German Democratic Republic (GDR): history, capital, flag, coat of arms. The unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, historical facts

Thus, back in 1945, at a meeting in Potsdam, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill divided Germany into four occupation zones and established quadripartite control of Berlin. This agreement was to remain in force until the Soviet Union, the USA, England and France agreed on the creation of a pan-German state and concluded a peace treaty with it.

The Cold War “buried” these plans. In September 1949, a new state emerged on the territory of the three western occupation zones - the Federal Republic of Germany. In response, in October of that year, Stalin created the German Democratic Republic.

Federal Republic of Germany (FRG)

In September 1949, the ruling circles of the USA, England and France completed the split of Germany, forming a separate state in the western part of the country. The West German monopolies were given the opportunity to create their own state as payment for Germany's participation in the aggressive imperialist blocs led by the United States. Simultaneously with the formation of the Federal Republic of Germany, on September 21, 1949, the occupation statute developed by the governments of the United States, England and France came into force, which reserved for these powers supreme power in Germany.

The Statute of Occupation defines the powers that are retained by the occupying authorities in the exercise of their supreme power, which is exercised by the governments of France, the United States and the United Kingdom.

In order to ensure the achievement of the main goals pursued by the occupation, these powers (to the occupying powers) are specifically specified.

The governments of the USA, Great Britain and France have taken the path of refusing to implement the decisions Potsdam Conference(July - August 1945), which provided for the demilitarization of Germany, the eradication of German militarism and Nazism, the elimination of monopolies and the broad democratization of the country.

In the western zones of German occupation, demilitarization and denazification were practically not carried out. Many former Nazis returned to important positions.

The Soviet Union consistently advocates the development of friendly relations with the entire German people. Considering that the normalization of relations between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany would help strengthen peace in Europe, resolve the German problem and develop mutually beneficial trade, the Soviet government addressed the German government on June 7, 1955 with a proposal to establish direct diplomatic, trade and cultural relations between both countries. And in September 1955, both governments exchanged letters on the establishment of diplomatic relations and the establishment of embassies.

Having set a course for restoring the power of monopoly capital in West Germany and dividing the country, the Western powers set as their goal the revival of German militarism in order to then use it in their interests against the USSR and other socialist countries. It is not surprising, therefore, that the Soviet Union's repeated proposals aimed at preserving German unity were rejected by the Western powers, who viewed West Germany as their future political and military ally.

The occupation authorities of the Western powers contributed in every possible way to the restoration and strengthening of the economic and political positions of the West German bourgeoisie and helped it consolidate its forces. Parties were created to represent the interests of monopoly capital. In Germany, a state apparatus was created with the help of which monopoly capital could strengthen and expand its positions and control the entire life of the country. The Western powers banned the organization of the Socialist Unity Party in West Germany. These policies, combined with the anti-communist stance of the leaders of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), prevented the unification of communists and social democrats.

The labor movement was also in the process of re-establishing proletarian organizations. The lack of unity of the West German labor movement seriously hampered the struggle of progressive forces against the split of the country. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany formally proclaimed the basic democratic rights of citizens - their equality before the law, personal freedom, equality of men and women, freedom political views, press, meetings, etc. The adoption of these points to a certain extent took into account the intensification of the struggle of West German workers for their interests.

An expression of the systematic line of the Western powers aimed at splitting Germany was the creation in 1947 of the so-called “Bisonia”, which united the American and British zones of occupation, and then “Trizonia” (in 1948), as well as the implementation of a separate monetary reform.

After the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Western powers set a course for restoring the military-industrial potential and rearmament of West Germany, and for involving it in military blocs directed against the USSR and other socialist countries.

Chancellor Konradom Adenauer did everything possible to implement the plans for the remilitarization of the Federal Republic of Germany, which were hatched by the West German monopolies. In August 1950, he handed over a memorandum to the American High Commissioner in which he “reiterated his readiness to contribute in the form of a German contingent in the event of the creation of a Western European army.” The Western powers agreed to this proposal of the German Chancellor. Revanchist demands aimed at revising the results of the Second World War increasingly became the basis of the official policy of the ruling circles of Germany.

Taking a course towards the remilitarization of the country, the Adenauer government rejected all peace initiatives of the Soviet Union, in particular, its draft peace treaty with Germany of March 10, 1952. And on March 26, 1952, the Western powers signed a general agreement on relations with Germany, according to which the formal occupation of West Germany, but US, British and French troops remained on its territory. But the entire working class, all the democratic forces of the country resisted the policy of restoring West German monopoly capital and its course towards the remilitarization of West Germany. And despite the persecution, the communists continued to fight against the remilitarization of the country and to overcome the division of Germany.

As for the development of economics and politics, by the beginning of the 60s, Germany was increasingly asserting itself as the leader of Western European states. Its ruling circles have increased their foreign economic and foreign policy activity. But by the end of the 60s, Germany was affected by economic and political crises.

In 1969, the SPD-FDP coalition government was formed. Chairman of the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany) Wili Brandt became Federal Chancellor, and Chairman of the FDP (Free Democratic Party) Walter Scheel became Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs. In area foreign policy The government took a realistic approach to assessing the situation in post-war Europe; it took into account the desire of broad sections of the West German population for détente, their desire to put an end to the dangerous remnants of the Cold War. The Brandt-Scheel government moved to improve relations with socialist countries and accepted the Soviet Union's proposal to hold negotiations. As a result, on August 12, 1970, the Moscow Treaty was signed between the USSR and Germany. Both sides expressed their desire to promote peaceful relations between all European states, pledged to resolve their disputes exclusively by peaceful means and to refrain in their mutual relations from the threat or use of force. The third article of the treaty, which established the inviolability of the borders of all states in Europe, was of key importance. The Moscow Treaty created the necessary political preconditions for a serious turn in Soviet-West German relations, which were normalized on the basis of Germany's renunciation of claims to change the existing European borders.

Of great importance for mitigating tensions in Europe was the agreement signed in September 1971 by four powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA and France on West Berlin, an important point of which was the provision that West Berlin is not an integral part of the Federal Republic of Germany and will not be continue to be managed by it.

The conclusion of the Moscow Treaty, the negotiations of L. I. Brezhnev with W. Brandt in Crimea in September 1971, especially the visit of L. I. Brezhnev in May 1973 to Germany gave impetus to the development of economic relations between the Soviet Union and the Federal Republic of Germany, put them at high quality new level. Of great importance was the signing in May 1973 of an agreement between the USSR and Germany on the development of economic, industrial and technical cooperation for a period of 10 years.

German Democratic Republic (GDR)

In October 1949, the Western imperialist powers completed the division of Germany, creating a separate West German state. Under these conditions, the democratic and patriotic forces of Germany decided that the time had come to take the country's fate into account. own hands, to repel the reviving German militarism, to prevent the spread of power of revanchists and fascists throughout Germany. To this end, the democratic forces of East Germany, on October 7, 1949, proclaimed the creation of the German Democratic Republic. The GDR emerged as the first state of workers and peasants in German history. Exercising supreme power here, the Soviet Military Administration (SVAG) carried out a number of measures for demilitarization, denazification and democratization, created favorable conditions for the formation of a united, peace-loving, democratic Germany.

The struggle of the peace-loving forces of the German people for a new Germany was led by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). Immediately after the legalization of its activities on June 11, 1945, the Central Committee of the KKE addressed the people with an appeal containing a program for democratic reforms throughout the country. The KKE oriented the working class and the working masses towards establishing an anti-fascist-democratic system in Germany. She called for the creation of new government bodies from below, to punish war criminals, to expel the Nazis from administrative and economic bodies and replace them with anti-fascists, to liquidate monopolistic associations and transfer large industrial enterprises, junker estates, as well as banks and the hands of the people. The appeal of the KPD received the approval of the working class and other sections of the German people, as well as all democratic parties and organizations.

The unity of action of the working class in East Germany was the basis for the establishment of a strong alliance of the working class with the peasantry, petty and middle bourgeoisie.

With the defeat of fascism, the old state apparatus was liquidated. In East Germany, the Nazis were removed from administrative and economic institutions. On the initiative of the communists and other anti-fascists and with the support of the SVAG, new government bodies (Landtags) were created on the ruins of Hitler's Reich, which expressed and defended the interests of the broad masses.

Of great importance for strengthening the new anti-fascist-democratic system in East Germany was the liquidation of the property of monopoly capital, this most important support of fascism. Carrying out the Potsdam decisions, SVAG in October 1945 imposed sequestration on all property belonging to the Hitlerite state, war criminals, active Nazis, as well as monopolies that participated in the outbreak of the war.

The most important distinctive feature of the development of Germany after liberation was the interweaving of the social (class) struggle of the masses with the struggle against the schismatic actions of the American-British imperialists and German reactionaries, who prevented the creation of a single independent German state. The decisions of the 2nd German People's Congress, held in March 1948, were of great importance in the struggle for the national unity of the country. It proclaimed the slogan of the struggle for a united German Democratic Republic, elected governing body movement - German People's Council. He adopted the draft constitution of the GDR and proclaimed the formation of the German Democratic Republic on October 7, 1949.

The government of the GDR declared as its program the struggle for further democratic reforms, the economic and cultural rise of the German people, for national unity, for friendship and cooperation with the Soviet | Union and all peace-loving peoples of the world. The formation of the GDR met with full support and approval from the Soviet government, which immediately recognized it and transferred all administrative functions belonging to SVAG to the GDR government. The formation of the GDR was a turning point in the history of the German people, a powerful blow to German imperialism and militarism.

Thus, with regard to relations between the Soviet Union and the GDR, in 1954 the Government of the Soviet Union was invariably guided by the desire to promote the settlement of the German problem in accordance with the interests of strengthening peace and ensuring the national reunification of Germany on a democratic basis.

In view of this situation and as a result of the negotiations that the Soviet government held with the government of the German Democratic Republic, the government of the USSR recognizes the need to take further steps to meet the interests of the German people, namely:

1. The Soviet Union establishes the same relations with the German Democratic Republic as with other sovereign states.

German Democratic Republic will be free to decide at its own discretion its internal and foreign affairs, including issues of relations with West Germany.

2. The Soviet Union retains in the German Democratic Republic functions related to ensuring security arising from the obligations assigned to the USSR under the agreements of the four powers.

The Soviet government took note of the statement of the government of the German Democratic Republic that it would comply with the obligations arising for the German Democratic Republic from the Potsdam Agreement on the development of Germany as a democratic and peace-loving state, as well as the obligations associated with the temporary presence of Soviet troops on the territory of the GDR.



The capital of Germany, Berlin, arose in the first half of the 13th century. Since 1486, the city has been the capital of Brandenburg (then Prussia), since 1871 - of Germany. From May 1943 to May 1945, Berlin suffered one of the most destructive bombings in world history. At the final stage of the Great Patriotic War(1941-1945) in Europe Soviet troops On May 2, 1945, the city was completely captured. After the defeat fascist Germany The territory of Berlin was divided into occupation zones: the eastern one - the USSR and the three western ones - the USA, Great Britain and France. On June 24, 1948, Soviet troops began the blockade of West Berlin.

In 1948, the Western powers authorized the heads of state governments in their zones of occupation to convene a parliamentary council to draft a constitution and prepare for the creation of a West German state. Its first meeting took place in Bonn on September 1, 1948. The constitution was adopted by the council on May 8, 1949, and on May 23 the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was proclaimed. In response, in the eastern part controlled by the USSR, the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed on October 7, 1949, and Berlin was declared its capital.

East Berlin covered an area of ​​403 square kilometers and was the largest city in East Germany by population.
West Berlin covered an area of ​​480 square kilometers.

At first, the border between the western and eastern parts of Berlin was open. The dividing line was 44.8 kilometers long (the total length of the border between West Berlin and the GDR was 164 kilometers) ran right through the streets and houses, the Spree River, and canals. Officially, there were 81 street checkpoints, 13 crossings in the metro and on the city railway.

In 1957, the West German government led by Konrad Adenauer enacted the Hallstein Doctrine, which provided for the automatic severance of diplomatic relations with any country that recognized the GDR.

In November 1958, the head of the Soviet government, Nikita Khrushchev, accused the Western powers of violating the Potsdam Agreements of 1945 and announced the Soviet Union's abolition international status Berlin. The Soviet government proposed turning West Berlin into a “demilitarized free city” and demanded that the United States, Great Britain and France negotiate on this topic within six months (“Khrushchev’s Ultimatum”). The Western powers rejected the ultimatum.

In August 1960, the GDR government introduced restrictions on visits by German citizens to East Berlin. In response, West Germany refused a trade agreement between both parts of the country, which the GDR regarded as an “economic war.”
After lengthy and difficult negotiations, the agreement was put into effect on January 1, 1961.

The situation worsened in the summer of 1961. The economic policy of the GDR, aimed at “catching up and overtaking the Federal Republic of Germany,” and the corresponding increase in production standards, economic difficulties, forced collectivization of 1957-1960, more high level wages in West Berlin encouraged thousands of GDR citizens to leave for the West.

Between 1949 and 1961, almost 2.7 million people left the GDR and East Berlin. Almost half of the refugee flow consisted of young people under the age of 25. Every day, about half a million people crossed the borders of the Berlin sectors in both directions, who could compare living conditions here and there. In 1960 alone, about 200 thousand people moved to the West.

At a meeting of the general secretaries of the communist parties of the socialist countries on August 5, 1961, the GDR received the necessary consent from the Eastern European countries, and on August 7, at a meeting of the Politburo of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED - East German Communist Party), a decision was made to close the border of the GDR with West Berlin and the Federal Republic of Germany. On August 12, a corresponding resolution was adopted by the Council of Ministers of the GDR.

In the early morning of August 13, 1961, temporary barriers were erected on the border with West Berlin, and cobblestones were dug up on the streets connecting East Berlin with West Berlin. The forces of the people's and transport police, as well as combat workers' squads, interrupted all transport links at the borders between the sectors. Under strict guard by East Berlin border guards, East Berlin construction workers began replacing barbed wire border fences with concrete slabs and hollow bricks. The border fortification complex also included residential buildings on Bernauer Strasse, where the sidewalks now belonged to the West Berlin district of Wedding, and the houses on the south side of the street to the East Berlin district of Mitte. Then the GDR government ordered the doors of the houses and the windows of the lower floors to be walled up - residents could only get into their apartments through the entrance from the courtyard, which belonged to East Berlin. A wave of forced evictions of people from apartments began not only on Bernauer Strasse, but also in other border zones.

From 1961 to 1989, the Berlin Wall was rebuilt several times along many sections of the border. At first it was built of stone, and then was replaced by reinforced concrete. In 1975, the last reconstruction of the wall began. The wall was built from 45 thousand concrete blocks measuring 3.6 by 1.5 meters, which were rounded at the top to make it difficult to escape. Outside the city it is front barrier also included metal gratings.
By 1989, the total length of the Berlin Wall was 155 kilometers, the intra-city border between East and West Berlin was 43 kilometers, the border between West Berlin and the GDR (outer ring) was 112 kilometers. Closest to West Berlin, the front concrete barrier wall reached a height of 3.6 meters. It encircled the entire western sector of Berlin.

The concrete fence stretched for 106 kilometers, the metal fence for 66.5 kilometers, the earthen ditches had a length of 105.5 kilometers, and 127.5 kilometers were under tension. A control strip was made near the wall, like on the border.

Despite strict measures against attempts to “illegally cross the border,” people continued to flee “over the wall,” using sewer pipes, technical means, and constructing tunnels. Over the years of the wall's existence, about 100 people died trying to overcome it.

The democratic changes in the life of the GDR and other countries of the socialist community that began in the late 1980s sealed the fate of the wall. On November 9, 1989, the new government of the GDR announced an unimpeded transition from East Berlin to West Berlin and free return. About 2 million residents of the GDR visited West Berlin during November 10-12. The spontaneous dismantling of the wall immediately began. Official dismantling took place in January 1990, and part of the wall was left as a historical monument.

On October 3, 1990, after the annexation of the GDR to the Federal Republic of Germany, the status of the federal capital in a united Germany passed from Bonn to Berlin. In 2000, the government moved from Bonn to Berlin.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

Education of the GDR. After the surrender in World War II, Germany was divided into 4 occupation zones: Soviet, American, British and French. Berlin, the capital of Germany, was divided in the same way. In the three western zones and the American-British-French West Berlin (it is surrounded on all sides by the territory of the Soviet occupation zone), life was gradually improving on the basis of democratic principles. In the Soviet zone of occupation, including East Berlin, a course was immediately set for the formation of a totalitarian communist system of power.

The Cold War began between the former allies in the anti-Hitler coalition, and this had the most tragic impact on the fate of Germany and its people.

Blockade of West Berlin. I.V. Stalin used the introduction of a single German mark into circulation in the three western zones (currency reform on June 20, 1948) as a pretext for the Blockade of West Berlin in order to annex it to the Soviet zone of occupation. On the night of June 23-24, 1948, all land communications between the western zones and West Berlin were blocked. The city's supply of electricity and food products from the Soviet occupation zone stopped. August 3, 1948 I.V. Stalin directly demanded the inclusion of West Berlin in the Soviet zone, but was met with rebuff from former allies. The blockade lasted almost a year, until May 12, 1949. However, blackmail did not achieve its goals. Supplies to West Berlin were ensured via an air bridge organized by the Western Allies. Moreover, the flight altitude of their aircraft was out of reach Soviet funds air defense.

The creation of NATO and the split of Germany. In response to the open hostility of the Soviet leadership, the blockade of West Berlin, the communist coup in Czechoslovakia in February 1948 and the build-up of the Soviet military presence in Eastern Europe in April 1949, Western countries created the military-political bloc NATO (“North Atlantic Treaty Organization” ). The creation of NATO influenced Soviet policy towards Germany. In the same year, it split into two states. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) was created on the territory of the American, British and French occupation zones, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on the territory of the Soviet occupation zone. At the same time, Berlin also found itself split into two parts. East Berlin became the capital of the GDR. West Berlin became a separate administrative unit, receiving its own self-government under the tutelage of the occupying powers.

Sovietization of the GDR and the growing crisis. In the early 1950s. Socialist transformations began in the GDR, which exactly copied the Soviet experience. Nationalization of private property, industrialization and collectivization were carried out. All these transformations were accompanied by massive repressions, with the help of which the Socialist Unity Party of Germany strengthened its dominance in the country and society. A strict totalitarian regime was established in the country, a command and administrative system for managing all spheres of public life. In 1953, the policy of Sovietization of the GDR was still in full swing. However, at this time, economic chaos and a drop in production, and a serious decline in the standard of living of the population, had already clearly begun to manifest themselves. All this caused protest from the population, and serious dissatisfaction with the regime on the part of ordinary citizens grew. The most serious form of protest was the mass flight of the population of the GDR to Germany. However, since the border between the GDR and the FRG was already closed, the only way remained was to move to West Berlin (this was still possible) and from there move to the FRG.

Forecasts of Western experts. Since the spring of 1953, the socio-economic crisis began to develop into a political one. The Eastern Bureau of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, located in West Berlin, based on its observations, noted the widespread dissatisfaction of the population with the existing system, the growing readiness of East Germans to openly oppose the regime.

Unlike the German Social Democrats, the CIA, which monitored the situation in the GDR, made more cautious forecasts. They boiled down to the fact that the SED regime and the Soviet occupation authorities controlled the economic situation, and that the “will to resist” among the East German population was low. It is unlikely that "East Germans will be willing or able to carry out revolution, even if called for, unless such a call is accompanied by a declaration of war from the West or a firm promise of Western military assistance."

The position of the Soviet leadership. The Soviet leadership also could not help but see the aggravation of the socio-economic and political situation in the GDR, but they interpreted it in a very unique way. On May 9, 1953, at a meeting of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee, an analytical report on the flight of the population from the GDR, prepared by the Soviet Ministry of Internal Affairs (headed by L.P. Beria), was reviewed. It acknowledged that the fuss raised on this issue “in the press of the Anglo-American bloc” had good grounds. However, the main reasons for this phenomenon in the certificate are reduced to the fact that “West German industrial concerns are actively working to lure away engineering and technical workers,” and the leadership of the SED was too carried away by the tasks of “improving their material well-being,” without at the same time paying due attention to nutrition and uniforms for people's police officers. The most important thing is that “the Central Committee of the SED and the responsible state bodies of the GDR are not actively fighting against the demoralizing work carried out by the West German authorities.” The conclusion was clear: to strengthen the punitive authorities and the ideological indoctrination of the population of the GDR - although both of them already exceeded all reasonable limits, precisely becoming one of the reasons for mass discontent. That is, the document did not contain any condemnation domestic policy leadership of the GDR.

Molotov's note. The note prepared by V.M. on May 8 had a different character. Molotov and sent it to G.M. Malenkova and N.S. Khrushchev. The document contained sharp criticism of the thesis about the GDR as a state of the “dictatorship of the proletariat”, which the First Secretary of the SED Central Committee W. Ulbricht spoke on May 5, emphasizing that he did not coordinate this speech with the Soviet side and that it contradicted the recommendations given to him earlier. This note was considered at a meeting of the Presidium of the CPSU Central Committee on May 14. The resolution condemned the statements of W. Ulbricht and contained an instruction to Soviet representatives in Berlin to talk with the leaders of the SED with a view to stopping the campaign to create new agricultural cooperatives. If we compare the documents addressed to the Presidium of the Central Committee L.P. Beria and V.M. Molotov, then we can perhaps come to the conclusion that the latter reacted to the situation in the GDR more quickly, sharply and meaningfully.

Order of the Council of Ministers. On June 2, 1953, Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR No. 7576 “On measures to improve the political situation in the GDR” was issued. It contained a condemnation of the course of the East German leadership towards “accelerated construction” or “accelerating the construction” of socialism in East Germany. On the same day, a SED delegation headed by W. Ulbricht and O. Grotewohl arrived in Moscow. During the negotiations, the leaders of the GDR were told that the situation in their country was in a dangerous state; they must immediately abandon the accelerated construction of socialism and pursue a more moderate policy. The Soviet NEP, carried out in the 1920s, was cited as an example of such a policy. In response, W. Ulbricht tried to justify his activities. He stated that the fears of the “Soviet comrades” were exaggerated, but under their pressure he was forced to promise that the course of building socialism would become more moderate.

Actions of the leadership of the GDR. On June 9, 1953, the Politburo of the SED Central Committee adopted a decision on the “new course”, which was in accordance with the “recommendations” of the USSR Council of Ministers, and published it two days later. It cannot be said that the leaders of the GDR were in a particular hurry, but they did not consider it necessary to explain either to ordinary party members or to the leaders of their organizations the essence of new program. As a result, the entire party and state apparatus of the GDR was paralyzed.

During negotiations in Moscow Soviet leaders pointed out to the leaders of East Germany that it was necessary to carefully investigate the reasons for the transition of workers of the GDR to West Germany, not excluding workers of private enterprises. They proposed taking measures to improve the situation of workers, their living conditions, to combat unemployment, violations of labor protection and safety regulations, especially in overpopulated industrial areas and on the Baltic coast. All these instructions remained empty words.

Back on May 28, 1953, by order of the GDR authorities, a widespread increase in production standards at industrial enterprises was announced. In fact, this meant a sharp decrease in real wages. Thus, it turned out that the workers of the GDR turned out to be the only category of the population that did not gain anything from the “new course”, but only felt the deterioration of their living conditions.

Provocation. Some foreign and Russian historians believe that such a strange feature of the “new course” proves deliberate sabotage on the part of the leadership of the GDR of Soviet recommendations. The course towards abandoning “barracks socialism” in the GDR, towards rapprochement with the Federal Republic of Germany, towards compromise and German unity threatened W. Ulbricht and his entourage with loss of power and departure from political life. Therefore, they were apparently even ready to take the risk of far-reaching destabilization of the regime, just to compromise the “new course” and save their monopoly on power. The calculation was cynical and simple: provoke mass discontent and unrest, then Soviet troops will intervene, and of course there will be no time for liberal experiments. In this sense, we can say that the events of June 17, 1953 in the GDR were the result not only of the activities of “Western agents” (its role, of course, cannot be denied), but also of a deliberate provocation on the part of the then leadership of the GDR. As it turned out later, the scope of the popular movement went far beyond the intended anti-liberal blackmail and quite frightened the provocateurs themselves.

Creation of the German Democratic Republic

In the Soviet occupation zone, the creation of the German Democratic Republic was legitimized by the institutions of the People's Congresses. The 1st German People's Congress met in December 1947, it was attended by the SED, LDPD, a number of public organizations and the KKE from the western zones (the CDU refused to take part in the congress). Delegates came from all over Germany, but 80% of them represented residents of the Soviet occupation zone. The 2nd Congress was convened in March 1948, attended only by delegates from East Germany. It elected the German People's Council, whose task was to develop a constitution for a new democratic Germany. The Council adopted a constitution in March 1949, and in May of that year elections for delegates to the 3rd German People's Congress took place, following the model that had become the norm in the Soviet bloc: voters could only vote for a single list of candidates, the vast majority of whom were members of the SED . The 2nd German People's Council was elected at the congress. Although the SED delegates did not constitute a majority in this council, the party secured a dominant position through the party leadership of delegates from public organizations (youth movement, trade unions, women's organization, cultural league).

On October 7, 1949, the German People's Council proclaimed the creation German Democratic Republic. Wilhelm Pieck became the first president of the GDR, and Otto Grotewohl became the head of the Provisional Government. Five months before the adoption of the constitution and the proclamation of the GDR, the Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed in West Germany. Since the official creation of the GDR occurred after the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany, East German leaders had a reason to blame the West for the division of Germany.

Economic difficulties and worker discontent in the GDR

Throughout its existence, the GDR constantly experienced economic difficulties. Some of them were the result of poverty natural resources and poor development of economic infrastructure, but the majority were a consequence of policies pursued by the Soviet Union and the East German authorities. There were no deposits of such important minerals as coal and iron ore on the territory of the GDR. The lack of managers and engineers also affected high class who fled to the West.

In 1952, the SED proclaimed that socialism would be built in the GDR. Following the Stalinist model, the leaders of the GDR imposed a rigid economic system with central planning and state control. Heavy industry was given priority for development. Ignoring the dissatisfaction of citizens caused by the shortage of consumer goods, the authorities tried by all means to force workers to increase labor productivity.

After Stalin's death, the workers' situation did not improve, and they responded with an uprising on June 16-17, 1953. The action began as a strike by East Berlin construction workers. The unrest immediately spread to other industries in the capital, and then to the entire GDR. The strikers demanded not only an improvement in their economic situation, but also the holding of free elections. The authorities were in a state of panic. The paramilitary "People's Police" lost control of the situation, and the Soviet military administration brought in tanks.

After the events of June 1953, the government switched to a policy of carrots and sticks. Loose economic policies (the New Deal) included lower production standards for workers and increased production of some consumer goods. At the same time, large-scale repressions were carried out against the instigators of unrest and disloyal functionaries of the SED. About 20 demonstrators were executed, many were thrown into prison, almost a third of party officials were either removed from their posts or transferred to other jobs with the official motivation “for losing contact with the people.” Nevertheless, the regime managed to overcome the crisis. Two years later, the USSR officially recognized the sovereignty of the GDR, and in 1956 East Germany formed its armed forces and became a full member of the Warsaw Pact.

Another shock for the countries of the Soviet bloc was the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), at which Chairman of the Council of Ministers N.S. Khrushchev exposed Stalin’s repressions. The revelations of the leader of the USSR caused unrest in Poland and Hungary, but in the GDR the situation remained calm. The improvement in the economic situation caused by the new course, as well as the opportunity for dissatisfied citizens to “vote with their feet”, i.e. emigrate across the open border to Berlin, helped prevent a repeat of the events of 1953.

Some softening of Soviet policies after the 20th Congress of the CPSU encouraged those members of the SED who did not agree with the position of Walter Ulbricht, a key political figure in the country, and other hardliners. The reformers, led by Wolfgang Harich, a university teacher. Humboldt in East Berlin, advocated democratic elections, workers' control in production and the "socialist unification" of Germany. Ulbricht managed to overcome this opposition of the “revisionist deviationists.” Harich was sent to prison, where he stayed from 1957 to 1964.

Berlin Wall

Having defeated the supporters of reforms in their ranks, the East German leadership began accelerated nationalization. Mass collectivization began in 1959 Agriculture and the nationalization of numerous small enterprises. In 1958, about 52% of land was owned by the private sector; by 1960 it had increased to 8%.

Showing support for the GDR, Khrushchev took a hard line against Berlin. He demanded that the Western powers effectively recognize the GDR, threatening to close access to West Berlin. (Until the 1970s, Western powers refused to recognize the GDR as independent state, insisting that Germany must be unified in accordance with the post-war agreements.) Once again, the scale of the ongoing exodus of the population from the GDR acquired frightening proportions for the government. In 1961, more than 207 thousand citizens left the GDR (in total, more than 3 million people moved to the West since 1945). In August 1961, the East German government blocked the flow of refugees by ordering the construction of a concrete wall and barbed wire fence between East and West Berlin. Within a few months, the border between the GDR and West Germany was equipped.

Stability and prosperity of the GDR

The exodus of the population stopped, specialists remained in the country. It became possible to carry out more effective government planning. As a result, the country managed to achieve modest levels of prosperity in the 1960s and 1970s. The rise in living standards was not accompanied by political liberalization or a weakening of dependence on the USSR. The SED continued to tightly control the areas of art and intellectual activity. East German intellectuals experienced significantly greater restrictions on their creativity than their Hungarian or Polish colleagues. The nation's well-known cultural prestige rested largely on left-leaning older writers such as Bertolt Brecht (with his wife, Helena Weigel, who directed the famous Berliner Ensemble theater group), Anna Seghers, Arnold Zweig, Willy Bredel and Ludwig Renn. . But several new significant names also appeared, among them Christa Wolf and Stefan Geim.

It should also be noted that East German historians, such as Horst Drexler and other researchers of German colonial policy 1880-1918, in whose works a reassessment of individual events of recent history were carried out German history. But the GDR was most successful in increasing its international prestige in the field of sports. A developed system of state sports clubs and training camps trained high-quality athletes who achieved amazing success in summer and winter sports. Olympic Games since 1972.

Changes in the leadership of the GDR

By the late 1960s, the Soviet Union, still tightly in control of East Germany, began to show dissatisfaction with Walter Ulbricht's policies. The leader of the SED actively opposed new policy the West German government led by Willy Brandt, aimed at improving relations between West Germany and the Soviet bloc. Dissatisfied with Ulbricht's attempts to sabotage Brandt's eastern policy, the Soviet leadership achieved his resignation from party posts. Ulbricht retained the minor post of head of state until his death in 1973.

Ulbricht's successor as first secretary of the SED was Erich Honecker. A native of the Saar region, he entered the communist party, and after his release from prison at the end of World War II he became a professional SED functionary. For many years he headed the youth organization "Free German Youth". Honecker intended to strengthen what he called "real socialism." Under Honecker, the GDR began to play a prominent role in international politics, especially in relations with Third World countries. After the signing of the Basic Treaty with West Germany (1972), the GDR was recognized by the majority of countries in the world community and in 1973, like the FRG, became a member of the UN.

Collapse of the GDR

Although there were no further mass protests until the late 1980s, the East German population never fully adapted to the SED regime. In 1985, about 400 thousand citizens of the GDR applied for a permanent exit visa. Many intellectuals and church leaders openly criticized the regime for its lack of political and cultural freedoms. The government responded by increasing censorship and expelling some prominent dissidents from the country. Ordinary citizens expressed outrage at the system of total surveillance carried out by an army of informants who were in the service of the Stasi secret police. By the 1980s, the Stasi had become something of a corrupt state within a state, controlling its own industrial enterprises and even speculating on the international foreign exchange market.

The coming to power in the USSR of M.S. Gorbachev and his policies of perestroika and glasnost undermined the basis of existence of the ruling SED regime. East German leaders realized early on potential danger and abandoned perestroika in East Germany. But the SED could not hide information about changes in other countries of the Soviet bloc from the citizens of the GDR. West German television programs, which residents of the GDR watched much more often than East German television products, widely covered the progress of reforms in Eastern Europe.

The dissatisfaction of most East German citizens with their government reached a climax in 1989. While neighboring Eastern European states quickly liberalized their regimes, the SED cheered the brutal suppression of the June 1989 Chinese student demonstration in Tiananmen Square. But it was no longer possible to contain the tide of impending changes in the GDR. In August, Hungary opened its border with Austria, allowing thousands of East German holidaymakers to emigrate to the west.

At the end of 1989, popular discontent resulted in colossal protest demonstrations in the GDR itself. "Monday demonstrations" quickly became a tradition; hundreds of thousands of people took to the streets of major cities of the GDR (the most massive protests took place in Leipzig) demanding political liberalization. The GDR leadership was divided over how to deal with the dissatisfied, and it also became clear that it was now left to its own devices. At the beginning of October, M.S. arrived in East Germany to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the GDR. Gorbachev, who made it clear that the Soviet Union would no longer interfere in the affairs of the GDR to save the ruling regime.

Honecker, who had just recovered from major surgery, advocated the use of force against protesters. But the majority of the SED Politburo did not agree with his opinion, and in mid-October Honecker and his main allies were forced to resign. New general secretary Egon Krenz became the SED, as did Honecker, the former leader of the youth organization. The government was headed by Hans Modrow, secretary of the Dresden district committee of the SED, who was reputed to be a supporter of economic and political reforms.

The new leadership tried to stabilize the situation by meeting some of the demonstrators' particularly widespread demands: the right to free exit from the country was granted (the Berlin Wall was opened on November 9, 1989) and free elections were proclaimed. These steps turned out to be insufficient, and Krenz, having served as head of the party for 46 days, resigned. At a hastily convened congress in January 1990, the SED was renamed the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), and a truly democratic party charter was adopted. The chairman of the renewed party was Gregor Gysi, a lawyer by profession who defended several East German dissidents during the Honecker era.

In March 1990, citizens of the GDR participated in the first free elections in 58 years. Their results greatly disappointed those who had hoped for the preservation of a liberalized but still independent and socialist GDR. Although several newly emerged parties advocated a "third way" distinct from Soviet communism and West German capitalism, a bloc of parties allied with the West German Christian Democratic Union (CDU) won a landslide victory. This voting bloc demanded unification with West Germany.

Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German CDU, became the first (and last) freely elected prime minister of the GDR. Short period His reign was marked by great changes. Under the leadership of de Maizières, the previous management apparatus was quickly dismantled. In August 1990, five states abolished in the GDR in 1952 were restored (Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia). On October 3, 1990, the GDR ceased to exist, uniting with the Federal Republic of Germany.

The beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947 and the growing confrontation between the USSR and the Western powers made it impossible to recreate a unified German state. The differences in the approach of the USSR and the USA to solving the German problem turned out to be insurmountable. The USSR advocated the reunification of Germany, its demilitarization and neutral status. The United States opposed the neutral status of a united Germany. They sought to see Germany as a dependent ally. As a result of the USSR's victory in the war, the countries of Eastern Europe came under its control. Power in them gradually passed to local communists loyal to the USSR. The United States and Western states, in opposition to the USSR, sought to maintain West Germany in their sphere of influence. This predetermined the state split in Germany.

Western states decided to create a special West German state in those territories that were under their occupation control. For this purpose, an Economic Council was established in Frankfurt from representatives of the Landtags of the states. He resolved financial and economic issues. The Economic Council had a majority of the CDU, CSU and FDP parties, which advocated a social market economy. In 1948, by decision of the Economic Council, monetary reform took place in the three western occupation zones. Stable was introduced into circulation German mark, price controls were abolished. West Germany embarked on the path of creating a social market economy, and its economic revival began.

In 1948, a special Parliamentary Council was convened to develop and adopt a draft constitution for the West German state - constituent Assembly, elected by the Landtags of the West German states. The draft constitution was developed in committees of the Parliamentary Council with the participation of German jurists and approved by military governors. In May 1949, the Parliamentary Council adopted the Basic Law. It received ratification and approval from the Landtags of the West German states, except for Bavaria, but is also valid for it, and came into force. This is how the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) came into being. It covered half of the former territory of the country and two-thirds of the Germans lived there. Western states in 1949 they adopted the occupation statute. He limited the sovereignty of the Federal Republic of Germany in the field of foreign policy, defense, and foreign trade until 1955. Germany is still occupied by American troops.

The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany is officially called the Basic Law, since when adopted, this act was considered temporary until the unification of the German lands into a single state, after which it was planned to develop a constitution for a united Germany. According to the Basic Law, Germany was open to the annexation of the remaining German states. After the unity of Germany is achieved, the Basic Law applies to the entire German people and ceases to be valid on the day when a new constitution comes into force, which will be adopted by the free decision of the German people. The Constitution of 1949 was also called Bonn - after the name of the new capital of the Federal Republic of Germany - Bonn.

In the Soviet zone of occupation, that is, in the eastern part of Germany, in October 1949, its own constitution was adopted, created on the Soviet model, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed. As a result, a long forty-year period of existence of two independent German states began. They did not remain neutral, but entered military-political alliances opposing each other. In 1955, Germany joined NATO, and the GDR joined the Warsaw Pact.

The GDR included five German states. Soon, in 1952, the lands on the territory of the GDR were legally abolished and fourteen territorial districts were formed. The Chamber of Lands was abolished in 1958. The parliament of the GDR - the People's Chamber - became unicameral. The GDR, established as a federal state, became a unitary state.