tuva.

It is interesting to note that the latest territorial acquisitions Soviet Union, who established extreme points states in Western and eastern directions happened almost simultaneously: we're talking about about Koenigsberg (Kaliningrad) and South Sakhalin with the Kuril Islands.

"Imperial Appetites"

A significant part of the peoples and countries that were part of the two superpowers - the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union - have difficult relationship with today's Russia.

Recently, researchers from the Eurasian Monitor center analyzed 187 school textbooks from 11 post-Soviet states, including Latvia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. The researchers' conclusion turned out to be predictable: in most school textbooks of the former Soviet republics, Russia is portrayed as a colonial empire that mercilessly exploited the national periphery and oppressed the inhabitants.

The idea of colonial expansion is most clearly expressed in the historiography of Central Asian countries. The authors of the textbooks emphasize that Russia used this region as a raw material base, from where silk, cotton, astrakhan fur and numerous mineral resources were exported.

However, denouncers of Russia’s “imperial appetites” do not take into account the fact that three-quarters of the economy of the union republics was subsidized. As Russian orientalist Alexei Vasiliev noted, “not a single metropolis - England, France, Portugal, Holland - has left in its colonies such a developed economy as Russia in Central Asia.”