World War I - who attacked whom? Beginning of the First World War

First world war 1914 – 1918 became one of the bloodiest and largest conflicts in human history. It began on July 28, 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. 38 states participated in this conflict. If we talk about the causes of the First World War briefly, then we can say with confidence that this conflict was provoked by serious economic contradictions between the alliances of world powers that formed at the beginning of the century. It is also worth noting that there was probably a possibility of a peaceful resolution of these contradictions. However, feeling their increased power, Germany and Austria-Hungary moved to more decisive action.

Participants in the First World War were:

on the one hand, the Quadruple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey (Ottoman Empire);
on the other, the Entente bloc, which consisted of Russia, France, England and allied countries (Italy, Romania and many others).

The outbreak of World War I was triggered by the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife by a member of a Serbian nationalist terrorist organization. The murder committed by Gavrilo Princip provoked a conflict between Austria and Serbia. Germany supported Austria and entered the war.

Historians divide the course of the First World War into five separate military campaigns.

The beginning of the military campaign of 1914 dates back to July 28. On August 1, Germany, which entered the war, declared war on Russia, and on August 3, on France. German troops invade Luxembourg and, later, Belgium. In 1914 major events The First World War took place in France and is today known as the “Run to the Sea.” In an effort to encircle the enemy troops, both armies moved to the coast, where the front line eventually closed. France retained control of the port cities. Gradually the front line stabilized. The German command's expectation of a quick capture of France did not materialize. Since the forces of both sides were exhausted, the war took on a positional character. These are the events on the Western Front.

Military operations on the Eastern Front began on August 17. The Russian army launched an attack on the eastern part of Prussia and initially it turned out to be quite successful. The victory in the Battle of Galicia (August 18) was accepted by most of society with joy. After this battle, Austrian troops no longer entered into serious battles with Russia in 1914.

Events in the Balkans also did not develop very well. Belgrade, previously captured by Austria, was recaptured by the Serbs. There was no active fighting in Serbia this year. In the same year, 1914, Japan also opposed Germany, which allowed Russia to secure its Asian borders. Japan began to take action to seize Germany's island colonies. However, the Ottoman Empire entered the war on the side of Germany, opening the Caucasian front and depriving Russia of convenient communications with the allied countries. At the end of 1914, none of the countries participating in the conflict was able to achieve their goals.

The second campaign in the First World War chronology dates back to 1915. The most severe military clashes took place on the Western Front. Both France and Germany made desperate attempts to turn the situation in their favor. However, the huge losses suffered by both sides did not lead to serious results. In fact, by the end of 1915 the front line had not changed. Neither the spring offensive of the French in Artois, nor the operations carried out in Champagne and Artois in the fall, changed the situation.

The situation on the Russian front changed for the worse. The winter offensive of the ill-prepared Russian army soon turned into the August German counter-offensive. And as a result of the Gorlitsky breakthrough of German troops, Russia lost Galicia and, later, Poland. Historians note that in many ways the Great Retreat of the Russian army was provoked by a supply crisis. The front stabilized only in the fall. German troops occupied the west of the Volyn province and partially repeated the pre-war borders with Austria-Hungary. The position of the troops, just like in France, contributed to the start of a trench war.

1915 was marked by Italy's entry into the war (May 23). Despite the fact that the country was a member of the Quadruple Alliance, it declared the start of war against Austria-Hungary. But on October 14, Bulgaria declared war on the Entente alliance, which led to a complication of the situation in Serbia and its imminent fall.

During the military campaign of 1916, one of the most famous battles First World War - Verdun. In an effort to suppress French resistance, the German command concentrated enormous forces in the area of the Verdun salient, hoping to overcome the Anglo-French defense. During this operation, from February 21 to December 18, up to 750 thousand soldiers of England and France and up to 450 thousand soldiers of Germany died. The Battle of Verdun is also famous for the fact that a new type of weapon was used for the first time - a flamethrower. However, the greatest effect of this weapon was psychological. To assist the allies, an effort was made on the Western Russian Front offensive, called the Brusilov breakthrough. This forced Germany to transfer serious forces to the Russian front and somewhat eased the position of the Allies.

It should be noted that military operations developed not only on land. There was a fierce confrontation between the blocs of the world's strongest powers on the water as well. It was in the spring of 1916 that one of the main battles of the First World War at sea took place – the Battle of Jutland. In general, at the end of the year the Entente bloc became dominant. The Quadruple Alliance's peace proposal was rejected.

During the military campaign of 1917, the preponderance of forces in the direction of the Entente increased even more and the United States joined the obvious winners. But the weakening of the economies of all countries participating in the conflict, as well as the growth of revolutionary tension, led to a decrease in military activity. The German command decides on strategic defense on land fronts, while at the same time focusing on attempts to take England out of the war using submarine fleet. In the winter of 1916–17 there were no active hostilities in the Caucasus. The situation in Russia has become extremely aggravated. In fact, after the October events the country left the war.

1918 brought important victories to the Entente, which led to the end of the First World War.

After Russia actually left the war, Germany managed to liquidate the eastern front. She made peace with Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. The terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty, concluded between Russia and Germany in March 1918, turned out to be extremely difficult for the country, but this treaty was soon annulled.

Subsequently, Germany occupied the Baltic states, Poland and part of Belarus, after which it threw all its forces onto the Western Front. But, thanks to the technical superiority of the Entente, the German troops were defeated. After Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria made peace with the Entente countries, Germany found itself on the brink of disaster. Due to revolutionary events, Emperor Wilhelm leaves his country. November 11, 1918 Germany signs the act of surrender.

According to modern data, losses in the First World War amounted to 10 million soldiers. Accurate data on civilian casualties does not exist. Presumably, due to harsh living conditions, epidemics and famine, twice as many people died.

Following the First World War, Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years. It lost 1/8 of its territory, and the colonies went to the victorious countries. The banks of the Rhine were occupied by Allied forces for 15 years. Also, Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people. Strict restrictions were imposed on all types of weapons.

But the Consequences of the First World War also affected the situation in the victorious countries. Their economy, with the possible exception of the United States, was difficult condition. The standard of living of the population has dropped sharply, national economy has fallen into disrepair. At the same time, the military monopolies became richer. For Russia, the First World War became a serious destabilizing factor, which largely influenced the development of the revolutionary situation in the country and caused the subsequent civil war.

The last century brought humanity two of the most terrible conflict– The First and Second World Wars, which captured the whole world. And if the echoes of the Patriotic War are still heard, then the clashes of 1914–1918 have already been forgotten, despite their cruelty. Who fought with whom, what were the reasons for the confrontation and in what year did World War I begin?

A military conflict does not start suddenly; there are a number of prerequisites that, directly or indirectly, eventually become the causes of an open clash between armies. Disagreements between the main participants in the conflict, the powerful powers, began to grow long before the start of open battles.

The German Empire began to exist, which was the natural end of the Franco-Prussian battles of 1870-1871. At the same time, the government of the empire argued that the state had no aspirations to seize power and dominate the territory of Europe.

After devastating internal conflicts, the German monarchy needed time to recuperate and recruit military power, for this you need peaceful times. In addition, European states are willing to cooperate with it and refrain from creating an opposing coalition.

Developing peacefully, by the mid-1880s the Germans had become quite strong in the military and economic spheres and changed their foreign policy priorities, beginning to fight for dominance in Europe. At the same time, a course was set for the expansion of the southern lands, since the country did not have overseas colonies.

The colonial division of the world allowed the two strongest states - Great Britain and France - to take possession of economically attractive lands around the world. In order to gain overseas markets, the Germans needed to defeat these states and seize their colonies.

But in addition to their neighbors, the Germans had to defeat the Russian state, since in 1891 it entered into a defensive alliance called the “Concord of the Heart,” or the Entente, with France and England (joined in 1907).

Austria-Hungary, in turn, tried to retain the annexed territories it received (Herzegovina and Bosnia) and at the same time tried to resist Russia, which set as its goal to protect and unite the Slavic peoples in Europe and could start a confrontation. Russia's ally, Serbia, also posed a danger to Austria-Hungary.

The same tense situation existed in the Middle East: it was there that the foreign policy interests of European states collided, who wanted to gain new territories and greater benefits from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

Here Russia claimed its rights, laying claim to the shores of two straits: the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. In addition, Emperor Nicholas II wanted to gain control over Anatolia, since this territory allowed access by land to the Middle East.

The Russians did not want to allow these territories to be lost to Greece and Bulgaria. Therefore, European clashes were beneficial to them, since they allowed them to seize the desired lands in the East.

So, two alliances were created, the interests and confrontation of which became the fundamental basis of the First World War:

Entente - it consisted of Russia, France and Great Britain.
The Triple Alliance included the empires of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, as well as the Italians.

Important to know! Later, the Ottomans and Bulgarians joined the Triple Alliance and the name was changed to the Quadruple Alliance.

The main reasons for the outbreak of the war were:

German desire to own large areas and take a dominant position in the world.
France's desire to occupy a leading position in Europe.
Great Britain's desire to weaken European countries that posed a danger.
Russia's attempt to take possession of new territories and protect the Slavic peoples from aggression.
Confrontations between European and Asian states for spheres of influence.

The economic crisis and the divergence of interests of the leading powers of Europe, and then other states, led to the beginning of an open military conflict, which lasted from 1914 to 1918.

Germany's goals

Who started the battles? Germany is considered the main aggressor and the country that actually started the First World War. But at the same time, it is a mistake to believe that she alone wanted a conflict, despite the active preparation of the Germans and the provocation that became official reason open clashes.

All European countries had their own interests, the achievement of which required victory over their neighbors.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the empire was developing rapidly and was well prepared from a military point of view: it had good army, modern weapons and a strong economy. Due to constant strife between the German lands, until the mid-19th century, Europe did not consider the Germans as a serious adversary and competitor. But after the unification of the lands of the empire and the restoration of the internal economy, the Germans not only became important character on the European stage, but also began to think about seizing colonial lands.

The division of the world into colonies brought England and France not only an expanded market and cheap hired force, but also an abundance of food. The German economy began to move from intensive development to stagnation due to market glut, and population growth and limited territories led to food shortages.

The country's leadership came to the decision to completely change its foreign policy, and instead of peaceful participation in European unions, it chose illusory domination through the military seizure of territories. The First World War began immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Franz Ferdinand, which was arranged by the Germans.

Participants in the conflict

Who fought with whom throughout all the battles? The main participants are concentrated in two camps:

Triple and then Quadruple Alliance;
Entente.

The first camp included the Germans, Austro-Hungarians and Italians. This alliance was created back in the 1880s, its main goal was to confront France.

At the beginning of the First World War, the Italians took neutrality, thereby violating the plans of the allies, and later they completely betrayed them, in 1915 they went over to the side of England and France and took an opposing position. Instead, the Germans had new allies: the Turks and Bulgarians, who had their own clashes with members of the Entente.

In the First World War, to briefly list, in addition to the Germans, the Russians, the French and the British took part, who acted within the framework of one military bloc “Consent” (this is how the word Entente is translated). It was created in 1893–1907 in order to protect the allied countries from the ever-growing military power of the Germans and to strengthen the Triple Alliance. The Allies were also supported by other states that did not want the Germans to strengthen, including Belgium, Greece, Portugal and Serbia.

Important to know! Russia’s allies in the conflict were also outside Europe, including China, Japan, and the USA.

In World War I, Russia fought not only with Germany, but with a number of smaller states, for example, Albania. Only two main fronts developed: in the West and East. In addition to them, battles took place in Transcaucasia and in the Middle Eastern and African colonies.

Interests of the parties

The main interest of all battles was land; due to various circumstances, each side sought to conquer additional territory. All states had their own interest:

The Russian Empire wanted open access to the seas.
Great Britain sought to weaken Turkey and Germany.
France - to return their lands.
Germany - to expand its territory by capturing neighboring European states, and also gain a number of colonies.
Austria-Hungary - control sea routes and retain annexed territories.
Italy - gain dominance in southern Europe and the Mediterranean.

The approaching collapse of the Ottoman Empire forced states to also think about seizing its lands. The map of military operations shows the main fronts and offensives of the opponents.

Important to know! In addition to maritime interests, Russia wanted to unite all Slavic lands under itself, and the government was especially interested in the Balkans.

Each country had clear plans to seize territory and was determined to win. Most European countries took part in the conflict, and their military capabilities were approximately the same, which led to a protracted and passive war.

Results

When did the First World War end? It ended in November 1918 - it was then that Germany capitulated, concluding a treaty at Versailles in June of the following year, thereby showing who won the First World War - the French and the British.

The Russians were the losers on the winning side, having withdrawn from the battles as early as March 1918 due to serious internal political divisions. In addition to Versailles, 4 more peace treaties were signed with the main warring parties.

For four empires, the First World War ended with their collapse: the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, the Ottomans were overthrown in Turkey, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians also became republicans.

There were also changes in the territories, in particular the seizure of: Western Thrace by Greece, Tanzania by England, Romania took possession of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia, and the French - Alsace-Lorraine and Lebanon. The Russian Empire lost a number of territories that declared independence, among them: Belarus, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, Ukraine and the Baltic states.

The French occupied the German Saar region, and Serbia annexed a number of lands (including Slovenia and Croatia) and subsequently created the state of Yugoslavia. Russia's battles in World War I were costly: in addition to big losses on the fronts, has already worsened difficult situation in economics.

The internal situation was tense long before the start of the campaign, and when, after an intense first year of fighting, the country switched to positional struggle, the suffering people actively supported the revolution and overthrew the unwanted tsar.

This confrontation showed that from now on all armed conflicts will be total in nature, and the entire population and all available resources of the state will be involved.

Important to know! For the first time in history, opponents used chemical weapons.

Both military blocs, entering into confrontation, had approximately the same firepower, which led to protracted fighting. Equal forces at the beginning of the campaign led to the fact that after its end, each country was actively engaged in building up firepower and actively developing modern and powerful weapons.

The scale and passive nature of the battles led to a complete restructuring of the countries' economies and production towards militarization, which in turn significantly influenced the direction of development of the European economy in 1915–1939. Characteristics of this period were:

strengthening state influence and control in the economic sphere;
creation of military complexes;
rapid development of energy systems;
growth of defense products.

Wikipedia says that during that historical period of time, the First World War was the bloodiest - it claimed only about 32 million lives, including military personnel and civilians who died from hunger and disease or from bombing. But those soldiers who survived were psychologically traumatized by the war and could not lead a normal life. In addition, many of them were poisoned chemical weapons, used on the fronts.

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Let's sum it up

Germany, which was confident of its victory in 1914, ceased to be a monarchy in 1918, lost a number of its lands and was greatly weakened economically not only by military losses, but also by mandatory reparations payments. The difficult conditions and general humiliation of the nation that the Germans experienced after defeat by the Allies gave rise to and fueled the nationalist sentiments that would later lead to the conflict of 1939–1945.

Causes and nature of the First World War. The main goal of the First World War was precisely the redivision of the world. The initiators of the First World War were Germany and Austria-Hungary. With the development of capitalism, contradictions between major powers and military-political blocs intensified;

weaken England.
struggle for the redivision of the world.
to fragment France and take over its main metallurgical bases.
capture Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, the Baltic countries and thereby weaken Russia.
cut off Russia from the Baltic Sea.

The main goal of Austria-Hungary was:

capture Serbia and Montenegro;
gain a foothold in the Balkans;
tear Podolia and Volyn away from Russia.

Italy's goal was to gain a foothold in the Balkans. By joining the First World War, England wanted to weaken Germany and divide Ottoman Empire.

Russia's goals in World War I:

prevent the strengthening of German influence in Turkey and the Middle East;
gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Black Sea straits;
take possession of Turkish lands;
capture Galicia, which was subordinate to Austria-Hungary.

The Russian bourgeoisie expected to enrich itself through the First World War. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Bosnia by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914 was used as a pretext for war.
On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia announced mobilization to help Serbia. Therefore, on August 1, Germany declared war on Russia. On August 3, Germany declared war on France, and on August 4, it attacked Belgium. Thus, the treaty on the neutrality of Belgium, signed by Prussia, was declared “a simple piece of paper.” On August 4, England stood up for Belgium and declared war on Germany.
On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany, but did not send troops to Europe. She began to seize German lands on Far East and subjugate China.
In October 1914, Türkiye entered the First World War on the side of the Triple Alliance. In response, Russia declared war on Turkey on October 2, England on October 5, and France on October 6.

The First World War, involving 38 countries, was unjust and aggressive
First World War 1914
At the beginning of the First World War, three fronts were formed in Europe: Western, Eastern (Russian) and Balkan. A little later, the fourth was formed - the Caucasian front, on which Russia and Türkiye fought. The “Blitzkrieg” (“Lightning War”) plan prepared by Schlieffen came true: on August 2, the Germans took Luxembourg, on the 4th - Belgium, and from there entered Northern France. The French government temporarily left Paris.
Russia, wanting to help the allies, sent two armies into East Prussia on August 7, 1914. Germany withdrew two infantry corps from the French front and cavalry division and sent to the Eastern Front. Due to inconsistency in the actions of the Russian command, the first Russian army died at the Masurian Lakes. The German command was able to concentrate its forces on the second Russian army. Two Russian corps were surrounded and destroyed. But the Russian army in Galicia (Western Ukraine) defeated Austria-Hungary and moved into East Prussia.
To stop the Russian advance, Germany had to withdraw 6 more corps from the French direction. Thus France was freed from the danger of defeat. On the seas, Germany waged a cruising war with Britain. On September 6-12, 1914, on the banks of the Marne River, Anglo-French troops repulsed the German attack and launched a counteroffensive. The Germans managed to stop the Allies only on the Aisne River. Thus, as a result of the Battle of the Marne, the German plan for the Blitz was a failure. Germany was forced to fight a war on two fronts. The war of maneuver turned into a positional war.

First World War - military operations in 1915-1916
In the spring of 1915, the Eastern Front became the main front of the First World War. In 1915, the main focus of the Triple Alliance was on withdrawing Russia from the war. In May 1915, the Russians were defeated in Gorlitsa and retreated. The Germans took Poland and part of the Baltic lands from Russia, but they failed to withdraw Russia from the war and conclude a separate peace with it.
In 1915, there were no significant changes on the Western Front. Germany used submarines against England for the first time.
Germany's unannounced attacks on civilian ships outraged neutral countries. On April 22, 1915, Germany used the poisonous chlorine gas for the first time in Belgium.
To divert the attention of the Turkish army from the Caucasian front, the Anglo-French fleet fired at the fortifications in the Dardanelles Strait, but the allies suffered damage and retreated. According to a secret agreement, in the event of victory in the Entente war, Istanbul was transferred to Russia.
The Entente, having promised Italy a number of territorial acquisitions, won it over to its side. In April 1915 in London, England, France, Russia and Italy entered into a secret agreement. Italy joined the Entente.
And in September 1915, the “Quadruple Alliance” was formed consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria.
In October 1915, the Bulgarian army captured Serbia, and Austria-Hungary captured Montenegro and Albania.
In the summer of 1915, on the Caucasian front, the Turkish army’s offensive on Apashkert ended in vain. At the same time, England's attempt to seize Iraq ended in failure. The Turks defeated the British near Baghdad.
In 1916, the Germans became convinced of the impossibility of withdrawing Russia from the war and again concentrated their efforts on France.
On February 21, 1916, the Battle of Verdun began. This battle went down in history under the name “Verdun Meat Grinder”. The warring parties lost up to a million soldiers at Verdun. In six months of fighting, the Germans conquered a piece of land. The counterattack of the Anglo-French forces also yielded nothing. After the Battle of the Somme in July 1916, the parties again returned to trench warfare. The British used tanks for the first time at the Battle of the Somme.
And on the Caucasian front in 1916, the Russians captured Erzurum and Trabzon.
In August 1916, Romania also entered the First World War, but was immediately defeated by Austro-German-Bulgarian troops.

On June 1, 1916, in the Naval Battle of Jutland, neither the English nor the German fleets achieved an advantage.

In 1917, active protests began in the warring countries. In Russia in February 1917, a bourgeois-democratic revolution took place and the monarchy fell. And in October the Bolsheviks carried out a coup d'état and seized power. On March 3, 1918, the Bolsheviks in Brest-Litovsk concluded a separate peace with Germany and its allies. Russia left the war. According to the terms of the Brest-Litovsk Peace:

Russia lost all territory up to the front line;
Kars, Ardahan, Batum were returned to Turkey;
Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine.

Russia's exit from the war eased Germany's situation.
The United States, which distributed large loans European countries and those who wanted the Entente to win became worried. In April 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. But France and England did not want to share the fruits of victory with America. They wanted to end the war before US troops arrived. Germany wanted to defeat the Entente before the arrival of US troops.
In October 1917, at Caporetto, troops of Germany and Austria-Hungary defeated a significant part of the Italian army.
In May 1918, Romania signed peace with the Quadruple Alliance and withdrew from the war. In order to help the Entente, which lost Romania after Russia, the United States sent 300 thousand soldiers to Europe. With the help of the Americans, the German breakthrough to Paris was stopped on the banks of the Marne. In August 1918, American-Anglo-French troops besieged the Germans. And in Macedonia the Bulgarians and Turks were defeated. Bulgaria left the war.

On October 30, 1918, Türkiye signed the Armistice of Mudros, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary surrendered. Germany accepted the “14 points” program put forward by V. Wilson.
On November 3, 1918, a revolution began in Germany; on November 9, the monarchy was overthrown and a republic was proclaimed.
On November 11, 1918, the French Marshal Foch accepted the surrender of Germany in a staff car in the Compiegne Forest. The First World War is over. Germany pledged to withdraw its troops from France, Belgium, Luxembourg and other occupied territories within 15 days.
Thus, the war ended with the defeat of the Quadruple Alliance. The Entente's advantage in manpower and technology decided the fate of the First World War.
The German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires collapsed. New independent states arose in place of former empires.
The First World War claimed millions of lives. Only the United States enriched itself in this war, turning into a world creditor to whom England, France, Russia, Italy and other European countries owed money.
Japan also successfully emerged from the First World War. She captured the German colonies in Pacific Ocean, increased its influence in China. The First World War marked the beginning of the crisis of the world colonial system.

There was a sharp aggravation of contradictions between the leading countries of the world due to their uneven development. No less important reason became an arms race, on the supply of which the monopolies received super-profits. The militarization of the economy and the consciousness of huge masses of people took place, and sentiments of revanchism and chauvinism grew. The deepest contradictions were between Germany and Great Britain. Germany sought to end British dominance at sea and seize its colonies. Germany's claims to France and Russia were great.

The plans of the top German military leadership included the seizure of the economically developed regions of northeastern France, the desire to tear away the Baltic states, the “Don region”, Crimea and the Caucasus from Russia. In turn, Great Britain wanted to maintain its colonies and dominance at sea, to take away oil-rich Mesopotamia and part of Arabian Peninsula. France, which suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, hoped to regain Alsace and Lorraine and annex the left bank of the Rhine and the Saar coal basin. Austria-Hungary nurtured expansionist plans for Russia (Volyn, Podolia) and Serbia.

Russia sought to annex Galicia and take possession of the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. By 1914 the contradictions between the two military-political groupings of the European powers, the Triple Alliance and the Entente, escalated to the limit. The Balkan Peninsula has become a zone of particular tension. The ruling circles of Austria-Hungary, following the advice of the German emperor, decided to finally establish their influence in the Balkans with one blow to Serbia. Soon a reason was found to declare war. The Austrian command launched military maneuvers near the Serbian border. The head of the Austrian “war party,” heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand, pointedly struck
visit to the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo. On June 28, a bomb was thrown at his carriage, which the Archduke threw away, demonstrating his presence of mind. On the way back, a different route was chosen.

But for some unknown reason, the carriage returned through a labyrinth of poorly guarded streets to the same place. A young man ran out of the crowd and fired two shots. One bullet hit the Archduke in the neck, the other in the stomach of his wife. Both died within minutes. The terrorist act was carried out by Serbian patriots Gavrilo Princip and his associate Gavrilović from the paramilitary organization “Black Hand”. July 5, 1914 Following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austrian government received assurances from Germany to support its claims against Serbia. Kaiser Wilhelm II promised the Austrian representative Count Hoyos that Germany would support Austria even if the conflict with Serbia led to war with Russia. On July 23, the Austrian government presented an ultimatum to Serbia.

It was presented at six in the evening, a response was expected within 48 hours. The terms of the ultimatum were harsh, some seriously hurting Serbia's pan-Slavic ambitions. The Austrians did not expect or desire that the terms would be accepted. On July 7, having received confirmation of German support, the Austrian government decided to provoke a war with an ultimatum and was drawn up with this in mind. Austria was also encouraged by the conclusions that Russia was not ready for war: the sooner it happened, the better, they decided in Vienna. The Serbian response to the ultimatum of July 23 was rejected, although it did not contain unconditional recognition of the demands, and on July 28, 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia. Both sides began mobilizing even before a response was received.

August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia, and two days later on France. After a month of mounting tension, it became clear that a major European war could not be avoided, although Britain still hesitated. A day after the declaration of war on Serbia, when Belgrade was already bombed, Russia began mobilization. The initial order for general mobilization, an act tantamount to a declaration of war, was almost immediately canceled by the tsar in favor of partial mobilization. Perhaps Russia did not expect large-scale actions from Germany. On August 4, German troops invaded Belgium. Luxembourg had suffered the same fate two days earlier. Both states had international guarantees against attack, however, only Belgium's guarantees provided for the intervention of a guaranteeing power. Germany made public the "reasons" for the invasion, accusing Belgium of being "not neutral", but no one took it seriously. The invasion of Belgium brought England into the war. The British government presented an ultimatum demanding an immediate cessation of hostilities and the withdrawal of German soldiers.

The demand was ignored, thus all the great powers Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Russia and England were drawn into the war. Although the great powers had been preparing for war for many years, it still took them by surprise. For example, England and Germany spent enormous amounts of money on the construction of navies, but bulky floating fortresses played a minor role in the battles, although they undoubtedly had strategic importance. Likewise, no one expected that the infantry (especially on the Western Front) would lose the ability to move, being paralyzed by the power of artillery and machine guns (although this was predicted by the Polish banker Ivan Bloch in his work “The Future of War” in 1899). In terms of training and organization, the German army was the best in Europe. In addition, the Germans burned with patriotism and faith in their great destiny, which had not yet been realized.

Germany understood better than anyone the importance of modern combat heavy artillery and machine guns, and the importance of railway communications. The Austro-Hungarian army was a copy of the German army, but was inferior to it due to the explosive mixture of different nationalities in its composition and mediocre performance in previous wars.

The French army was only 20% smaller than the German one, but its manpower was barely more than half. The main difference, therefore, was the reserves. Germany had a lot of them, France had nothing at all. France, like most other countries, hoped for a short war. She was not ready for a prolonged conflict. Like the rest, France believed that movement would decide everything, and did not expect static trench warfare.

Russia's main advantage was its inexhaustible human resources and the proven courage of the Russian soldier, but its leadership was corrupt and incompetent, and its industrial backwardness made Russia unsuited to modern warfare. Communications were very poor, the borders were endless, and the allies were geographically cut off. It was assumed that Russian participation, declared as “pan-Slavic” crusade", represented a desperate attempt to restore ethnic unity under the leadership of the Tsarist regime. Britain's position was completely different. Britain has never had big army and even in the 18th century it depended on naval forces, and traditions rejected the “standing army” from even more ancient times.

The British army was thus extremely small in number, but highly professional and had main goal maintain order in overseas possessions. There were doubts whether the British command would be able to lead a real company. Some commanders were too old, although this disadvantage was also inherent in Germany. The most striking example of an incorrect assessment of character modern warfare there was widespread agreement between the commands of both sides that the most important role cavalry. At sea, traditional British supremacy was challenged by Germany.

In 1914 Britain had 29 capital ships, Germany 18. Britain also underestimated enemy submarines, although it was especially vulnerable to them due to its dependence on overseas supplies of food and raw materials for its industry. Britain became the main factory for the Allies, as Germany was for its own. The First World War was fought on almost a dozen fronts in different parts of the world globe. The main fronts were the Western, where German troops fought fighting against English, French and Belgian troops; and Eastern, where Russian troops confronted the combined forces of the Austro-Hungarian and German armies. The human, raw material and food resources of the Entente countries significantly exceeded those of the Central Powers, so the chances of Germany and Austria-Hungary to win a war on two fronts were slim.

The German command understood this and therefore relied on a lightning war. War plan developed by the commander General Staff Germany von Schlieffen, proceeded from the fact that Russia would need at least a month and a half to concentrate its troops. During this time, it was planned to defeat France and force it to surrender. Then it was planned to transfer all German troops against Russia.

According to the Schlieffen Plan, the war was supposed to end in two months. But these calculations did not come true. At the beginning of August the main forces German army approached the Belgian fortress of Liege, which covered crossings across the Meuse River, and after bloody battles captured all its forts. On August 20, German troops entered the Belgian capital Brussels. German troops reached the Franco-Belgian border and in a “border battle” defeated the French, forcing them to retreat deeper into the territory, which created a threat to Paris. The German command overestimated its successes and, considering the strategic plan in the West completed, transferred two army corps and a cavalry division to the East. In early September, German troops reached the Marne River, trying to encircle the French. In the Battle of the Marne River September 3-10, 1914. Anglo-French troops stopped the German advance on Paris and even short time managed to launch a counteroffensive. One and a half million people took part in this battle.

Losses on both sides amounted to almost 600 thousand people killed and wounded. The result of the Battle of the Marne was the final failure of the “blitzkrieg” plans. The weakened German army began to "burrow" into the trenches. The Western Front, stretching from the English Channel to the Swiss border, by the end of 1914. stabilized. Both sides began building earthen and concrete fortifications. The wide strip in front of the trenches was mined and covered with thick rows of barbed wire. The war on the Western Front turned from a “maneuver” war into a positional one. The offensive of Russian troops in East Prussia ended unsuccessfully; they were defeated and partially destroyed in the Masurian swamps. The offensive of the Russian army under the command of General Brusilov in Galicia and Bukovina, on the contrary, pushed the Austro-Hungarian units back to the Carpathians. By the end of 1914 there was also a respite on the Eastern Front. The warring parties switched to a long trench war.

August Icon of the Mother of God

August icon Holy Mother of God- an icon revered in the Russian church, painted in memory of its appearance in 1914 to Russian soldiers on the North-Western Front, shortly before the victory in the Battle of Augustow, in the area of the city of Augustow, Suwalki province Russian Empire(now in Eastern Poland). The event of the appearance of the Mother of God itself occurred on September 14, 1914. The Gatchina and Tsarskoye Selo cuirassier regiments of the Life Guards moved towards the Russian-German border. At about 11 o'clock at night, the Mother of God appeared to the soldiers of the cuirassier regiment; the vision lasted 30-40 minutes. All the soldiers and officers knelt down and prayed, watching the Mother of God in the dark night starry sky: in extraordinary radiance, with the Infant Jesus Christ sitting on Her left hand. Right hand She pointed to the west - the troops were moving in this direction.

A few days later, a message was received at Headquarters from General Sh., the commander of a separate unit in the Prussian theater of military operations, which said that after our retreat, a Russian officer with an entire half-squadron saw a vision. It was 11 o'clock in the evening, a private came running with a surprised face and said: “Your Honor, go.” Lieutenant R. went and suddenly sees the Mother of God in heaven with Jesus Christ on one hand, and with the other hand pointing to the west. All the lower ranks are on their knees and pray to the Heavenly Patroness. He looked at the vision for a long time, then this vision changed into a Grand Cross and disappeared. After this, a big battle took place in the west near Augustow, which was marked by a great victory.

Therefore, this appearance of the Mother of God was called the “Sign of the August Victory”, or “August Appearance”. The appearance of the Mother of God in the Augustow forests was reported to Emperor Nicholas II, and he gave the order to paint an iconographic depiction of this appearance. The Holy Synod considered the issue of the appearance of the Mother of God for about a year and a half and on March 31, 1916, made the decision: “to bless the honoring in the churches of God and the houses of believers of icons depicting the said appearance of the Mother of God to Russian soldiers...”. On April 17, 2008, on the recommendation of the Publishing Council of the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II blessed the inclusion of a celebration in honor of the August Icon of the Mother of God into the official calendar.

The celebration is set to take place on September 1 (14). On November 5, 1914, Russia, England and France declared war on Turkey. In October, the Turkish government closed the Dardanelles and Bosporus to Allied ships, virtually isolating Russia's Black Sea ports from the outside world and causing irreparable damage to its economy. This move by Turkey was an effective contribution to the war efforts of the Central Powers. The next provocative step was the shelling of Odessa and other southern Russian ports at the end of October by a squadron of Turkish warships. The declining Ottoman Empire gradually collapsed and over the last half century lost most of its European possessions. The army was exhausted by unsuccessful military operations against the Italians in Tripoli, and the Balkan Wars caused further depletion of its resources. The Young Turk leader Enver Pasha, who, as Minister of War, was a leading figure on the Turkish political scene, believed that an alliance with Germany would best serve his country's interests, and on August 2, 1914, a secret treaty was signed between the two countries.

The German military mission had been active in Turkey since the end of 1913. She was tasked with reorganizing the Turkish army. Despite serious objections from his German advisers, Enver Pasha decided to invade the Russian Caucasus and launched a heavy offensive in mid-December 1914. weather conditions. The Turkish soldiers fought well, but suffered a severe defeat. However, the Russian high command was concerned about the threat that Turkey posed to Russia's southern borders and the German strategic plans A good service was served by the fact that this threat in this sector pinned down the Russian troops, who were in great need on other fronts.

To thoroughly understand how the First World War (1914-1918) began, you must first become familiar with the political situation that developed in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century. The prehistory of the global military conflict was the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). It ended with the complete defeat of France, and the confederate union of German states was transformed into the German Empire. Wilhelm I became its head on January 18, 1871. Thus, a powerful power emerged in Europe with a population of 41 million people and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.

Political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

At first, the German Empire did not strive for political dominance in Europe, since it was economically weak. But over the course of 15 years, the country gained strength and began to claim a more worthy place in the Old World. Here it must be said that politics is always determined by the economy, and German capital had very few markets. This can be explained by the fact that Germany in its colonial expansion was hopelessly behind Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, France, and Russia.

Map of Europe by 1914 Brown color Germany and its allies are shown. Green Entente countries shown

It is also necessary to take into account the small area of the state, whose population was growing rapidly. It required food, but there was not enough of it. In a word, Germany gained strength, but the world was already divided, and no one was going to voluntarily give up the promised lands. There was only one way out - to take away the tasty morsels by force and provide a decent, prosperous life for your capital and people.

The German Empire did not hide its ambitious claims, but it could not resist England, France and Russia alone. Therefore, in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed a military-political bloc (Triple Alliance). Its consequences were the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) and the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912). It was a test of strength, a rehearsal for a more serious and large-scale military conflict.

In response to increasing German aggression in 1904-1907, a military-political bloc of Cordial Concord (Entente) was formed, which included England, France and Russia. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, two powerful military forces emerged in Europe. One of them, led by Germany, sought to expand its living space, and the other force tried to counteract these plans in order to protect its economic interests.

Germany's ally, Austria-Hungary, represented a hotbed of instability in Europe. It was a multinational country, which constantly provoked interethnic conflicts. In October 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Herzegovina and Bosnia. This caused sharp discontent in Russia, which had the status of protector of the Slavs in the Balkans. Russia was supported by Serbia, which considered itself the unifying center of the South Slavs.

A tense political situation was observed in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire, which once dominated here, began to be called the “sick man of Europe” at the beginning of the 20th century. And therefore, more people began to claim its territory strong countries, which provoked political disagreements and local wars. All of the above information has given a general idea of the background to the global military conflict, and now it’s time to find out how the First World War began.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The political situation in Europe was heating up every day and by 1914 it had reached its peak. All that was needed was a small push, a pretext for unleashing a global military conflict. And soon such an opportunity presented itself. It went down in history as the Sarajevo murder, and it happened on June 28, 1914.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia

On that ill-fated day, Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918), a member of the nationalist organization Mlada Bosna (Young Bosnia), killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) and his wife Countess Sofia Chotek (1868-1914). “Mlada Bosna” advocated the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary and was ready to use any methods for this, including terrorism.

The Archduke and his wife arrived in the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, at the invitation of the Austro-Hungarian governor, General Oscar Potiorek (1853-1933). Everyone knew about the arrival of the crowned couple in advance, and members of Mlada Bosna decided to kill Ferdinand. For this purpose, a battle group of 6 people was created. It consisted of young people, natives of Bosnia.

Early on the morning of Sunday, June 28, 1914, the crowned couple arrived in Sarajevo by train. She was met on the platform by Oscar Potiorek, journalists and an enthusiastic crowd of loyal colleagues. The arrivals and high-ranking greeters were seated in 6 cars, while the Archduke and his wife found themselves in the third car with the top folded. The motorcade took off and rushed towards the military barracks.

By 10 o'clock the inspection of the barracks was completed, and all 6 cars drove along the Appel embankment to the city hall. This time the car with the crowned couple was the second in the motorcade. At 10:10 a.m. the moving cars caught up with one of the terrorists named Nedeljko Chabrinovic. This young man threw a grenade, aiming at the car with the Archduke. But the grenade hit the convertible top, flew under the third car and exploded.

Detention of Gavrilo Princip, who killed Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The driver of the car was killed by shrapnel, passengers were injured, as well as people who were near the car at that moment. A total of 20 people were injured. The terrorist himself swallowed potassium cyanide. However, it did not give the desired effect. The man vomited, and he jumped into the river to escape the crowd. But the river in that place turned out to be very shallow. The terrorist was dragged ashore, and angry people brutally beat him. After this, the crippled conspirator was handed over to the police.

After the explosion, the motorcade increased speed and reached the city hall without incident. There a magnificent reception awaited the crowned couple, and, despite the assassination attempt, the official part took place. At the end of the celebration, it was decided to curtail the further program due to the emergency situation. It was decided only to go to the hospital to visit the wounded there. At 10:45 a.m. the cars started moving again and drove along Franz Joseph Street.

Another terrorist, Gavrilo Princip, was waiting for the moving motorcade. He was standing outside the Moritz Schiller Delicatessen store next to the Latin Bridge. Seeing the crowned couple sitting in a convertible car, the conspirator stepped forward, caught up with the car and found himself next to it at a distance of only one and a half meters. He shot twice. The first bullet hit Sophia in the stomach, and the second in Ferdinand's neck.

After shooting people, the conspirator tried to poison himself, but, like the first terrorist, he only vomited. Then Princip tried to shoot himself, but people ran up, took the gun away and began beating the 19-year-old man. He was beaten so badly that the killer's arm was amputated in the prison hospital. Subsequently, the court sentenced Gavrilo Princip to 20 years of hard labor, since according to the laws of Austria-Hungary he was a minor at the time of the crime. In prison, the young man was kept in the most difficult conditions and died of tuberculosis on April 28, 1918.

Ferdinand and Sofia, wounded by the conspirator, remained sitting in the car, which rushed to the governor’s residence. There they were going to provide medical assistance to the victims. But the couple died on the way. First, Sofia died, and 10 minutes later Ferdinand gave his soul to God. Thus ended the Sarajevo murder, which became the reason for the outbreak of the First World War.

July crisis

The July Crisis was a series of diplomatic clashes between the leading powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, provoked by the Sarajevo assassination. Of course, this political conflict could have been resolved peacefully, but strong of the world I really wanted this war. And this desire was based on the confidence that the war would be very short and effective. But it became protracted and claimed more than 20 million human lives.

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sophia

After the assassination of Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary stated that Serbian state structures were behind the conspirators. At the same time, Germany publicly announced to the whole world that in the event of a military conflict in the Balkans, it would support Austria-Hungary. This statement was made on July 5, 1914, and on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia. In particular, in it the Austrians demanded that their police be allowed into the territory of Serbia for investigative actions and punishment of terrorist groups.

The Serbs could not do this and announced mobilization in the country. Literally two days later, on July 26, the Austrians also announced mobilization and began to gather troops to the borders of Serbia and Russia. The final touch in this local conflict was July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. After artillery bombardment, Austrian troops crossed the Serbian border.

On July 29, Russian Emperor Nicholas II invited Germany to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict at the Hague Conference peacefully. But Germany did not respond to this. Then, on July 31, general mobilization was announced in the Russian Empire. In response to this, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and war on France on August 3. Already on August 4, German troops entered Belgium, and its king Albert turned to European countries as guarantors of its neutrality.

After this, Great Britain sent a note of protest to Berlin and demanded an immediate end to the invasion of Belgium. The German government ignored the note, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. And the final touch of this general madness came on August 6th. On this day, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. This is how the First World War began.

Soldiers in the First World War

Officially it lasted from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Military operations took place in Central, Eastern Europe, in the Balkans, Caucasus, Middle East, Africa, China, Oceania. Human civilization had never known anything like this before. It was the largest military conflict that shook the state foundations of the leading countries of the planet. After the war, the world became different, but humanity did not grow wiser and by the middle of the 20th century unleashed an even larger massacre that claimed many more lives.