Discovery of gunpowder belongs to the emperor ancient China Wu Di Han Dynasty (156-87 BC) The Emperor wanted to live and rule forever, so he ordered his Taoist alchemists (the religious scholars of his empire) to research and discover a potion or elixir eternal life. Alchemists mixed all kinds of compounds together, heating them until high temperatures to transform them. They tried sulfur and saltpeter as one of the ingredients.

Of course, they haven't found a way to live immortally, but they have discovered some very interesting properties these two materials.

Today we know saltpeter as potassium nitrate. Saltpeter and sulfur are among the key ingredients in gunpowder. Potassium nitrate contains nitrogen (N-NO3) - 13% and potassium (K2O) - 46%. Now known as potassium-nitrogen fertilizer.

Chinese alchemist experimentation continued into the Tang Dynasty, which ruled China during the 8th century. They combined saltpeter and sulfur with coal, recording the discovery of gunpowder. They initially used the invention for humanitarian purposes: treating skin diseases and exterminating insects. After some time, they realized that this powerful explosive could have other uses.

First firearm

The discovery of gunpowder gave impetus to the invention of the first firearms. First firearm consisted of green bamboo shoots filled with gunpowder inside to give a more powerful blow. This was also the beginning of fireworks displays in China.

The Chinese rulers of every dynasty were constantly concerned about protecting their borders. They knew that having gunpowder weapons that could shoot fire would give them a great advantage over enemy warriors. The Emperor immediately set his scientists and military leaders to work on creating the first firearm using gunpowder.

The first firearms appeared in the form of tubes filled with gunpowder. These tubes were tied to arrows and fired at an angle towards the enemy. The so-called "flying fire" resembled miniature rockets. The noise and fire terrified both the enemy and their horses. It turned out effective means. The Song Dynasty military used these flying fire arrows in battle against the Mongols around 904 AD. During this time, the Chinese discovered that gunpowder tubes were powerful enough to shoot themselves without a bow to launch them. They became the first rockets.

Soon, another means - the first firearms spear was invented. The spear had a simple design with a tube filled with gunpowder connected to a pike or long spear, which was thrown towards the enemy or at the enemy's fortress. This was the first flamethrower.

The first firearms were modified, and original designs of “shooter's flying fire” appeared. Further, based on the discovery of gunpowder, they came up with hand grenades, projectiles, and poisonous gases released.

These were the forerunners of the land-based firearms used on battlefields today, thousands of years later.

Fantasy authors often bypass the possibilities of smoke powder, preferring the good old sword and magic. And this is strange, because primitive firearms are not only a natural, but also a necessary element of the medieval setting. It was no coincidence that warriors with “fiery shooting” appeared in knightly armies. The spread of heavy armor naturally led to an increase in interest in weapons capable of piercing them.

Ancient "lights"

Sulfur. A common component of spells and component gunpowder

The secret of gunpowder (if, of course, we can talk about a secret here) lies in the special properties of saltpeter. Namely, the ability of this substance to release oxygen when heated. If saltpeter is mixed with any fuel and set on fire, a “chain reaction” will begin. The oxygen released by saltpeter will increase the intensity of combustion, and the hotter the flame flares up, the more oxygen will be released.

People learned to use saltpeter to increase the effectiveness of incendiary mixtures back in the 1st millennium BC. It was just not easy to find her. In countries with hot and very humid climates, white, snow-like crystals could sometimes be found on the site of old fire pits. But in Europe, saltpeter was found only in stinking sewer tunnels or in populated areas. bats caves.

Before gunpowder was used for explosions and throwing cannonballs and bullets, compositions based on nitrate for a long time served for the manufacture of incendiary shells and flamethrowers. For example, the legendary “Greek fire” was a mixture of saltpeter with oil, sulfur and rosin. Sulfur, which ignites at low temperatures, was added to facilitate ignition of the composition. Rosin was required to thicken the “cocktail” so that the charge would not flow out of the flamethrower pipe.

The “Greek fire” really could not be extinguished. After all, saltpeter dissolved in boiling oil continued to release oxygen and support combustion even under water.

In order for gunpowder to become an explosive, saltpeter must make up 60% of its mass. In the “Greek fire” there was half as much. But even this amount was enough to make the oil combustion process unusually violent.

The Byzantines were not the inventors of “Greek fire”, but borrowed it from the Arabs back in the 7th century. The saltpeter and oil necessary for its production were also purchased in Asia. If we take into account that the Arabs themselves called saltpeter “Chinese salt” and rockets “Chinese arrows”, it will not be difficult to guess where this technology came from.

Spreading gunpowder

It is very difficult to indicate the place and time of the first use of saltpeter for incendiary compositions, fireworks and rockets. But the credit for inventing cannons definitely belongs to the Chinese. The ability of gunpowder to throw projectiles from metal barrels is reported in Chinese chronicles of the 7th century. The discovery of a method for “growing” saltpeter in special pits or shafts made of earth and manure dates back to the 7th century. This technology made it possible to regularly use flamethrowers and rockets, and later firearms.

The barrel of the Dardanelles cannon - from a similar gun the Turks shot down the walls of Constantinople

At the beginning of the 13th century, after the capture of Constantinople, the recipe for “Greek fire” fell into the hands of the crusaders. The first descriptions of “real” exploding gunpowder by European scientists date back to the middle of the 13th century. The use of gunpowder for throwing stones became known to the Arabs no later than the 11th century.

In the “classic” version, black gunpowder included 60% saltpeter and 20% each of sulfur and charcoal. Charcoal could successfully be replaced with ground brown coal (brown powder), cotton wool or dried sawdust (white gunpowder). There was even “blue” gunpowder, in which coal was replaced with cornflower flowers.

Sulfur was also not always present in gunpowder. For cannons, the charge in which was ignited not by sparks, but by a torch or a hot rod, gunpowder could be made consisting only of saltpeter and brown coal. When firing from guns, sulfur could not be mixed into the gunpowder, but poured directly onto the shelf.

Inventor of gunpowder

Invented? Well, step aside, don't stand there like a donkey

In 1320, the German monk Berthold Schwarz finally “invented” gunpowder. It is now impossible to determine how many people in different countries They invented gunpowder before Schwartz, but we can say with confidence that after him no one succeeded!

Berthold Schwartz (whose name, by the way, was Berthold Niger) of course, did not invent anything. The “classic” composition of gunpowder became known to Europeans even before its birth. But in his treatise “On the Benefits of Gunpowder” he gave clear practical recommendations on the manufacture and use of gunpowder and cannons. It was thanks to his work that during the second half of the 14th century the art of fire shooting began to rapidly spread in Europe.

The first gunpowder factory was built in 1340 in Strasbourg. Soon after this, the production of saltpeter and gunpowder began in Russia. The exact date of this event is not known, but already in 1400 Moscow burned for the first time as a result of an explosion in a gunpowder workshop.

Fire tubes

First depiction of a European cannon, 1326

The simplest hand-held firearm - the hand grip - appeared in China already in the middle of the 12th century. The most ancient samopals of the Spanish Moors date back to the same period. And from the beginning of the 14th century, “fire-fighting pipes” began to be fired in Europe. Hand cranks appear in the chronicles under many names. The Chinese called such a weapon pao, the Moors called it modfa or carabine (hence “carbine”), and the Europeans called it hand bombard, handcanona, sclopetta, petrinal or culverina.

The handle weighed from 4 to 6 kilograms and was a blank of soft iron, copper or bronze drilled from the inside. The barrel length ranged from 25 to 40 centimeters, the caliber could be 30 millimeters or more. The projectile was usually a round lead bullet. In Europe, however, until the beginning of the 15th century, lead was rare, and self-propelled guns were often loaded with small stones.

Swedish hand cannon from the 14th century

As a rule, the petrinal was mounted on a shaft, the end of which was clamped under the armpit or inserted into the current of the cuirass. Less commonly, the butt could cover the shooter's shoulder from above. Such tricks had to be resorted to because it was impossible to rest the butt of the handbrake on the shoulder: after all, the shooter could support the weapon with only one hand, and with the other he brought the fire to the fuse. The charge was ignited with a “scorching candle” - a wooden stick soaked in saltpeter. The stick was pressed against the ignition hole and turned, rolling in the fingers. Sparks and pieces of smoldering wood fell inside the barrel and sooner or later ignited the gunpowder.

Dutch hand culverins from the 15th century

The extremely low accuracy of the weapon allowed effective shooting only from a point-blank range. And the shot itself occurred with a long and unpredictable delay. Only the destructive power of this weapon aroused respect. Although a bullet made of stone or soft lead at that time was still inferior to a crossbow bolt in penetrating power, a 30-mm ball fired at point-blank range left such a hole that it was worth looking at.

It was a hole, but it was still necessary to get in. And the depressingly low accuracy of the petrinal did not allow one to expect that the shot would have any consequences other than fire and noise. It may seem strange, but it was enough! Hand bombards were valued precisely for the roar, flash and cloud of sulfur-smelling smoke that accompanied the shot. Loading them with a bullet was not always considered advisable. The Petrinali-sklopetta was not even equipped with a butt and was intended exclusively for blank shooting.

15th century French marksman

The knight's horse was not afraid of fire. But if, instead of honestly stabbing him with pikes, he was blinded by a flash, deafened by a roar, and even insulted by the stench of burning sulfur, he still lost his courage and threw off the rider. Against horses not accustomed to shots and explosions, this method worked flawlessly.

But the knights were not able to introduce their horses to gunpowder right away. In the 14th century, “smoke powder” was an expensive and rare commodity in Europe. And most importantly, at first he aroused fear not only among the horses, but also among the riders. The smell of “hellish brimstone” made superstitious people tremble. However, people in Europe quickly got used to the smell. But the loudness of the shot was listed among the advantages of firearms until the 17th century.

Arquebus

At the beginning of the 15th century, self-propelled guns were still too primitive to seriously compete with bows and crossbows. But fire tubes quickly improved. Already in the 30s of the 15th century, the pilot hole was moved to the side, and a shelf for seed powder began to be welded next to it. This gunpowder, upon contact with fire, flared up instantly, and after just a split second, the hot gases ignited the charge in the barrel. The gun began to fire quickly and reliably, and most importantly, it became possible to mechanize the process of lowering the wick. In the second half of the 15th century, fire tubes acquired a lock and butt borrowed from the crossbow.

Japanese flint arquebus, 16th century

At the same time, metalworking technologies were also improved. The trunks were now made only from the purest and softest iron. This made it possible to minimize the likelihood of explosion when fired. On the other hand, the development of deep drilling techniques made it possible to make gun barrels lighter and longer.

This is how the arquebus appeared - a weapon with a caliber of 13–18 millimeters, weighing 3–4 kilograms and a barrel length of 50–70 centimeters. An ordinary 16-mm arquebus would throw a 20-gram bullet with initial speed about 300 meters per second. Such bullets could no longer rip people’s heads off, but from 30 meters they would make holes in steel armor.

Firing accuracy increased, but was still insufficient. An arquebusier could hit a person only from 20–25 meters, and at 120 meters, shooting even at such a target as a pikeman battle turned into a waste of ammunition. However, light guns retained approximately the same characteristics until the mid-19th century - only the lock changed. And in our time, shooting a bullet from a smoothbore rifle is effective no further than 50 meters.

Even modern shotgun bullets are designed not for accuracy, but for impact force.

Arquebusier, 1585

Loading an arquebus was a rather complicated procedure. To begin with, the shooter disconnected the smoldering wick and put it in a metal case attached to his belt or hat with slits for air access. Then he uncorked one of the several wooden or tin cartridges he had - “loaders”, or “gazyrs” - and poured a pre-measured amount of gunpowder from it into the barrel. Then he nailed the gunpowder to the treasury with a ramrod and stuffed a felt wad into the barrel to prevent gunpowder from spilling out. Then - a bullet and another wad, this time to hold the bullet. Finally, from the horn or from another charge, the shooter poured some gunpowder onto the shelf, slammed the lid of the shelf and reattached the wick to the trigger jaws. It took an experienced warrior about 2 minutes to do everything.

In the second half of the 15th century, arquebusiers took a strong place in European armies and began to quickly push out competitors - archers and crossbowmen. But how could this happen? After all, the combat qualities of the guns still left much to be desired. Competitions between arquebusiers and crossbowmen led to a stunning result - formally, the guns turned out to be worse in all respects! The penetrating power of the bolt and the bullet was approximately equal, but the crossbowman shot 4–8 times more often and at the same time did not miss a tall target even from 150 meters!

Geneva arquebusiers, reconstruction

The problem with the crossbow was that its advantages were of little practical value. Bolts and arrows flew like a fly in the eye during competitions when the target was motionless and the distance to it was known in advance. In a real situation, the arquebusier, who did not have to take into account the wind, the movement of the target and the distance to it, had the best chance of hitting. In addition, bullets did not have the habit of getting stuck in shields and sliding off armor; they could not be dodged. Didn't have much practical significance and rate of fire: both the arquebusier and the crossbowman only had time to fire once at the attacking cavalry.

The spread of arquebuses was restrained only by their high cost at that time. Even in 1537, Hetman Tarnovsky complained that “in Polish army There are few arquebuses, only vile hand-held hands.” The Cossacks used bows and self-propelled guns until the mid-17th century.

Pearl gunpowder

The gazyrs, worn on the chests of Caucasian warriors, gradually became an element of the national costume.

In the Middle Ages, gunpowder was prepared in the form of powder, or “pulp.” When loading the weapon, the “pulp” stuck to the inner surface of the barrel and had to be nailed to the fuse with a ramrod for a long time. In the 15th century, to speed up the loading of cannons, lumps or small “pancakes” began to be sculpted from powder pulp. And at the beginning of the 16th century, “pearl” gunpowder, consisting of small hard grains, was invented.

The grains no longer stuck to the walls, but rolled down to the breech of the barrel under their own weight. In addition, graining made it possible to increase the power of gunpowder almost twice, and the duration of gunpowder storage by 20 times. Gunpowder in the form of pulp easily absorbed atmospheric moisture and deteriorated irreversibly within 3 years.

However, due to the high cost of “pearl” gunpowder, the pulp often continued to be used for loading guns until the mid-17th century. The Cossacks used homemade gunpowder in the 18th century.

Musket

Contrary to popular belief, knights did not consider firearms “non-knightly” at all.

There is a fairly common misconception that the advent of firearms put an end to romantic relationships. knightly era" In fact, arming 5–10% of soldiers with arquebuses did not lead to a noticeable change in the tactics of European armies. At the beginning of the 16th century, bows, crossbows, darts and slings were still widely used. Heavy knightly armor continued to be improved, and the main means of counteracting cavalry remained the pike. The Middle Ages continued as if nothing had happened.

The romantic era of the Middle Ages ended only in 1525, when at the Battle of Pavia the Spaniards first used matchlock guns of a new type - muskets.

Battle of Pavia: museum panorama

How was a musket different from an arquebus? Size! Weighing 7–9 kilograms, the musket had a caliber of 22–23 millimeters and a barrel about one and a half meters long. Only in Spain - the most technically developed country in Europe at that time - could a durable and relatively light barrel of such length and caliber be made.

Naturally, such a bulky and massive gun could only be fired from a support, and two people had to operate it. But a bullet weighing 50–60 grams flew out of the musket at a speed of over 500 meters per second. She not only killed the armored horse, but also stopped it. The musket hit with such force that the shooter had to wear a cuirass or a leather pad on his shoulder to prevent the recoil from splitting his collarbone.

Musket: Assassin of the Middle Ages. 16th century

The long barrel provided the musket with relatively good accuracy for a smooth gun. The musketeer hit a person not from 20–25, but from 30–35 meters. But much higher value had an increase in the effective salvo firing range to 200–240 meters. At this entire distance, the bullets retained the ability to hit knightly horses and pierce the iron armor of pikemen.

The musket combined the capabilities of the arquebus and pike, and became the first weapon in history that gave the shooter the opportunity to repel the onslaught of cavalry in open terrain. Musketeers did not have to run away from cavalry during a battle, therefore, unlike arquebusiers, they made extensive use of armor.

Because of heavy weight weapons, musketeers, like crossbowmen, preferred to move on horseback

Throughout the 16th century, there remained few musketeers in European armies. Musketeer companies (detachments of 100–200 people) were considered the elite of the infantry and were formed from nobles. This was partly due to the high cost of weapons (as a rule, a musketeer’s equipment also included a riding horse). But even more important were the high requirements for durability. When the cavalry rushed to attack, the musketeers had to repel it or die.

Pishchal

Sagittarius

In terms of its purpose, the Russian archery arquebus corresponded to the Spanish musket. But the technical backwardness of Rus', which emerged in the 15th century, could not but affect the combat properties of guns. Even pure - “white” - iron for making barrels at the beginning of the 16th century still had to be imported “from the Germans”!

As a result, with the same weight as the musket, the arquebus was much shorter and had 2–3 times less power. Which, however, had no practical significance, given that eastern horses were much smaller than European ones. The accuracy of the weapon was also satisfactory: from 50 meters the archer did not miss a two-meter high fence.

In addition to streltsy arquebuses, light “mounted” guns (having a strap for carrying behind the back) were also produced in Muscovy, which were used by mounted (“stirrup”) archers and Cossacks. According to their characteristics, “curtain arquebuses” corresponded to European arquebuses.

Pistol

Smoldering wicks, of course, caused a lot of inconvenience for the shooters. However, the simplicity and reliability of the matchlock forced the infantry to put up with its shortcomings until the end of the 17th century. Another thing is the cavalry. The rider needed a weapon that was comfortable, always ready to fire and suitable for holding with one hand.

Wheel lock in Da Vinci's drawings

The first attempts to create a castle in which fire would be produced using iron flint and “flint” (that is, a piece of sulfur pyrite or pyrite) were made back in the 15th century. Since the second half of the 15th century, “grating locks” have been known, which were ordinary household flints installed above a shelf. With one hand the shooter aimed the weapon, and with the other he struck the flint with a file. Due to the obvious impracticality, grater locks did not become widespread.

The wheel castle, which appeared at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, became much more popular in Europe, the diagram of which was preserved in the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci. The ribbed flint was given the shape of a gear. The spring of the mechanism was cocked with the key supplied to the lock. When the trigger was pressed, the wheel began to rotate, striking sparks from the flint.

German wheel pistol, 16th century

The wheel lock was very reminiscent of a watch and was not inferior to a watch in complexity. The capricious mechanism was very sensitive to clogging with gunpowder fumes and flint fragments. After 20-30 shots it stopped firing. Take it apart and clean the shooter on our own could not.

Since the advantages of the wheel lock were of the greatest value to the cavalry, the weapon equipped with it was made convenient for the rider - one-handed. Starting from the 30s of the 16th century in Europe, knightly spears were replaced by shortened wheeled arquebuses without a butt. Since the production of such weapons began in the Italian city of Pistol, one-handed arquebuses began to be called pistols. However, by the end of the century, pistols were also produced at the Moscow Armory.

European military pistols of the 16th and 17th centuries were very bulky designs. The barrel had a caliber of 14–16 millimeters and a length of at least 30 centimeters. The total length of the pistol exceeded half a meter, and the weight could reach 2 kilograms. However, the pistols struck very inaccurately and weakly. The range of an aimed shot did not exceed several meters, and even bullets fired at point-blank range bounced off cuirasses and helmets.

In the 16th century, pistols were often combined with bladed weapons, such as a club head (“apple”) or even an ax blade.

In addition to large dimensions, for pistols early period richness of decoration and whimsical design were characteristic. Pistols of the 16th and early 17th centuries were often made with multiple barrels. Including one with a rotating block of 3-4 barrels, like a revolver! All this was very interesting, very progressive... And in practice, of course, it did not work.

The wheel lock itself cost so much money that decorating the pistol with gold and pearls no longer significantly affected its price. In the 16th century, wheeled weapons were affordable only by very rich people and had more prestige than combat value.

Asian pistols were distinguished by their special grace and were highly valued in Europe

* * *

The advent of firearms became turning point in the history of military art. For the first time, a person began to use not muscular strength, but the energy of burning gunpowder to inflict damage on an enemy. And this energy, by the standards of the Middle Ages, was stunning. Noisy and clumsy firecrackers, now unable to cause anything but laughter, several centuries ago inspired people with great respect.

Beginning in the 16th century, the development of firearms began to determine the tactics of sea and land battles. The balance between close and ranged combat began to shift in favor of the latter. The importance of protective equipment began to decline, and the role of field fortifications began to increase. These trends continue to this day. Weapons that use chemical energy to eject a projectile continue to improve. Apparently, it will maintain its position for a very long time.

As you know, gunpowder was invented by the Chinese. And not only because they were a developed nation, but also because saltpeter in China lay literally on the surface. Having mixed it with sulfur and charcoal in the 6th century, the Chinese used gunpowder for fireworks, and in military affairs - in throwing bombs. Later they began to use bamboo cannons, which were enough for 1-2 shots.

In the 13th century, gunpowder was brought to the Middle East by the conquerors - the Mongols. From there, gunpowder, or rather, the idea of ​​gunpowder and firearms came to Europe. Why was artillery born among the Europeans? The answer is simple: they had traditionally developed metallurgy. Appearing for the first time in Northern Italy at the beginning of the 14th century, firearms spread throughout Europe in the 1340-1370s.

It was then that it appeared in Rus', as chronicled sources say. In 1376, the Moscow Nizhny Novgorod army of the governor Bobrok Volynets, the future hero of the Kulikovo Field, marched against the Volga Bulgars. Their enemy brought camels onto the battlefield, hoping that these animals would scare the Russian horses, and the defenders let out “thunders” from the walls of the city of Bulgar. But neither camels nor “thunders” frightened the Russians... Around 1380, in Moscow, “a German named Jan was the first to make fire-fighting gear—handles and self-propelled guns, and iron and copper squeaks.” Muscovites successfully used this weapon during the siege of the city by Tokhtamysh in 1382. Tokhtamysh entered the city only thanks to deception, promising not to touch the inhabitants, for which the latter paid bitterly. Tokhtamysh's troops burned and plundered Moscow, killing 24,000 people there.

Subsequently, the first samples of firearms, regardless of their purpose, were completely identical and were forged iron and copper barrels, differing only in size. This is a “handbrake” 30 centimeters long, weighing 4-7 kilograms, a weapon - “bombard”, in Rus' - “gun”, or “puskich” (from the word let), “mattress” (from the Iranian “tyufeng”). In the East it is a gun, in our country it is a type of weapon. And they “squeaked” (“pipes”) - like hand weapon, and long-barreled guns.

The trend in the development of hand weapons - be it a pistol, arquebus, musket or arquebus - was to lengthen the barrel, improve gunpowder (from poor quality “chaff” gunpowder they switched to “grain” gunpowder, which gives better combustion). The seed hole was moved to the side, and a shelf was made for gunpowder. Typically, gunpowder contained about 60 percent saltpeter and up to 20 percent sulfur and charcoal - although, in terms of proportions, there were many variations. Fundamentally important, however, was only saltpeter. Sulfur was added for ignition - it itself ignited at a very low temperature, coal was only fuel. Sometimes sulfur was not put into the gunpowder at all - this just meant that the ignition hole would have to be made wider. Sometimes sulfur was not mixed into the gunpowder, but poured directly onto the shelf. Charcoal could be replaced by ground lignite, dried sawdust, cornflowers (blue gunpowder), cotton wool (white gunpowder), petroleum (Greek fire), etc. All this, however, was rarely done, since charcoal was available, and there was little point in replacing it with something else. So any mixture of saltpeter (an oxidizing agent) with some kind of flammable substance should definitely be considered gunpowder. Initially, gunpowder (literally “dust”) was a fine powder, “pulp”, consisting, in addition to the listed ingredients, of all kinds of debris. When fired, at least half of the gunpowder flew out of the barrel unburned.

Iron buckshot or stones were sometimes used as projectiles for hand weapons, but most often a round lead bullet was used. It was, of course, round only immediately after manufacture; the soft lead was deformed during storage, then it was flattened with a ramrod when loading, then the bullet was deformed when fired - in general, after flying out of the barrel, it was no longer particularly round. Irregular shape projectile had a bad effect on shooting accuracy.

In the 15th century, the matchlock and then the wheel lock were invented in Europe, and the flintlock was invented in Asia during the same period. Arquebuses appeared in the regular troops - weapons weighing about three kilograms, a caliber of 13-18 millimeters and a barrel length of 30-50 calibers. Typically, a 16 mm arquebus fired a 20 gram bullet with an initial speed of about 300 m/s. The range of aimed fire was 20-25 meters, salvo fire - up to 120 meters. The rate of fire at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century did not exceed one shot per 3 minutes, but armor penetrated already 25 meters. Heavier and more powerful arquebuses were already used with a bipod, but there were very few of them - gunpowder in the form of pulp was completely unsuitable for quickly loading long barrels - the hour of muskets had not yet struck. In Rus', rifled squeaks appeared - fittings. Later, the development of metallurgy made it possible to move on to casting bronze and cast iron cannons.

In the 15th century, it was too early to talk about the mass production of firearms. This did not happen anywhere - neither in Europe nor in Rus'. The number of soldiers armed with firearms in the most advanced armies did not exceed 10 percent. The point here is not only in its imperfection - try shooting a matchlock gun from a horse, but cavalry was the main branch of the army - but also in the neglect of firearms on the part of knighthood. For a noble gentleman, proud of his armor and training, it was shameful to hit the enemy from afar, not in an open, equal battle. And it was a shame to die at the hands of some low commoner, who then not only did not dare to speak to him, but even to raise his eyes to him. Therefore, knights often cut off the hands and gouged out the eyes of captured arquebusiers, and hung gunners on gun barrels or shot them from their own cannons. Martin Luther even declared guns and gunpowder to be the incarnation of hell.

In Rus', where the power of the sovereign - “God’s anointed” - always had a sacred character, it was different: “How Grand Duke Father commanded, so be it!” The development of firearms immediately began on a massive scale with the support of the state, which established the Cannon Yard in Moscow in the 70s of the 15th century, then the Powder Yard, foundries and saltpeter factories, gunpowder mills, and mines. The Russian army in the 16th century was the most equipped in artillery - then it was called “outfit”. Its number was measured in hundreds and thousands of guns, amazing foreigners. The Englishman Fletcher saw in the Kremlin at the end of the 16th century many heavy, long-range, richly decorated cannons - “arquebuses”, which had their own names - “Lion”, “Unicorn”... The same “Tsar Cannon” - it was a combat weapon, not an ostentatious weapon, capable of firing shot from a machine or simply from the ground. In the 16th century, master Andrei Chokhov made a “magpie,” called an “organ” in the West, a multi-barrel installation of forty barrels. This “medieval machine gun” produced a large burst of fire, but was very difficult to load. A steel rifled arquebus and a bronze rifled cannon, now stored in the Artillery Museum in St. Petersburg, date back to the mid-17th century. Here the Russians were undoubtedly pioneers.

Compared to the arquebus, the Russian arquebus was powerful weapon: Weighing about 8 kilograms, it had a barrel with a caliber of 18-20 millimeters and a length of about 40 calibers. The charge of gunpowder was solid, so that the armor was penetrated at a distance three times greater than from an arquebus. Like most arquebuses, there were no sights. Probably, salvo fire could be fired up to 200 meters, however, Russian regulations only provided for shooting at a distance of no more than 50 meters. Due to its large weight, the squeak was necessarily provided with a support in the form of a reed. Thousands of Russian pikas were exported to Iran, about which the Turks repeatedly protested. Loading the arquebus with powder pulp was not easy.

Naturally, handguns increased the role of infantry. Already at the beginning of the 16th century, foot and horse squeakers were recruited from the cities for war, obliged to march with their gunpowder, bullets, provisions and horses. For townspeople who were not trained in combat and did not have armor, the arquebus was the most suitable weapon. Pskov alone, which had up to six thousand households, exhibited up to a thousand squeakers! But these duties ruined the cities, which led to riots. In 1550, Ivan the Terrible, by his decree, established a permanent Streltsy army, maintained at public expense. This is practically the birth date of the Russian regular army.

As for the cavalry, “fire combat” was introduced slowly. At the Serpukhov Noble Review in 1556, about 500 well-armed armored horsemen performed, and only some last battle serf had a arquebus - he, the poor guy, probably didn’t get anything else. The cavalry, being still the main branch of the army, neglected the “weapons of the smerds.”

With the development of firearms came changes in tactics. Samopal for a long time could not compete with the bow only until the invention of locks - wheel and flint strikers, which gave rise to the saddle pistol and carbine. In the 16th century, German reiters appeared in Europe - mounted “pistoliers”, who absolutely smashed the brilliant French knights. They had pistols in their belts, in their belts, as well as a couple more in their boots. They drove up to the enemy in rows, shot and drove back behind the last row to reload their weapons. This method was called "caracole", or "snail". For foot musketeers, this tactic of shooting while leaving the formation was called “limakon”. In battle, they were protected from the cavalry by rows of pikemen - the most defenseless branch of the army, because the reiters shot them with impunity. The Russian archers followed approximately the same tactics. But each archer carried with him, in addition to a squeak or a musket, also a reed. The reeds were different: with blades about 50-80 centimeters, and with huge ones, one and a half meters long. In Russia, infantry pikes appeared only in the “regiments of the new system” in the 17th century. Often, the Russians fought in a circle of convoys, as well as in “walking cities” - defensive structures on wheels, the forerunners of tanks. There were even “ghoul governors”.

At the end of the 16th century, horse-drawn “self-propelled men” appeared in the Russian army, and from the 30s of the 17th century - regular reiters, who, as noted, “in battle are stronger than hundreds of people,” that is, the noble militia. From now on, service in the Reiters becomes honorable. Gradually, pistols were introduced into the noble cavalry...

And when they first loaded the gun. It is believed that it first appeared in China. The inventors of gunpowder originally intended to use it for fireworks, but by 1288 the Chinese were defending themselves against invasions from the north with cannons.

In Europe, firearms appeared in the 14th century. In 1337, a war began between England and France, called the Hundred Years' War, which lasted until 1453. It was then that the first cannons were used by the English army at the Battle of Crecy in 1346.

The first examples of handguns were iron or bronze pipes sealed at one end. These pipes were attached to a planed wooden block. To load such a weapon, it was necessary to pour gunpowder into a pipe, hammer it with a wad and insert a bullet into it. Then the wick was lit and brought to a small hole in the pipe. Such a weapon was of little use: it fired close, and it took a lot of time to load it.

Russian-Turkish War (1806-1812). Musketeers of the Life Guards Semenovsky Regiment (1796-1801)

Since then, firearms have been continuously improved. In the 15th century, more convenient and effective hand weapons appeared - arquebuses, arquebuses, and muskets. By 1500, the major naval powers were already equipping their ships with cannons. Thus, an ordinary warship was armed with about 100 guns. Wars became more brutal and deadly, and victory almost always went to the side with better weapons.

Gunpowder consists of saltpeter. The miracle of the bright combustion of an explosive mixture, which our ancestors were so amazed at, occurs thanks to this component. Externally, this substance resembles snow crystals. When heated, it releases oxygen, which is known to enhance combustion. If you mix saltpeter with something flammable and set it on fire, the fire will flare up more and more from oxygen, and oxygen will be released from combustion.

People learned to use this unique component in the first millennium BC. But they were not able to shoot with its help soon. The reason for the long development is the rarity of the substance. Finding saltpeter is incredibly difficult. In tropical humid climates, she appeared near old fires. And in Europe it could only be found in sewers or caves. Considering the specificity of the places of origin, those who were lucky enough to discover saltpeter were few.

Before the invention of exploding devices and firing mechanisms, saltpeter compounds were used for flamethrowers and burning projectiles. “Roman fire” consisted of oil, saltpeter, sulfur and rosin. Sulfur burned well at low temperatures, and rosin was a thickener, thanks to which the mixture did not spread. This fire had many names: liquid, Greek, sea, artificial.

In order for gunpowder not only to burn, but also to explode, 60% of nitrate must be present in it. In “liquid fire” there was half as much of it, but even in this composition the combustion was amazingly ebullient.

The Byzantines did not create this weapon, but learned its composition from the Arabs in the 7th century. They bought saltpeter and oil in Asia. The Arabs are also not the creators of saltpeter. They called it Chinese salt, and the rockets “Chinese arrows”; from the name you can guess that the discoverers of this substance were the inhabitants of the ancient Chinese Empire.

History of the first use of gunpowder

It is difficult to determine when fireworks and rockets began to be made from saltpeter. However, the fact that the Chinese invented guns is undeniable. Chinese chronicles from the 7th century describe the process of throwing shells from cannons using an explosive mixture. At the same time, they learned to “grow” saltpeter. For its formation, special pits with manure were created. When the method of obtaining saltpeter spread, its use for military operations became more common. After rockets and flamethrowers, firearms were invented.

The Arabs used gunpowder in the 11th century. Europeans acquired information about the properties of saltpeter at the beginning of the 13th century, after the conquest of Constantinople by the Crusaders. European scientists studied the method of creating "sea fire", and by the mid-13th century there were descriptions of exploding gunpowder.

According to the standard, gunpowder consisted of 60% saltpeter, 20% sulfur and charcoal. The first component is the main one, and sulfur was not used in all formulations. It was needed to ignite the substance from a spark. If other methods of ignition were used, it was not required.

Charcoal is also not the most important component. It was often replaced with cotton wool, dried sawdust, cornflower flowers or brown coal. This only changed the color of the composition and its name - this is how white, brown, blue and black powder were distinguished.

Official creator of gunpowder

Although this mixture was invented a long time ago, its official creator was Konstantin Anklitzen, better known as Berthold Schwartz. The first name was given to him at birth, and he began to be called Berthold when he became a monk. Schwartz with German language means Black. This nickname was given to the monk because of an unfortunate chemical experience, during which his face was scorched black.

In 1320, Berthold officially documented the composition of gunpowder. His treatise “On the Benefits of Gunpowder” described tips on mixing gunpowder and operating it. In the second half of the 14th century, his recordings were appreciated and used to teach military skills throughout Europe.

In 1340, a factory for the production of gunpowder was built for the first time. This happened in the east of France, in the city of Strasbourg. Soon after the opening of this enterprise, a similar one was opened in Russia. In 1400, there was an explosion at the factory, which caused a big fire in Moscow.

In the middle of the 12th century, the Chinese used the hand crank, the first hand-held firearm. At the same time, the Moors used a similar device. In China it was called pao, among the Moors it was called modfa and carab. The currently known name “carbine” comes from the name “karab”.

At the beginning of the 14th century, similar tools began to appear among Europeans. There were many varieties: hand bombard, petrinal, culverina, hand cannon, sklopetta and handcanon.

The handle weighed 4-8 kg. It was a smaller version of a cannon. To make it, a hole was drilled in a piece of copper or bronze. The barrel was 25-50 cm long, with a caliber of more than 30 mm. Round lead bullets were used as a projectile. However, until the 15th century, cloth-wrapped stones were more commonly used, as lead was rarely found.

A pertinal is a gun that uses stone bullets. It was called so from the word “petros” - stone. It was most often used in Italy. The weapon was mounted on a wooden rod, the end of which was held with the inner part of the shoulder bend. In addition, the weapon was held with one hand. The second – the charge was ignited. Used for ignition wooden stick impregnated with saltpeter. Sparks from the stick fell inside the barrel and ignited the gunpowder. This was the most primitive type of castle among its varieties.

Kulevrina looked like a classic firearm. Muskets and arquebuses came from her. In addition to hand culverins, there were also huge tools with this name. The type of lock on the culverin was wick.

Sklopetta also had another name - hand mortar. This is a device similar to modern grenade launchers. The trunk length is 10-30 cm. The trunk was short and wide. This weapon is equipped with a matchlock, common for that time.

The first firearms did not shoot accurately and only at close range, so they could only shoot at close range. The distance to the target should not exceed 15 meters. However, from this distance the armor was easily penetrated. Without armor, especially since the invention caused great damage to enemies.

The time after which the “fire tube” would fire was completely unpredictable. This feature and the bulkiness of the gun made it difficult to aim. The huge recoil when firing did not contribute to accuracy.

However, accuracy was not the initial concern at that time. Smoke, noise, and explosion frightened horses and enemies, which gave a great advantage in battle. Sometimes firearms were deliberately fired empty, so that the even formation of the enemy soldier would become confused and lose combat effectiveness.

Although the horse, accustomed to fighting, was not afraid of fire, firearms were for her new threat. Out of fright, she often threw off the rider. Later, when gunpowder ceased to be expensive and rare, horses were able to be taught not to be afraid of the effects accompanying a shot, but this took a lot of time.

People who were not accustomed to the peculiarities of firearms were also afraid of the smell of sulfur and noise. Peoples who did not use hand grips had many superstitions associated with them. Superstitious soldiers associated brimstone, fire and clouds of smoke with demons and hell. Until the 17th century, these weapons frightened many.

The first home-made weapon did not compete too much with bows and crossbows. However, thanks to the development and invention of new types of firearms, by 1530 their use became more effective. They started making the ignition hole on the side. Next to it was a shelf for ignition powder. Unlike previous varieties of culverin, this gunpowder flared up quickly. It instantly ignited inside the barrel. Thanks to these innovations, the gun began to shoot quickly and was easier to aim. The misfire rate has decreased significantly. The main innovation was the mechanization of the process of lowering the wick, with the help of which the gunpowder was ignited.

In the second half of the 15th century, this gun received a lock and a butt - details previously characteristic only of crossbows.

The metal also became better. Technologies for its processing improved, tools were made from the purest and softest iron. Previously, the pipe could burst when fired. After these changes, such failures occurred less frequently. Drilling methods also improved and gun barrels began to be made longer and lighter.

The appearance of the arquebus is the result of all these improvements. Its caliber is 13-18 mm, weight - 3-4 kg, barrel length - 50-70 cm. A medium-sized arquebus fired bullets weighing 20 grams with an initial speed of 300 meters per second. Compared to previous types of weapons, the external damage caused did not look colossal. The bullet could not shoot off part of the enemy's body. However, even a small hole shot through was fatal. This gun could penetrate armor from 30 meters.

However, the shooting accuracy was still low. It was possible to successfully shoot at a soldier from 20-25 meters, but from 120 meters there was no chance of hitting even the combat formation. The development of guns slowed down until the middle of the 19th century. Only the castle was improved. In modern times, guns effectively shoot no further than 50 meters. Their advantage is not accuracy, but the power of the shot.

Charging the arquebus was difficult. The smoldering cord for igniting the charges was disconnected from the weapon and hidden in a special metal case. To prevent it from going out, there were air slits in the container. The required amount of gunpowder was poured from the cartridge case into the barrel. Then, using a special rod - a ramrod, the gunpowder moved along the barrel to the treasury. A felt plug was inserted behind the explosive mixture to prevent the mixture from spilling out of the barrel, then a bullet and another plug. At the end, a little more gunpowder was added to the shelf. The shelf lid was closed, and the wick was attached back. An experienced warrior could do all these actions in 2 minutes.

The popularity of arquebuses in the second half of the 15th century is surprising. It began to be used much more often than bows and crossbows, despite the poor quality of the weapon. In traditional competitions, guns performed worse than crossbows. The ability to penetrate targets was the same for the bullet and the bolt. However, the crossbow did not have to be loaded as long, and it could fire 4-8 times more often. In addition, it was possible to hit the target from 150 meters.

In fact, the conditions of the tournament were very different from the conditions of the war. Positive traits crossbows sharply depreciated in value real conditions. During the competition, the target does not move and the distance to it is precisely calculated. In battle, a shot from a crossbow could be hindered by the wind, the movements of enemies and the inconsistent distance between them.

The obvious advantage of bullets was that they did not slip off armor, but penetrated it. They can also penetrate the shield. It was impossible to evade them. The rate of fire of the crossbow also made no sense - the enemies on horseback moved so quickly that it was impossible to fire more than once either with a crossbow or with a firearm.

A significant drawback of these guns was their cost. It was precisely because of the price of these weapons that the Cossacks used self-propelled guns and bows until the middle of the 17th century.

Improvement of gunpowder

The explosive mixture, in the form of a fine powder or “pulp,” was very inconvenient to use. When reloading, pushing it into the barrel with a ramrod was difficult and time consuming - it stuck to the walls of the weapon and did not move towards the fuse. To reduce the speed of weapon reloading, the explosive mixture had to be improved without deteriorating its chemical composition.

In the 15th century, gunpowder pulp was held together in the form of small lumps, but this was still not very convenient. At the beginning of the 16th century, “pearl gunpowder” was invented. It looked like small hard balls. In this form, the explosive mixture gave a great advantage in speed - the rounded particles did not stick to the walls, but quickly rolled down.

Another advantage of the innovation is that the new type of mixture absorbed less moisture. Thanks to this, the shelf life was greatly increased. If the previous version was stored for only 3 years, then the storage duration of spherical gunpowder was 20 times longer.

A significant disadvantage of the new explosive mixture was the price. Knights who could not afford these expenses used older versions. For this reason, "pearl" gunpowder was not popular until the 18th century.

It is believed that with the advent of firearms, other types of weapons suddenly ceased to be used. In fact, development took place gradually. The types of handguns improved, explosive mixtures also improved, and gradually the knights began to give preference to such weapons. In the 16th century, javelins, swords, bows and crossbows continued to be used, ignoring more expensive options. Knight armour improved, they used pikes and spears against mounted warriors. There was no global revolution ending the Middle Ages.

The era came to an end in 1525. The Spaniards improved matchlock guns and used them in the battle with the French. The name of the new weapon was the musket.

The musket was large sizes than an arquebus. The weight of the musket is 7-9 kilograms, the caliber is 22-23 millimeters, the barrel length is 1.5 meters. Spain at that time was very developed country and that is why they were able to produce such strong, long and relatively light weapons there.

They fired from a musket with a support. Given its heaviness and large size, 2 soldiers used it. However, it had enormous advantages - a bullet weighing 50-60 grams flew at a speed of 500 meters per second. The shot instantly pierced the armor of both the enemies and their horses. The payoff was huge. If you did not protect the body with a cuirass, you could seriously damage your collarbone.

Thanks to the fact that the barrel was lengthened, aiming improved. It was possible to hit the enemy from 30-35 meters. However, the main advantage was from salvo fire. Its range reached 240 meters. And even at such a huge distance, iron armor was pierced, and severe damage was caused. Before this, it was possible to stop a horse only with a large spear, and the musket combined the functions of an arquebus and a pike.

Although the new weapon had amazing qualities, it was not used often. Throughout the 16th century, the musket was a rarity. The reason, as in many other cases, was price. Those who could afford such weapons were considered the elite. The musketeer detachments consisted of 100 to 200 people, mostly nobles. In addition to the musket, the musketeer had to have a horse.

Another reason for the rarity of this weapon is that it was not safe to use. When the enemy cavalry attacked, the musketeer either won or died. Even those who could afford a horse and a musket did not always want to put their lives at great risk.

Russian alternative to the musket

In Spain they used a musket, while Russian soldiers had a arquebus. In the 15th century, Rus' lagged behind in technical progress, and therefore the weapons were worse. It was not possible to produce high-quality iron and had to import it from Germany. The arquebus weighed the same as the musket, but the barrel was much shorter and the power was several times less.

Although it seems that these shortcomings were global, their importance is not high. Horses in Rus' were smaller than European ones, and therefore cavalry caused less damage. The arque's accuracy was good - it was possible to hit the target from 50 meters.

There were also lighter squeaks. They were called "curtain" because they could be worn on the back, attached with a belt. They were used by Cossacks on horseback. The parameters of this type of weapon were similar to an arquebus.

Development of one-handed weapons

A foot soldier could spend time reloading a matchlock weapon, but for cavalry it was inconvenient to use. There were attempts to create a different type of castle, but mostly they were not very successful. It became possible to abandon matchlock guns only at the end of the 17th century. Despite the disadvantages, this type of lock had advantages - it worked simply and reliably.

The first experimental attempts to invent an automatic lock began in the 15th century. A castle was created in which fire appeared from friction. When flint rubbed against iron, sparks appeared, which were supposed to ignite the explosive mixture. A simple flint was attached above the shelf; it had to be hit with a file. However, in this case, 2 hands were still involved - one held the weapon, and the other drew fire. The goal of making the weapon one-handed was not achieved, so this type of gun did not become particularly popular.

At the end of the 15th century, a wheel lock was invented in Europe. Leonardo da Vinci wrote about him. A gear was made from flint, which began to spin when the trigger was pressed. The movement of the gear caused sparks to appear.

This device resembled a watch mechanism. While this was a great discovery, it had a huge drawback. The mechanism became contaminated with fumes and flint particles and stopped working very quickly. Such weapons could not be used more than 30 times. And it was also impossible to clean it yourself.

Despite the shortcomings, the amazing mechanism with a wheel lock was still actively used. It was especially valuable for mounted troops, as it made it possible to use only one hand while shooting.

In the 1630s, knightly spears were replaced with shorter ones and arquebuses with a wheel mechanism began to be used. The city that created such weapons was called Pistol and this type of arquebus was named after it. At the end of the 16th century, pistols began to be created in Moscow.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, European pistols looked very massive. The caliber is 14-16 mm, the barrel length is at least 30 cm, the length of the entire weapon is more than 50 cm. The pistol weighed 2 kilograms. A shot from such a design was weak and not very aimed. It was impossible to shoot further than a few meters. Even a close shot did not guarantee that the bullet would penetrate the armor.

The pistols were decorated very richly - with gold and pearls. They featured various decorative patterns that turned the weapon into a work of art. The designs of pistols were quite unusual. They were often made with 3-4 trunks. Although this seemed like an amazing innovation, it brought little benefit.

The tradition of decorating such weapons arose because they were even without decoration. precious stones and metals were incredibly expensive. People buying pistols were interested not only in their fighting qualities; their external attractiveness added elitism to the weapon. Moreover, prestige was sometimes valued more than characteristics.

Besides listed types There were also other parts responsible for igniting the charge: electrical and capsule. The electric lock was not used very often due to its bulkiness and inconvenience. Nowadays, this technique has been improved and made convenient for use.

How did the cartridge appear?

There have been many attempts to improve the effectiveness of weapons. The invention of the automatic lock made pistols one-handed. There was no longer any need to waste time igniting the gunpowder, all you had to do was pull the trigger.

There were also many attempts to reduce the loading speed. In the process of such experiments, the cartridge was invented. If previously you had to put bullets and gunpowder separately into the barrel, fix it all with special plugs and add gunpowder again, then the cartridge greatly simplified this task. It immediately included a bullet and gunpowder. Thanks to this invention, it was enough to put a cartridge and the required amount of gunpowder into the barrel. After which the device could be used. And in combination with the automatic lock, loading was simplified to the placement of cartridges.

The influence of firearms on history

Firearms greatly changed the specifics of military operations. Before his advent, warriors used the physical strength of their own muscles to strike.

Explosive mixtures are progress in the development of military art and science. With the advent of such weapons, battle tactics began to change. Armor became increasingly irrelevant; to protect against bullets, fortifications were created and trenches were dug. The battles began to take place on long distances. In modern times, weapons continue to be improved, but in general these features have been preserved.