The greatest battles of history. Five main battles of the Great Patriotic War

MILITARY BATTLES IN ASIA

So far our study has not gone beyond the Middle East, but in this chapter on the Asian wars we must go beyond space and time. At one time, the Mongols were an exclusively military society—perhaps the luckiest in the world. They came from the steppes of Central Asia. The Mongols were excellent horsemen and were destined to become warriors, since the land was scarce - there was continuous competition for new lands. During the eternal chaotic migrations and conflicts, a leader appeared from time to time in the ranks of the nomads, so strong that he overshadowed the rest of the tribal leaders and united the Turkic and Mongolian tribes. In the 4th century. Attila was such a leader. But the credit for the most complete and most sinister unification of these nomads in history belongs to Genghis Khan (1162 - 1227).

The Mongols were a primitive savage people. In the past, the victory of one clan over another was usually accompanied by destruction and massacres. Genghis Khan quickly showed the advantage of his ideas, using victories in a constructive spirit: uniting peoples. He elevated the vanquished into his subjects and led them in such a way that they were proud of their new position. He united the tribes not only with strong-willed decisions and the threat of force, but with promises of greater benefits. Thus a nomadic brotherhood was created that served the purposes of the war.

Vassalage to Genghis Khan was not a formality. Prominent people of the tribe served in his entourage or in the guard, tribute was paid to the treasury, and the tribe itself was preparing to become a unit of powerful armed forces. Princes and clan leaders militarily commanded “darkness” (a force of 10 thousand warriors, the largest), a thousand or a hundred. The head of the clan was ordered to keep his soldiers in constant combat readiness, provide them with ammunition and immediately go to war on the orders of the khan. The highest ranks in command of the armies were the eleven "Orlocks". After the unification of the nomads in 1206, Genghis Khan ruled an empire that stretched from west to east for a thousand miles, from the eastern Gobi Desert to the northeastern tip of Lake Balkhash, and included 31 clans. Peace for these people was nothing more than a time of preparation for a new war.

Every man in the Mongol army was a horseman. Some were better armed than others, and everyone's equipment improved as they became more experienced and richer. There were few protective equipment. The warriors wore sheepskin, wide leather jackets and patent leather armor. Some wore shirts made of raw silk, which the arrows did not pierce, but were pressed into the body, making the wound less serious. Everyone on guard duty had a round shield, and during the battle only the shock units of the front echelon and the Khan's guard had a round shield. The main weapons of the Mongols were a spear-hook, a curved scimitar that could be used to chop and stab, and two bows - one for shooting from the saddle, the other, more accurate, from the ground. There were many different arrows - for different ranges and against different armor. In addition, each warrior had a battle ax hanging from his belt, a rope with which he could tie a horse, lasso an enemy or drag heavy equipment, a bag with a spare bowstring, a file for sharpening arrows, a needle and thread, a waterproof fur for storing spare clothes, which could be inflated to cross rivers. Finally, he had everything he needed for food - a bag for the horse, a kettle for cooking and a supply of smoked meat and dried cottage cheese. Genghis Khan ordered that in times of peace the wife should keep her husband's provisions and clothes ready.

The distinctive features of the Mongol military operations were their coordination and maneuverability. When describing the military campaigns of these riders, who rushed through unknown spaces from China to the Mediterranean, it is difficult to measure distances in miles. The secret of their consistency is partly explained by the instinctive ability of nomads to remember landmarks and direction. In addition, there was a well-organized intelligence and communications system. The rulers subordinate to Genghis Khan constantly sent him general information, and special and reconnaissance messages were relayed by the khan’s own messengers - “arrow horsemen”. These messengers covered distances in a day that would normally take weeks. To support the body during long marches, it was bandaged, and the horsemen slept in the saddle. With further conquests in the khan's policy, everything more space was concerned with the maintenance and protection of communication routes - the old caravan routes, which he included in the Asian communications network by installing permanent stations. The army on the march was preceded by scouts moving several passages ahead. Genghis Khan also made full use of spies, and traveling merchants were very useful here.

Genghis Khan's desire for dominion and the need to give soldiers the opportunity to fight led him to the decision to measure his strength with the Chinese. He was a careful strategist. Without reliable intelligence on Chinese strength, he did discover that the Chinese army consisted of many foot soldiers and the country relied heavily on strong fortifications. In 1207 the khan led big army to the state of Western Xia. In open spaces, Mongol cavalry swept away everything in their path, but stopped in front of fortified cities. For the next few years, Genghis Khan trained Mongol commanders in siege arts: the use of catapults, incendiary mixtures, ladders, sandbags, etc.; Later, troops carried disassembled throwing machines, ballistas, and catapults on packs. By 1211, Xia had been conquered, the Mongol army had learned a lot, and Genghis Khan embarked on a large-scale enterprise against China itself.

A preparatory council was assembled at the khan's headquarters. All major military leaders were present. The situation was discussed, the goal was clearly defined, military groups were established and general outline a campaign plan has been outlined. Scouts were sent first, about two hundred horsemen, scattered in pairs throughout the rural area. They were followed by the vanguard - three “darknesses” or 30 thousand selected warriors, well equipped, each with a spare horse. The “Darknesses” were commanded by Muhuli, Sabutai and Chepe-noyon - the latter two received high positions before reaching 25 years of age. Behind followed the main forces of three formations - a total of about 160 thousand people. Genghis Khan commanded a central force of 100 thousand people. His personal standard was decorated with nine tails of white yaks. Throughout the campaign, the commander-in-chief maintained constant contact with the commanders of the formations through messengers called “arrows”.

Usually the country of the doomed enemy was entered at several points simultaneously. In this way, in 1211 they penetrated the Chinese wall and the formations moved on separate routes through Shanxi and Zhili along the axis of Beijing. There were no supplies of provisions, except for what they found along the way, but that was enough. Each commander had the authority at his own discretion to maneuver troops and engage in battle with the enemy, but without losing sight of a clearly defined main goal. Individual columns could very quickly converge and support each other. The Mongol army served as an excellent illustration of the principle formulated by Moltke - “move separately, fight together.”

The Mongol tactics were simple. They took by surprise, could move day and night and gather their “darkness” together with absolute precision, and could surround the enemy. They sometimes resorted to the old Parthian tactic of feigning flight, sometimes retreating for days while fanning out before turning and outflanking the enemy. The Mongol cavalry attacked in battle formations under the cover of their own arrows and throwing spears. The movement of battle formations was carried out according to signals - flags in the daytime and lanterns in the dark. The troops lined up in five echelons; the warriors in the front two wore heavier armor. After the first blow, a chaotic hand-to-hand combat, each warrior fought on his own, wielding a saber, pulling the enemy off his horse with a lasso or a hook at the end of a spear.

The first raid on China was carried out in this spirit, sweeping away all resistance. But the Mongols were still weak against fortifications, and with the majority of the Chinese population hiding behind the city walls, the war became a stalemate. Some cities fell due to military stratagem. But like Hannibal before Rome, Genghis Khan and his horde stopped before Yanqing, the capital (later called Beijing). This situation prevailed for five years, from 1211 to 1216. Every autumn the Mongols retreated, and the following spring, rapidly moving in separate columns across open terrain, they returned. Every year the destruction became more and more terrible, new cities were captured, but the main centers continued to hold out. But finally, in 1216, the emperor from the Qing dynasty accepted humiliation and paid off the Mongols. A huge tribute was paid, Genghis Khan received a girl of Chinese imperial blood as his wife, and Muhuli’s temnik was left as the viceroy and military ruler of China. Genghis Khan returned to his capital Karakorum north of the Gobi Desert with rich booty promised to the soldiers and with captured Chinese artisans, specialists and scientists - the prisoners who were worthless were killed.

Having disgraced the East and ensured order in his own possessions, Genghis Khan then turned his attention to the West - to the great Islamic power that lay on the other side of the Himalayas - the Khorezm Empire. Shah Alaeddin Mohammed, also a conqueror, ruled an area stretching from the Persian Gulf and Baghdad to the Himalayas. This was the pinnacle of Islamic rule: in the far West, the Crusaders were in retreat everywhere. Genghis Khan knew little about the Islamic world, Mohammed knew even less about the Mongols - but he was not afraid, because, according to him, he had an army of 400 thousand.

In the spring of 1219, Genghis Khan, now fifty-six, ordered the horde to gather. It is believed that a quarter of a million warriors arrived, better equipped than ever before, each with three horses. The army was accompanied by a convoy with artillery loaded on yaks. To divert attention from the main forces, Genghis Khan sent an army under the command of Zhuzhi to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya River (Yaxartes in the time of Alexander the Great), which devastated the lowland between the Akkum desert and the Alatau mountains. The Shah assumed that this was the main direction of the invasion and sent his son Jalaluddin to repel it. After several skirmishes, the Mongols set the grass on fire and disappeared under cover of fire. The misled Shah sent troops along the entire course of the Syr Darya. Thus, Khorezm had no strong defensive lines anywhere, which gave Genghis Khan an advantage when real hostilities began. Mongol troops moved in the fall. The highest mountains in the world blocked the direct path. The main army headed west for a long time the hard way to the Dzungarian Gate - the passage to Northern Turkestan. The warriors wrapped themselves in sheepskin and warmed themselves from the inside with kumis, or fermented horse milk. To mislead the enemy and as the first stage of his strategic plan capture in pincers, Genghis Khan allocated a column of 20 thousand soldiers under the command of Chepe-noyon, which was to go around the mountains from the opposite side and approach the territory of the Khorezm Khanate in the south-eastern point - from Kashgar to Khojent. The timing of the Mongol operations was so perfect that both armies reached their destinations in January and February 1220.

Chepe-Noyon's column posed a direct threat to two large Khorezm cities - Tashkent and Samarkand, and the Shah responded by transferring additional forces to the south. But just at that moment, Genghis Khan with his main forces in three columns crossed the northern border of the Khorezm kingdom. In February, two of these columns of 30 thousand soldiers each, under the command of Zhuzhi and Yagatai, appeared on the left flank of the Shah and moved along the Syr Darya to join the army of Chepe-noyon, diligently destroying the scattered Khorezm forces. The remaining column of 40 thousand soldiers under the command of Genghis Khan simultaneously moved straight south towards Bukhara. Genghis Khan's forces, hidden behind the columns of Zhuzhi and Yagatai, penetrated into the Kyzyl Kum desert almost unnoticed. The Shah first heard about this when Genghis Khan emerged from the desert in the south at the beginning of April, captured Nurata and approached Bukhara. On April 11, Bukhara was taken.

The Shah was taken by surprise. Its borders overturned, the available troops fell into a trap of columns converging from three directions, communications with the western possessions were cut. He himself fled to the west, and the Mongols united in Samarkand. Genghis Khan's campaign was a complete success. The strategy was based on the extraordinary mobility and endurance of the troops and the brilliant coordination of the movements of four columns, each of which covered and complemented the actions of the others. At all points the enemy unexpectedly encountered superior forces.

It took more time to finally conquer the Shah's empire. The conquerors moved west more slowly, capturing cities one by one. Their policy was based on fear. Genghis Khan declared himself God's punishment in mosques, and the faithful had reason to believe him. In the Khorezm Empire, only specialists in a particular field who could be of benefit to the Mongols were spared. Otherwise, the entire population and its civilization were destroyed. When there were no people left, animals were destroyed. However, resistance was desperate and continued until December 1221, when Mohammed's bravest son Jalaluddin lost his last troops in the Battle of the Indus. Meanwhile, Sabutai and Chepe-noyon traveled around the Caspian Sea and headed through the Caucasus towards the Dnieper and Europe, but were then recalled by Genghis Khan. They completed the greatest cavalry campaign in history, fighting their way home east through the lands of the nomads who inhabited Rus'.

Genghis Khan wanted to return to his native land. In 1227 he died. Being a strong personality, he became the ruler of a warlike people, and then at its head he conquered the greatest empire in the world, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Pacific Ocean, from the Siberian taiga to the Himalayas. As a commander and leader, he is not inferior to anyone in history. But he was a savage who knew no pity.

After the death of Genghis Khan, Sabutai returned to Europe and, in the course of brilliant campaigns, hardly inferior to those of Genghis Khan, captured Europe as far as the Adriatic and Poland. After 1241, the Mongols left Europe, with the exception of Rus'. Subsequently, two more Mongol conquerors rose to power - Kublai and Timur, who in the second half of the 14th century. regained dominion over south Asia west of the Himalayas. But subsequently, no new leaders emerged from the ranks of the Mongol horsemen, and almost as suddenly as they appeared, the Mongols sank into initial obscurity.

The political history of China is a long list of internal strife and revolts that weakened the state, engaged in an endless struggle to protect its borders from the nomads advancing from the north and west. Centuries of such struggle have given rise to famous military experience. But the Chinese were a peace-loving people and were not distinguished by creative abilities in the art of war. They even cared rather little about leaving their military history in memory.

Ancient Chinese society was feudal, and until the 500s. BC e. The wars we know were of a “heroic” nature. Members of the upper class, known as "shi", closely resembled Homeric heroes or warriors from Indian legends. The existence of a code of military etiquette, known as "li", indicates that many so-called wars were not fought in earnest, but for the sake of entertainment, the defense of honor and the maintenance of prestige. Such actions as attacking an enemy during his crossing or choosing an enemy much older than you in age were severely condemned as dishonorable. In 632 BC. e. a general serving the Zhou dynasty challenged the ruler of the Qing dynasty in the following terms: “Will Your Excellency allow our knights to measure their strength with yours?” The knight entered the battle on a chariot drawn by four horses, armed with a powerful bow. Each chariot was accompanied by a detachment of lightly armed foot soldiers. However, the period of time from 403 to 221 BC. e. known as the “time of warring states,” and during this period the war was fought quite seriously. The infantry, consisting of strong, hardy peasants, became more numerous and significant in battle. Foot soldiers had throwing spears, short swords and bows and arrows. The appearance of iron around this time led to significant improvements in weapons and armor.

Around 200, following the example of the nomads, cavalry appeared in the Chinese troops, and then chariots gradually disappeared. The development of fortification and siege skills dates back to the same period. Siege weapons were catapults, ladders, etc. - the same as in the early European wars. Extraordinarily powerful fortifications were created, the most famous of which was the Great Wall of China, which stretched, in some places over mountains and gorges, for 1,600 miles along the borders with the territory of nomads south of the Gobi Desert. It is typically about 25 feet thick at the base and 17 feet at the top, and 25 to 30 feet high. Above the walkway are 5ft parapets with loopholes and towers at regular intervals. It was built at the direction of the emperor and commander Shi Huangdi (246 - 210 BC). And the city walls, built during the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644), dwarf modern European fortifications. For example, the thickness of the walls of Nanjing, Xi'an, Jinan is from 50 to 70 feet, and the height in some places is 70 feet.

The military experience of the Chinese in its purest form was outlined around 500 BC. e. in a collection of rules contained in Sun Tzu's book The Art of War. The Art of War is considered one of the great works of Chinese literature. The book is full of deep military wisdom - much that Europeans only learned during the Napoleonic Wars. It teaches that the real purpose of strategy is to quickly achieve the political goals of war and ensure peace, and not long destructive military actions. Victory must be achieved at the cost of minimal losses of manpower and property. Although honesty and integrity are valued in a commander, ultimately “all wars are based on deceit.” The style of presentation and wisdom of Sun Tzu is characterized by the following advice that he gives to the commander: “ Good decision like the precisely timed fall of a falcon striking its prey.”

Among famous commanders V Chinese history Bo Zhi, Zhang Zheng and Zao Kun are mentioned, but little is known about them. There is little evidence of significant development in Chinese military affairs. Expansion seems to have been carried out through alliances and cultural influence rather than by force of arms. Once the Mongols established themselves in China, even their warlike temperament seemed to be tempered by the deep antipathy toward all things military inherent in Chinese civilization. Although under Khubilai the combined Mongol-Chinese armed forces tried to get close to Japan, Burma and Java, their campaigns were not entirely successful.

Back in the 10th century. The Chinese used gunpowder, and they are also known to have used firearms in 1356. But in the 15th century. European technical achievements in the production of weapons and the manufacture of sails allowed the Europeans to far surpass the Asians in the military field. The Chinese were desperate to reveal the military secrets of the Europeans; they were ready to pay any price for firearms. The production and use of firearms was ultimately taught to them by the Jesuits. In the 1640s. the workshop that cast cannon barrels, which was located next to the imperial palace, was run by the German Jesuit Schall - on the condition that he was allowed to engage in missionary activities. Yet the Chinese were slow to learn and apply Western military techniques. This peace-loving and conservative society of thinkers and peasants did not want to industrialize just for the sake of building up military power. There was growing peaceful opposition to contacts with Europeans in the country. In the 17th century Father Ricci wrote that “military is one of the four states that they consider low.” The same applied equally to the sea; Chinese junks had high seaworthiness, but they were never adapted for war. At the end of the 16th century. The Chinese were convinced to put guns on them, but the consciousness of the Chinese themselves never underwent a change in this direction. One observer remarked: “Their arquebuses are so bad that a bullet cannot penetrate an ordinary cuirass, and besides, they do not know how to aim.”

This situation continued until the middle of the 19th century. It took humiliation at the hands of the British in the Opium War of 1839–1842 to give rise to a realistic view of things and awaken China to the West.

The history of Japan, in contrast to China, is characterized by the fact that wars occupied a prominent place here. Most of Japan is mountainous and infertile, and the frequent wars among its inhabitants can be largely attributed to competition for the rare tracts of land suitable for rice cultivation. The second important circumstance is the presence of good natural harbors on the islands. Thus, the Japanese became hardy mountaineers and sailors. Raids on Korea were undertaken already in the 4th century. n. e. However, the prevailing winds and currents in the Sea of ​​Japan in most cases made contact with the Asian mainland difficult, and, accordingly, Japanese society as a whole developed in isolation and with a distinct militaristic orientation.

In ancient times, the Japanese warrior was personified by a noble knight mounted on a horse and dressed in armor. Although he was accompanied by an escort, he fought alone. The main weapon was a bow, but in close combat he used a sword. In VI? V. n. e. Under the influence of Buddhism, there was a pacifist movement in the ranks of the upper class and there was an attempt to organize from the peasants a huge reserve for national defense. But the attempt failed because the peasants were categorically against it, and they also did not have combat equipment. Instead, each province was required to maintain trained regular troops. Then, as before, soldiers began to be recruited from the upper classes. The division of Japanese society into peasant and warrior classes will become increasingly noticeable.

In the 9th century. Japanese society entered a long period of feudal development. A weak central government meant independence for the aristocracy and insecurity for farmers. At the same time, land development took place and the strongest carved out personal lands for themselves. In large land holdings and clans, relationships of dependence and loyalty were formed, and personal armies were created. The main rivals were two clans - Taira and Minamoto, and the struggle between them lasted 250 years, marked by continuous internecine wars and rebellions. Minamoto gained the upper hand on land, and over time, in 1185, he managed to defeat Taira at sea, in the battle of Dannoura in the Shimonoseki Strait.

Over two and a half centuries of endless battles for empty land, the Japanese have learned a lot in military affairs. Warriors developed into a privileged class known as samurai. The main weapon of the samurai was a seven and a half foot bow, made of boxwood or bamboo wrapped in a thin cord. Samurai also devoted a lot of time to the art of swordsmanship. They had two types of swords - a single-edged, slightly curved three-foot combat sword and a shorter one for beheading a victim or committing suicide. The sword was considered an essential symbol of the warrior. The art of sword making was brought to perfection in the 13th century. two famous craftsmen - Masamune and Hoshimitsu, who made perfectly balanced blades from well-hardened steel. The samurai also created jujutsu - the art of injuring or killing an opponent, while maximizing the economy of one's own muscular strength, using his weight and strength to his detriment. The samurai's protection was armor made of metal and leather, fastened with silk and leather cords, and a horned metal helmet. The Japanese never had suitable war horses; they went into battle on small, strong ponies, which were sometimes also dressed in armor.

Tactics might include surprise attacks and ambushes, but for the most part the opposing armies simply sought to meet in open battle. Each campaign began with a human sacrifice to the god of war. Samurai fights were of a distinctly ceremonial nature. The enemy was notified of the intention to attack him with a bow shot and a special chant. The command to start the battle was given by raising flags painted with figures of dragons and beating drums and gongs. Until the 15th century the battles resembled a gigantic multitude of individual fencing matches. Each samurai, choosing an opponent, shouted out his name, rank and successes, and possibly showered him with insults. The duelists then fought to the death without outside interference.

The samurai class developed a code of personal conduct, solidarity and duty to the feudal lord. It was called "Bushido" or "Way of the Warrior". The samurai had to die for his overlord. He was obliged to die in battle rather than surrender, and if he surrendered, he became an object of extreme contempt, unworthy of counting on human treatment - hence, perhaps, the treatment of prisoners of war by the Japanese in the war of 1939-1945. A samurai who had disgraced himself had to commit suicide by hara-kiri, cutting open his stomach with his own sword. There have been cases of mass suicide of hundreds of samurai who did not want to be captured.

Yooritomo from the Minamoto clan, who won in 1185, proved himself to be a prominent commander and statesman, who managed to establish a strong central government while at the same time preserving Japanese feudalism in its militaristic form. In the next century, Japan was strong enough to resist the Mongols. But in 1338, power was seized by a new line of shoguns who did not claim allegiance to the feudal and military elite. Thus, when in the 16th century. When Japan first came into contact with the Western world, it was in chaos. The Japanese quickly recognized the superiority of European firearms over their own bows and arrows, and by 1600 they were producing these weapons themselves.

It was at this time that the country finally found itself under one strong political authority again. The transition from anarchy to unity was accomplished by three individuals working together. Nobunaga, a military statesman, began the Westernization of Japanese weapons. Hideyoshi was a prominent commander, a capable, persistent organizer and leader. At home, he achieved many successes, but then tried to conquer Korea, and here his plans were ultimately frustrated by the naval superiority of the Koreans, who had a fleet of ships covered with iron sheets like a turtle shell, commanded by the wonderful admiral Yi Sun. Ultimately, in 1600, Ieyasu, also a capable general, began the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Tokugawa's strange policy consisted of freezing Japanese social and political institutions and isolating the country from the rest of the world. This gave her 250 years of peace. But during this time, in technical development, it lagged even further behind the rest of the world, and the samurai army turned into an outdated and ineffective fighting force. But in 1853 Japanese shores A squadron of American ships appeared, and the Japanese were again forced to respond positively to the challenges of the modern Western world.

The nature of military operations in India was dictated solely by natural factors - geographical location, population migration and climate. Between the Himalayas and the Vindhya plateau in the center of India lies Hindustan, a vast fertile plain without any natural barriers. Until Britain took over, no authority had assumed responsibility for guarding the northwestern frontier, and from ancient times migrating peoples passed through these passes. At one time, the Greeks passed this way, then the Turks, Huns, Mongols and Persians. Since the 2400s BC e. until the 1500s n. e. the local inhabitants everywhere were defeated by external invaders and were driven south, and the invaders were usually stopped by the Vindhya mountains. IN south india large areas are mountainous and arid - unsuitable for the movement of large masses of people. These lands are suitable for action against invaders and internal rulers of unorganized warriors such as the Marathas.

Wars occupied the most prominent place in political life and literature of the ancient Hindus. However, the available documentation provides only a very inaccurate idea of ​​their military history. A very useful instruction on the art of government, entitled “Artha-shastra” (c. 100 BC), the author of which was Kautilya, a great expert in this field. It is important that in his political work he includes a praiseworthy treatise on military affairs. But in Sanskrit epic tales, such as the Mahabharata, it is difficult to distinguish historical truth from artistic fiction. The Mahabharata is comparable to the Iliad and the great epic war poem, The Song of the Nibelungs.

From the most foggy past to the 19th century. n. e. The main weapon in India was the bow. This is how the bow is described in 326 BC. e. Arrian: “The bow of an Indian foot archer is equal in length to his height. Nothing can withstand the arrow of an Indian archer, neither shield nor armor.” Later they began to honor the sword more highly, and also, along with other weapons, to use a club and a spear, a disc and a sling. For many centuries, chariots with teams of three to twelve people were in use. However, the Indian horses were of low breed, and the disasters caused by the invasions of the Greeks and Turks were the result of the defeat of armies with weak cavalry by armies consisting mainly of picked cavalry - and this despite the fact that it was in the Indian cavalry in the 1st century. BC e. stirrups appeared for the first time. Everyone had shields except archers and the very poor. They were made from bull or tiger skins and bamboo or reed shoots and decorated with various symbols. Very few had armor, there were chain mail, but quilted cotton clothing was more often used.

Ruler Paurav, defeated by Alexander the Great at the Battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC. e., entered the battle riding an elephant. From then until the 17th century. n. e. elephants were considered the main striking force of the Indian army. Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 298) had a corps of elephants of 9 thousand heads. Each elephant carried a driver and usually three warriors armed with bows and arrows - although spears, knives, pots of oil and stones could also be used. The animals themselves were well protected by chain mail, carried packs of ammunition and were decorated with necklaces, carpets and heraldic attributes.

Elephant training included "samyan" (move forward, sideways and tortuously), "vadhavadha" (trample and kill), "hastiyuddha" (engage in battle in formation) and other techniques. Elephants had strength and a terrifying appearance. They could trample people, destroy obstacles and strike terror into the hearts of inexperienced warriors and untrained horses. But they had too many shortcomings to be a reliable main offensive force in battle. They have always been difficult to control. It often happened that panicked elephants turned back, causing chaos in their own ranks.

The most generally accepted time to begin military operations was October, after the monsoon season, although the timing could change due to political circumstances. Espionage was well established, both diplomatic and military. It is extremely difficult to establish the deployment of troops and tactics from the various sources available. The author of the Mahabharata gives full scope to the flight of fancy, describing battle formations called “heron”, “hawk” and “crocodile”, and in his fantasies he remains true to himself, drawing everything to the smallest detail. Kautilya speaks a little more realistically about the four main battle formations - “staff”, “snake”, “circle” and “open formation”, each with its own variations. It is clear that, in theory, there were numerous types of combat deployments.

We will see that the military art of the ancient Hindus is not a very fertile field for study. The weakest points in the structure and formation of troops were excessive reliance on elephants, poor cavalry and a feudal recruitment system that prevented unity of command and standardization of equipment and formation. Even more successful commanders, such as Chandragupta Maurya, who drove out the Greeks, and Skandagupta and Yasodharman, who drove back the Huns, seem to have lacked foresight and strategic and tactical skill. The passes on the northwestern border were not held, and the troops moved slowly. Wars between Hindus were minor events, fought with caution. They were the occupation of politicians and did not concern the farmers engaged in cultivating the fields. By 1000 AD e. Indian civilization became complacent and conservative. These weaknesses were exposed by the Islamic invasion.

The Ty??o-Islamic conquest of India followed a pattern. It was a gradual process that began in the 10th century. and which ended only in the 17th century, wild Turkish tribes were constantly attracted by rich, scattered lands. The Turks began with raids across the borders, the raids grew into widespread invasions, during which the closest Indian ruler in last battle was defeated. The first conquered principality became a springboard for further advancement, and one by one the Indian lands were absorbed by the forces of Islam, moving to the south and east. Only in the 17th century. tribes from the jungles of Assam stopped the then already decaying forces of the Mughals, descendants of the conquerors of India. As the invaders who belonged to the early waves of invasion settled and became Indians, they themselves were overrun by subsequent waves that rolled in from the northwest. Each individual invasion was usually short-lived, until occasionally a prominent Islamic conqueror emerged and swept away everything in his path. Among them four names stand out: Mahmud of Ghazni (997 – 1030), who was said to have made seventeen campaigns against India; Shihabaddin Guri, who won the battles of Tarain in 1192; Timur, a Mongol who swept through Hindustan in five months in 1398, sacked Delhi, but then returned to his capital Samarkand; and finally, in 1525, India was captured by Timur's descendant Tiger Babur, defeating his opponents in the Panipat and Sikri battles.

The Turks were distinguished by extreme belligerence, which is exactly what the Indians lacked. Here they encountered serene calm and a tolerant attitude, contrasting them with the violent activity of savages, spurred on by a fanatical faith in Islam. The Turks were noted for their energy, social cohesion, fatalistic contempt for death and sobriety. To this we must add mobility and maneuverability thanks to the presence of fast, hardy Turkmen and Arabian horses. Their troops were actually hordes of mounted archers, similar to the successful associations of the Parthians, Huns and Mongols in the past. Their compound bows were in no way inferior to Indian ones, and they wielded them more successfully. The Turks promoted from their ranks excellent senior officers, and sometimes talented commanders. The essence of the strategy was to control maneuver forces over large spaces. Tactics, as in the West, usually consisted of wearing down the enemy forces through flanking maneuvers, raids by elusive mounted archers, and then a finishing blow with heavy cavalry.

But, settling in India, the newcomers from Turkey lost the offensive impulse generated by the steppe expanses, and to a certain extent acquired the strict customs of their new homeland, rooted in ancient times. Elephants began to be used, and although cavalry was still respected, maneuverability was gradually lost. In addition, the appearance of firearms affected the nature of military operations. Already Babur’s army differed from the troops of his predecessors. He had fewer Turkish cavalry, although they remained an elite force. Contingents of indigenous Indians appeared, fighting with traditional bows, swords and spears. There were also foot troops armed with matchlocks and Falconets mounted on carts. Babur used guns skillfully - especially at the battle of Sikri, where (like Gonzalo de Cordoba) he forced the Rajputs to throw their forces against well-fortified positions defended by infantry and artillery. But the Turks in India shared their Western counterparts' predilection for oversized guns. Some guns made later in India weighed 40 and even 50 tons. At the same time, even during the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, individual Indian troops successfully used bows and arrows along with firearms.

At the Battle of Talikot in 1565, which established Muslim rule over the Hindus on the Deccan Plateau, the later Muslim Indian army showed itself in its best light. Husain Nizam Shah was not discouraged by the enemy's fourfold numerical superiority. His artillery was much stronger, and he moved it forward, setting up a screen of Turkish cavalry armed with bows, who lured the enemy towards him. The well-equipped and trained cavalry was divided into large detachments, and, in addition, a powerful reserve remained to deliver the final decisive blow.

By the 18th century the Turkish-Islamic forces acquired too many traditional Hindu qualities. This was evident during the defeat of the troops of Nizam al-Mulk from the Marathas, who fought in many ways in the manner of the first Turkish conquerors of India. These were the indigenous inhabitants of southwestern India, unlike the inhabitants of the rich North, a hardy, thrifty people - and in the middle of the 17th century. Shivaji forged them into a new military force. In the 18th century they were in the best shape, and the Palkheda campaign of 1727–1228, in which Baji Rao I surpassed Nizam al-Mulk in military skill, serves as a brilliant example of strategic maneuver. Baji Rao's army was purely cavalry and was armed only with sabers, spears, and in some units bows and round shields. Two riders relied on a spare horse. The Marathas moved unencumbered by artillery, property and even handguns or light armor. They supplied themselves by looting.

Baji Rao did not accept the Nizam's dominance over the Deccan and struck first. In October 1727, immediately after the end of the monsoon season, Baji Rao invaded the territory of the Nizam's supporter, Asaf Yakh. The lightly equipped Marathas moved with amazing speed, avoiding the main cities and fortresses, subsisting by plundering the countryside, setting small settlements to fire. At the beginning of November, they were defeated at the hands of the Nizam’s talented confidant, Aivaz Khan, but within a month they fully recovered and moved again to the east, then to the north, then to the west, unexpectedly changing direction. The Nizam mobilized his forces and pursued them for some time, but the unpredictable rapid movements of the enemy confused him and exhausted the strength of his soldiers. At the end of January, the Nizam changed strategy, stopped pursuing the elusive Maratha forces and moved straight into the central part of their own lands around Pune, which he captured and plundered. But Baji Rao did not give in to persistent calls to return and, in response to the Nizam’s maneuver, began in turn to threaten his capital, Aurangabad. As expected, the Nizam left the Pune region and returned to the rescue of Aurangabad. He once again tried to catch Baji Rao, but the Marathas circled nearby, harassing his army. The Nizam kept the army intact, but surrendered in March 1728. The Marathas returned home with rich booty and peace terms that recognized some of their territorial claims.

The fortifications of India should also be noted, for some Indian fortresses, such as Agra, Daulatabad and Mandu, were not inferior to the best structures in Europe. The mountain on which Mandu stands rises a thousand feet above the plain. The fortress was built by Shah Hoshang Ghori (1406 – 1435). The basis of its inaccessibility was a powerful basalt wall with loopholes running along the edge of a steep slope, fortified in places with bastions, and having several heavily defended gates. A wide and deep gorge stretches from the east to the city center; it was protected by an overpass erected across it with a pedestrian path along the top, called “Seven Hundred Steps.” The main entrance was on the north side, where a winding road, blocked by three people following one gate, rose up a rather steep slope. The topmost “Delhi Gate” is a magnificent arched structure. The south-eastern and south-western gates are especially strong. The Tarapur Gate has a narrow and steep passage, and inside it turns at a right angle. If the attacker had broken through, he would have been attacked from the rear by the defenders of the western wall. Indian siege weapons were limited to catapults and later heavy artillery, but the most successful strategists usually bypassed large fortifications.

In the middle of the 18th century. India became the scene of imperial struggle between Britain and France. The Frenchman Joseph Dupleix was the first European to successfully train Indian troops en masse in European methods of warfare. However, the British East India Company very quickly learned the same game. Stringer Lawrence began training sepoys—the name given to Indian troops trained by Europeans and remaining in their service—and Robert Clive proved even more capable as a diplomat and warrior than Dupleix. Clive's most famous victory was his victory over the army of Suraj ud-Dowla at Plassey. Clive had about 800 Europeans, approximately 2 thousand sepoys and 8 guns against 34 thousand foot soldiers, 15 horse soldiers and 53 guns. The odds seemed hopelessly unequal. However, the British successfully chose positions under the cover of a mango grove, and heavy rain put the Indian artillery out of action; The leadership of the Indian troops was so inept that the battle turned out to be nothing more than a minor skirmish that ended in a disorderly flight. Thus, the way was opened for the spread of British rule over the indigenous population of India.

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    This reference and information collection "Frontiers of the military glory of the Fatherland: people, events, facts", prepared by the team of authors of the Institute of Military History of the Ministry of Defense Russian Federation, is part of the practical implementation of the State Program “Patriotic Education of Citizens of the Russian Federation for 2001-2005”, adopted on February 16, 2001 by the Government of the Russian Federation. The state status of the Program requires for its implementation to combine the efforts of federal executive authorities, executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, scientific, creative, public and other organizations of the country. The program determines the main ways of developing the system of patriotic education of citizens of the Russian Federation.

    The content of the Program was based on the Federal Laws of the Russian Federation “On Education”, “On Higher and Postgraduate Professional Education”, “On Military Duty and Military Service”, “On Veterans”, “On the Days of Military Glory (Victory Days) of Russia” , "On the perpetuation of the Victory of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945." Law of the Russian Federation “On perpetuating the memory of those killed in defense of the Fatherland”, as well as Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated December 31, 1999 N 1441 “On approval of the Regulations on the preparation of citizens of the Russian Federation for military service” and the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation dated January 10, 2000 . N 24 "On the Concept of National Security of the Russian Federation".

    As part of the implementation of this State program, aimed at maintaining socio-political stability in society, restoring the economy and strengthening the country’s defense capability, a real work. The book briefly presents reference material on the most significant battles and engagements in the military history of Russia, and evaluates military reforms and some prominent domestic military reformers. The work reflects the biographical data of prominent commanders, naval commanders and military leaders of Russia, and military ministers. The work shows the evolution of power structures in Russia and the USSR from ancient times to the beginning of the 21st century. For convenience, information is given in chronological order. The book is intended for everyone who is interested in the glorious military past of our Motherland.

    The most significant battles and battles in the military history of Russia
    Until the second half of the 19th century V. It was customary to call a battle a decisive clash of the main forces of the warring parties, which unfolded in a limited space and had the character of a mass bloody and relatively fleeting hand-to-hand combat in order to defeat the enemy.

    In the wars of the 20th century. a battle is a series of simultaneous and sequential offensive and defensive operations of large groupings of troops in the most important directions or theaters of military operations.

    An operation is usually understood as a set of battles, battles, strikes and maneuvers coordinated and interconnected in purpose, objectives, place and time, carried out simultaneously and sequentially according to a single concept and plan to solve problems in a theater of military operations or a strategic direction.

    A battle is an integral part of an operation and is a set of the most important battles and attacks carried out sequentially or simultaneously along the entire front or on in a separate direction. Until the beginning of the 20th century. battles were divided into private and general, and in many cases the concept of “battle” was identified with the concepts of “battle” and “battle”.

    Battles and battles of the X - early XX centuries. Battle of Dorostol 971
    Prince of Kyiv Svyatoslav in 969 undertook a campaign to Bulgaria. The military successes of the Rus near Philippopolis and Adrianople and the likelihood of creating a strong Russian-Bulgarian state alarmed Byzantium. The commander Tzimiskes with 30 thousand infantry and 15 thousand cavalry opposed Svyatoslav, who had an army of 30 thousand.

    On April 23, 971, the Byzantine army approached Dorostol (now the city of Silistria in Bulgaria). On the same day, the first battle took place, which began with an ambush attack by a small Russian detachment on the Byzantine vanguard. Svyatoslav's troops stood in the usual battle formation, shields closed and spears extended. Emperor Tzimisces lined up horsemen in iron armor on the flanks of the infantry, and behind were riflemen and slingers who constantly showered the enemy with stones and arrows. Two days later, the Byzantine fleet approached Dorostol, and Tzimiskes launched an assault on the city walls, but it failed. By the end of the day on April 25, the city was completely surrounded by the Byzantines. During the blockade, Svyatoslav’s warriors made forays more than once, inflicting damage on the enemy.

    On July 21, it was decided to give the last battle. The next day the Rus left the city, and Svyatoslav ordered the gates to be locked so that no one could think about escaping. According to the chronicler, before the battle, Svyatoslav addressed the squad with the following words: “Let us not disgrace the Russian lands, but let us lie down with their bones: the dead have no shame.” The battle began with Svyatoslav's warriors attacking the enemy army. By noon, the Byzantines began to gradually retreat. Tzimiskes himself rushed to the aid of the retreating troops with a select detachment of cavalry. To make better use of his numerical superiority, Tzimiskes lured the Rus to the plain with a false retreat. At this time, another detachment of Byzantines came to their rear and cut them off from the city. Svyatoslav's squad would have been destroyed if there had not been a second line of troops behind their battle formation - the "wall" -. The soldiers of the second line turned to the Byzantines, who struck from the rear, and did not allow them to approach the “wall.” Svyatoslav’s army had to fight surrounded, but thanks to the courage of the warriors, the encirclement ring was broken.

    The next day, Svyatoslav invited Tzimiskes to begin negotiations. Svyatoslav undertook not to fight with Byzantium, and Tzimiskes had to let the Rus' boats through without hindrance and give two measures of bread to each warrior for the road. After this, Svyatoslav’s army moved home. The treacherous Byzantines warned the Pechenegs that the Rus were coming in a small force and with booty. On the Dnieper rapids, Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pecheneg Khan Kurei and was killed.

    Battle of the Ice 1242
    In the early 40s of the 13th century. Swedish feudal lords, taking advantage of the weakening of Rus', decided to seize its northwestern lands, the cities of Pskov, Ladoga, Novgorod. In 1240, a 5,000-strong Swedish landing force on 100 ships entered the Neva and set up camp at the confluence of the Izhora River. The Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich, having gathered 1,500 soldiers, launched a sudden pre-emptive strike against the invading enemy and defeated him. For the brilliant victory, the Russian people named the 20-year-old commander Alexander Nevsky.

    The German knights of the Livonian Order (a branch of the Teutonic Order in the Baltic states), taking advantage of the distraction of the Russian army to fight the Swedes, captured Izborsk, Pskov in 1240 and began to advance towards Novgorod. However, troops under the command of Alexander Nevsky launched a counter-offensive and stormed the Koporye fortress on the coast of the Gulf of Finland Baltic Sea, and then liberated Pskov. In the spring of 1242, Russian troops (12 thousand people) reached Lake Peipus, bound by ice. Alexander Nevsky, taking into account the peculiarity of the tactics of the knights, who usually carried out a frontal attack with an armored wedge, called a “pig” in Rus', decided to weaken the center of the combat formation of the Russian army and strengthen the regiments of the right and left hands. He placed the cavalry, divided into two detachments, on the flanks behind the infantry. Behind the “chelo” (the regiment of the center of the battle formation) was the prince’s squad. On April 5, 1242, the crusaders (12 thousand people) attacked the advanced Russian regiment, but got bogged down in a battle with the “brow”. At this time, the regiments of the right and left hands covered the flanks of the “pig”, and the cavalry struck the rear of the enemy, who was completely defeated. As a result of this victory, the knightly expansion to the east was stopped and the Russian lands were saved from enslavement.

    Battle of Kulikovo 1380
    In the second half of the 14th century. The Principality of Moscow began an open struggle to overthrow the yoke of the Golden Horde. This fight was led by Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich. In 1378, the Russian army under his command on the river. The leader was defeated by a strong Mongol-Tatar detachment of Murza Begich. In response to this, the ruler of the Golden Horde, Emir Mamai, launched a new campaign against Rus' in 1380. The Russian army, led by Dmitry Ivanovich, came out to meet the enemy, who decided to forestall the enemy and not give him the opportunity to unite with the allied army of the Lithuanian prince Jagiello. Before the battle, Russian troops (50-70 thousand people) lined up on the Kulikovo field in a battle formation that had great depth. In front was a guard regiment, behind it was an advanced regiment, in the center was a large regiment and on the flanks were regiments of the right and left hands. Behind the large regiment there was a reserve (cavalry), and in “Green Dubrava” behind the left flank of the main forces there was an ambush regiment. Mamai's army (over 90-100 thousand people) consisted of a vanguard (light cavalry), main forces (infantry in the center, and cavalry deployed in two lines on the flanks) and reserve. On September 8 at 11 o'clock the guard regiment, in which Dmitry himself was located, attacked swipe, crushed the intelligence of the Mongol-Tatars and forced Mamai to begin the battle even before the approach of the Lithuanian army. During the fierce battle, all enemy attempts to break through the center and right wing of the Russian army failed. However, the enemy cavalry managed to overcome the resistance of the left wing of the Russian army and reach the rear of its main forces. The outcome of the battle was decided by a sudden attack by an ambush regiment on the flank and rear of the Mongol-Tatar cavalry that had broken through. As a result, the enemy could not withstand the blow and began to retreat, and then fled. For the victory on the Kulikovo field, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich was nicknamed Donskoy. This victory marked the beginning of the liberation of Rus' from the Golden Horde yoke.

    100 years later, in October 1480, the Russian and Golden Horde troops met again, but now on the river. Ugra. All attempts by the enemy to cross to the opposite bank of the river were repulsed, and after a long confrontation he began to retreat, not daring to go on the offensive. This event, which took place on November 12, 1480, marked the complete liberation of Rus' from the yoke of the Golden Horde.

    Battle of Molodi 1572
    In 1572, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey, taking advantage of the fact that the main forces of the Russian army were in Livonia, decided to make a lightning raid on Moscow. He gathered significant forces under his banner: the 60,000-strong horde that set out along the way was joined by strong cavalry detachments of Nogais. Numerous Khan's artillery was served by Turkish gunners. At the disposal of the governor M.I. Vorotynsky there were no more than twenty thousand warriors. But the campaign of the Krymchaks did not come as a surprise to the Russian command. The village and guard service, created shortly before, warned of the approach of the enemy. In July, the Tatars approached Tula and, having crossed the Oka, moved towards Moscow. The commander of the advanced regiment, Prince D.I. Khvorostinin, in the battle at Senka Ford, managed to delay the vanguard of the Tatar army, but when the main forces of the enemy crossed the Oka, the governor decided to withdraw the regiment.

    Prince Vorotynsky, standing at the head of the Great Regiment in Kolomna, decided to use flank attacks to delay the advance of the Tatar horde to the capital, and with his main forces to catch up with the enemy and impose a decisive battle on him on the outskirts of Moscow. While Vorotynsky and his main forces were making a roundabout maneuver, the regiments of governors Khvorostinin, Odoevsky and Sheremetev struck at the rear of the Tatar army. Odoevsky and Sheremetev on the Nara River inflicted significant damage on the Tatar cavalry, and on August 7 Khvorostinina defeated the rearguard of the Crimean army, which consisted of selected cavalry detachments. By this time, Voivode Vorotynsky had managed to move the main forces from Kolomna and hid them in a mobile fortress ("walk-city") 45 km from Moscow "on Molodi". When the Tatars arrived there on August 10, they came under heavy artillery fire and suffered significant losses.

    The decisive battle took place on August 11. The Tatars launched an assault on the mobile fortress, which was defended by Khvorostinin with small forces. Time after time, Tatar waves rolled onto the walls of the “walk-city”. The archers beat them at point-blank range with arquebuses, and cut down the Tatars with sabers, “children of the boyars.” While the Krymchaks unsuccessfully attacked the hiding archers, Vorotynsky with the main forces along the bottom of the ravine quietly went to the rear of the Khan’s army. At the agreed signal, Khvorostinin opened fire from all arquebuses and cannons, and then launched a sortie. At the same time, Vorotynsky struck from the rear. The Tatars could not withstand the double blow. A panicked retreat began, an example of which was shown by Devlet-Girey himself. The army abandoned by the khan completely scattered. The Russian cavalry rushed after the Tatars, completing a complete rout.

    The victory of the Moscow regiments at Molodi permanently eliminated the threat to the southern borders of Rus' from the Crimea.

    Heroic defense of Pskov August 1581 - January 1582
    Under Tsar Ivan IV (1530-1584), the Russian state waged a fierce struggle: in the southeast - with the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates, in the west - for access to the Baltic Sea. In 1552, the Russian army captured Kazan. In 1556-1557 The Astrakhan Khanate and the Nogai Horde recognized vassal dependence on the Russian state, and Chuvashia, Bashkiria and Kabarda voluntarily became part of it. With the security of the southeastern borders secured, it became possible to break the blockade in the west, where the Livonian Order was persistently pushing Russia away from the countries of Western Europe. In January 1558, the Livonian War began, which lasted 25 years.

    The troops of the Livonian Order could not resist for long, and in 1560 Livonia fell apart. On its territory the Duchy of Courland and the Bishopric of Riga, dependent on Poland and Sweden, were formed. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania formed a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. These countries presented a united front against Russia. The war became protracted.

    In 1570, Sweden began military operations against the Russians in the Baltic states. Nine years later, the army of the Polish king Stefan Batory captured Polotsk and Velikiye Luki. In August 1581, more than 50,000 troops (according to some sources, about 100,000 people) of Batory surrounded Pskov, which was defended by a 20,000-strong garrison. The defenders repelled all enemy attacks for four and a half months, withstanding more than 30 assaults. Having failed to achieve success near Pskov, Batory was forced on January 15, 1582 to conclude a truce with Russia for 10 years, and a year later a truce was signed between Russia and Sweden, putting an end to the Livonian War.

    Liberation of Moscow from Polish invaders in 1612
    After the death of Ivan IV in 1584 and his son Fyodor in 1589, the Rurik dynasty was interrupted. The boyars took advantage of this and fought among themselves for power. In 1604, Polish troops invaded Russian territory, and in 1610, the Swedes.

    On September 21, 1610, Polish invaders, taking advantage of the betrayal of the boyars, captured Moscow. Residents of the capital and other Russian cities rose up to fight them. In the fall of 1611, on the initiative of the town head of Nizhny Novgorod, Kozma Minin, a militia (20 thousand people) was created. It was headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kozma Minin. At the end of August 1612, the militia blocked the 3,000-strong Polish garrison in Kitay-Gorod and the Kremlin, thwarted all attempts of the Polish army (12,000 people) of Hetman Jan Chodkiewicz to release the besieged, and then defeated it. After careful preparation, the Russian militia took Kitay-Gorod by storm on October 22. On October 25, the Poles holed up in the Kremlin released all the hostages, and the next day they capitulated.

    With the expulsion of the interventionists from Russia, the restoration of its statehood began. Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was elected to the throne in 1613. But the struggle with the Poles continued for many years, and only on December 1, 1618, a truce was signed between Russia and Poland.

    Battle of Poltava 1709
    During the reign of Peter I (1682-1725), Russia faced two difficult problems related to access to the seas - the Black and Baltic. However Azov campaigns 1695-1696, which ended with the capture of Azov, did not allow the issue of access to the Black Sea to be completely resolved, since Kerch Strait remained in Turkish hands.

    Peter I's trip to the countries of Western Europe convinced him that neither Austria nor Venice would become Russia's allies in the war with Turkey. But during the “great embassy” (1697-1698), Peter I became convinced that a favorable situation had developed in Europe for solving the Baltic problem - getting rid of Swedish rule in the Baltic states. Denmark and Saxony, whose elector Augustus II was also the Polish king, joined Russia.

    The first years of the Northern War 1700-1721. turned out to be a serious test for the Russian army. The Swedish king Charles XII, having a first-class army and navy in his hands, brought Denmark out of the war and defeated the Polish-Saxon and Russian armies. In the future, he planned to capture Smolensk and Moscow.

    Peter I, anticipating the advance of the Swedes, took measures to strengthen the northwestern borders from Pskov to Smolensk. This forced Charles XII to abandon his attack on Moscow. He took his army to Ukraine, where, counting on the support of the traitor Hetman I.S. Mazepa, intended to replenish supplies, spend the winter, and then, joining the corps of General A. Levengaupt, move to the center of Russia. However, on September 28 (October 9), 1708, Levengaupt’s troops were intercepted near the village of Lesnoy by a flying corps (corvolant) under the command of Peter I. In order to quickly defeat the enemy, about 5 thousand Russian infantry were mounted on horses. They were assisted by about 7 thousand dragoons. The corps was opposed by Swedish troops numbering 13 thousand people, who guarded 3 thousand carts with food and ammunition.

    The Battle of Lesnaya ended in a brilliant victory for the Russian army. The enemy lost 8.5 thousand people killed and wounded. Russian troops captured almost the entire convoy and 17 guns, losing over 1,000 people killed and 2,856 people wounded. This victory testified to the increased fighting strength of the Russian army and contributed to the strengthening of its morale. Peter I later called the battle at Lesnaya “the Mother of the Poltava Battle.” Charles XII lost much-needed reinforcements and convoys. Overall, the Battle of Lesnaya had a great influence on the course of the war. It prepared the conditions for a new, even more magnificent victory of the Russian regular army near Poltava.

    During the winter of 1708-1709. Russian troops, avoiding a general battle, exhausted the forces of the Swedish invaders in separate battles and clashes. In the spring of 1709, Charles XII decided to resume the attack on Moscow through Kharkov and Belgorod. In order to create favorable conditions for carrying out this operation, it was planned to first capture Poltava. The city garrison under the command of Colonel A.S. Kelina consisted of only 4 thousand soldiers and officers, who were supported by 2.5 thousand armed residents. They heroically defended Poltava, withstanding 20 assaults. As a result, the Swedish army (35 thousand people) was detained under the walls of the city for two months, from April 30 (May 11) to June 27 (July 8), 1709. The persistent defense of the city made it possible for the Russian army to prepare for a general battle.

    Peter I at the head of the Russian army (42 thousand people) was located 5 km from Poltava. In front of the position of the Russian troops stretched a wide plain, bordered by forests. On the left there was a copse through which the only possible path for the Swedish army to advance passed. Peter I ordered the construction of redoubts along this route (six in a line and four perpendicular). They were quadrangular earthen fortifications with ditches and parapets, located one from the other at a distance of 300 steps. Each of the redoubts housed two battalions (over 1,200 soldiers and officers with six regimental guns). Behind the redoubts there was cavalry (17 dragoon regiments) under the command of A.D. Menshikov. Peter I's plan was to exhaust the Swedish troops at the redoubts and then deal them a crushing blow in a field battle. In Western Europe, Peter's tactical innovation was applied only in 1745.

    The Swedish army (30 thousand people) was built in front at a distance of 3 km from the Russian redoubts. Its battle formation consisted of two lines: the first - infantry, built in 4 columns; the second is cavalry, built in 6 columns.

    Early in the morning of June 27 (July 8), the Swedes went on the offensive. They managed to capture two unfinished forward redoubts, but were unable to take the rest. During the passage of the Swedish army through the redoubts, a group of 6 infantry battalions and 10 cavalry squadrons was cut off from the main forces and captured by the Russians. With heavy losses, the Swedish army managed to break through the redoubts and reach the open. Peter I also withdrew his troops from the camp (with the exception of 9 reserve battalions), who prepared for the decisive battle. At 9 o'clock in the morning, both armies converged and hand-to-hand combat began. The right wing of the Swedes began to press the center of the combat formation of the Russian troops. Then Peter I personally led a battalion of the Novgorod regiment into battle and closed the emerging breakthrough. The Russian cavalry began to cover the Swedes' flank, threatening their rear. The enemy wavered and began to retreat, and then fled. By 11 o'clock the Battle of Poltava ended in a convincing victory for Russian weapons. The enemy lost 9,234 soldiers and officers killed and over 3 thousand captured. The losses of Russian troops amounted to 1,345 people killed and 3,290 people wounded. The remnants of the Swedish troops (more than 15 thousand people) fled to the Dnieper and were captured by Menshikov’s cavalry. Charles XII and Hetman Mazepa managed to cross the river and leave for Turkey.

    Most of the Swedish army was destroyed on the Poltava field. The power of Sweden was undermined. The victory of Russian troops near Poltava predetermined the victorious outcome of the Northern War for Russia. Sweden was no longer able to recover from the defeat.

    In the military history of Russia, the Battle of Poltava rightfully ranks with Battle on the ice, Battle of Kulikovo and Borodino.

    Battle of Gangut northern war 1714
    After the victory at Poltava, the Russian army during 1710-1713. expelled Swedish troops from the Baltic states. However, the Swedish fleet (25 warships and auxiliary vessels) continued to operate in the Baltic Sea. The Russian rowing fleet consisted of 99 galleys, half-galleys and scampaways with a landing force of about 15 thousand people. Peter I planned to break through to the Abo-Aland skerries and land troops to reinforce the Russian garrison in Abo (100 km northwest of Cape Gangut). On July 27 (August 7), 1714, a naval battle between the Russian and Swedish fleets began at Cape Gangut. Peter I, skillfully using the advantage rowing ships before linear sailing ships the enemy in the conditions of a skerry area and no wind, defeated the enemy. As a result, the Russian fleet received freedom of action in the Gulf of Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, and the Russian army received the opportunity to transfer hostilities to Swedish territory.

    The battle of the Russian rowing fleet at Gangut in 1714, the Ezel naval battle in 1719, and the victory of the Russian rowing fleet at Grengam in 1720 finally broke the power of Sweden at sea. On August 30 (September 10), 1721, a peace treaty was signed in Nystadt. As a result of the Peace of Nystadt, the shores of the Baltic Sea (Riga, Pernov, Revel, Narva, Ezel and Dago islands, etc.) were returned to Russia. It became one of the largest European states and in 1721 officially became known as the Russian Empire.

    Battle of Kunersdrof 1759
    During the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763. On August 19 (30), 1757, Russian troops defeated the Prussian army at Gross-Jägersdorf, occupied Königsberg on January 11 (22), 1758, and on August 14 (25) of the same year defeated the troops of Frederick II at Zorndorf. In July 1759, the Russian army captured Frankfurt an der Oder, posing a threat to Berlin. On August 1 (12), on the right bank of the Oder, 5 km from Frankfurt, near Kunersdorf, the largest battle of the Seven Years' War took place, in which 60 thousand people took part from the Russian and allied Austrian army, and 48 thousand people from Prussia. The allies under the command of Chief General P.S. Saltykov repelled all attacks of the Prussian troops, and then launched a counter-offensive, which ended in the defeat of the Prussian army. The victory at Kunersdorf was achieved thanks to the superiority of the tactics of the Russian troops over the standard tactics of the Prussian army. The enemy lost about 19 thousand people, and the allies - 15 thousand.

    Battle of Chem 1770
    With the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. Empress Catherine II decided to lead it offensively. To implement the planned plan, three armies were deployed in the south of the country, and on July 18 (29) a squadron under the command of G.A. set off from the Baltic to the Mediterranean Sea. Spiridova. The general leadership of military operations in the Mediterranean Sea was entrusted to Count A.G. Orlova.

    On June 24 (July 5), 1770, a Russian squadron consisting of 9 battleships, 3 frigates, 1 bombardier ship and 17 auxiliary ships in the Chios Strait entered into battle with the Turkish fleet, consisting of 16 battleships, 6 frigates and about 50 auxiliary ships , under the command of Admiral Hasan Bey. During the battle, the Turkish flagship Real Mustafa was destroyed, but the Russian ship Eustathius was also killed. Deprived of control, the enemy fleet retreated in disarray to Chesme Bay, where it was blocked by a Russian squadron.

    On the night of June 26 (July 7), the Russian vanguard consisting of 4 battleships, 2 frigates, 1 bombardment ship and 4 fire ships under the command of S.K. was sent to Chesme Bay to destroy it. Greig. Entering the bay, the battleships anchored and opened fire on the Turkish fleet. The frigates fought with the Turkish coastal batteries. Then 4 fire ships went on the attack, one of which, under the command of Lieutenant D.S. Ilyin, set fire to a Turkish ship, the fire from which spread to the entire Turkish fleet. As a result of the battle, the enemy fleet lost 15 battleships, 6 frigates and about 40 smaller ships. Turkish personnel losses amounted to 11 thousand people.

    The victory in the Battle of Chesme contributed to the successful conduct of hostilities in the main theater of war and marked the beginning of the permanent naval presence of the Russian fleet in the Mediterranean Sea.

    Battle of the Cahul River 1770
    During the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. one of its largest battles took place near the river. Cahul. On July 21 (August 1), 1770, the Turkish command concentrated 100 thousand cavalry and 50 thousand infantry near the river. 80,000 cavalry came to the rear of the army of Field Marshal P. A. Rumyantsev (38 thousand people) moving towards Cahul Crimean Tatars. In order to cover his rear and convoy, Rumyantsev allocated over 10 thousand soldiers against the Crimean cavalry, and with the rest of his forces (27 thousand people) he decided to attack the Turkish army. During a fierce battle, the 150,000-strong Turkish army was defeated. The enemy's losses amounted to 20 thousand people, and the Russian army - 1.5 thousand. During the battle, Rumyantsev skillfully used a square of battle formation, which allowed him to maneuver on the battlefield and repel attacks of the Turkish cavalry.

    Battle of the Rymnik River 1789
    The period of the Russian-Turkish war 1787-1791. marked by a number of battles on land and sea. One of them was the battle on the river. Rymnik September 11 (22), 1789 between the 100,000-strong Turkish army and the allied army (7,000-strong Russian and 18,000-strong Austrian detachments). Turkish troops occupied three fortified camps located at a distance of 6-7 km from one another. A.V. Suvorov, who commanded the Russian detachment, decided to defeat the enemy piecemeal. For this purpose, he used battalion squares in two lines, behind which the cavalry advanced. During a stubborn battle that lasted 12 hours, the Turkish army was completely defeated. The Russians and Austrians lost 1 thousand people killed and wounded, and the Turks - 10 thousand.

    Battle of Tendra Island 1790
    The naval battle off Tendra Island took place during the Russian-Turkish War of 1787-1791. between the Russian squadron (37 ships and auxiliary vessels) of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov and the Turkish squadron (45 ships and auxiliary vessels). On August 28 (September 8), 1790, the Russian squadron suddenly attacked the enemy on the move, without changing into battle formation. During a fierce battle that ended on August 29 (September 9), the Turkish squadron was defeated. As a result of this victory, the lasting dominance of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea was ensured.

    Storm of Ishmael 1790
    Special significance during the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. had the capture of Izmail, the citadel of Turkish rule on the Danube.

    Izmail, called "Ordu-kalessi" ("army fortress") by the Turks, was rebuilt by Western engineers in accordance with the requirements of modern fortification. From the south the fortress was protected by the Danube. A ditch 12 m wide and up to 10 m deep was dug around the fortress walls. Inside the city there were many stone buildings convenient for defense. The fortress garrison numbered 35 thousand people with 265 guns.

    Russian troops approached Izmail in November 1790 and began its siege. However, bad autumn weather made combat operations difficult. Sickness began among the soldiers. And then the commander-in-chief of the Russian army, Field Marshal General A. Potemkin, decided to entrust the capture of Izmail to A. V. Suvorov, who arrived in the army on December 2 (13). Suvorov had 31 thousand people and 500 guns under his command.

    Suvorov immediately began preparing for the assault. The troops were trained to overcome obstacles using fascines and assault ladders. Much attention was paid to raising the morale of Russian soldiers. The plan for the assault on Izmail was a sudden night attack of the fortress from three sides at once with the support of a river flotilla.

    After completing preparations for the assault, A.V. Suvorov sent a letter to the commandant of the fortress Aidos Mehmet Pasha on December 7 (18) demanding surrender. The commandant's envoy conveyed the answer that “it would be more likely that the Danube would stop in its flow, the sky would fall to the ground, than Ishmael would surrender.”

    On December 10 (21), Russian artillery opened fire on the fortress and continued it all day. On December 11 (22), at 3 o'clock in the morning, at a signal from a rocket, columns of Russian troops began to advance to the walls of Izmail. At 5.30 the assault began. The Turks opened strong rifle and cannon fire, but it did not hold back the rush of the attackers. After a ten-hour assault and street fighting, Ishmael was taken. During the capture of Izmail, Major General M.I. Kutuzov, who was appointed commandant of the fortress, distinguished himself.

    Enemy losses amounted to up to 26 thousand killed and about 9 thousand captured. The Russian army lost 4 thousand killed and 6 thousand wounded.

    Izmail was taken by an army that was inferior in number to the garrison of the fortress - an extremely rare case in the history of military art. The advantage of an open assault on fortresses compared to the then dominant methods in the West of mastering them through a long siege was also revealed. The new method made it possible to take fortresses in a shorter time and with few losses.

    The thunder of the cannons near Izmail announced one of the most brilliant victories of Russian weapons. The legendary feat of Suvorov's miracle heroes, who crushed the strongholds of the impregnable fortress, became a symbol of Russian military glory. The assault on the Izmail fortress ended the military campaign of 1790. However, Türkiye did not lay down its arms. And only the defeat of the Sultan’s army near Machin in the Balkans, the capture of Anapa in the Caucasus, and the victory of Rear Admiral F.F. Ushakov in the naval battle of Kaliak-ria forced the Ottoman Empire to enter into peace negotiations. On December 29, 1791 (January 9, 1792), the Treaty of Jassy was concluded. Türkiye finally recognized Crimea as part of Russia.

    Battle of Cape Kaliakra 1791
    There was a Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. After the defeat at Izmail in December 1790, Türkiye did not lay down its arms, pinning its last hopes on its fleet. July 29 (August 9) Admiral F.F. Ushakov led the Black Sea Fleet out to sea from Sevastopol, consisting of 16 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 bombardment ships, 17 cruising ships, 1 fire ship and a rehearsal ship (998 guns in total) with the goal of searching for and destroying the Turkish fleet. On July 31 (August 11), on the approach to Cape Kaliakria, he discovered the Turkish fleet of Kapudan Pasha Hussein at anchor, consisting of 18 battleships, 17 frigates and 43 smaller ships (1,800 guns in total). The Russian flagship, having assessed the enemy’s position, decided to win the wind and cut off the Turkish ships from those covering it coastal batteries to give a general battle on the high seas in favorable conditions.

    The rapid approach of the Russian fleet took the enemy by surprise. Despite the powerful fire from the coastal batteries, the Russian fleet, having reorganized into a battle formation as it approached the enemy, passed between the shore and the Turkish ships, and then attacked the enemy with short distance. The Turks desperately resisted, but could not withstand the fire of Russian cannons and, cutting off the anchor ropes, began to retreat randomly to the Bosphorus. The entire Turkish fleet was scattered across the sea. Of its composition, 28 ships did not return to their ports, including 1 battleship, 4 frigates, 3 brigantines and 21 gunboats. All surviving battleships and frigates were seriously damaged. Most of the crews of the Turkish fleet were destroyed, while 17 people were killed and 28 wounded on Russian ships. The Black Sea Fleet had no losses in its ship composition.

    Since the Chesme fire (1770), the Turkish fleet has not known such a crushing defeat. As a result of the victory, the Russian fleet gained complete dominance in the Black Sea, and Russia finally established itself as an influential Black Sea power. The defeat of the Turkish fleet in the battle of Cape Kaliakria largely contributed to the final defeat of Turkey in the war with Russia. On January 9 (20), 1792, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, according to which Russia secured Crimea and the entire northern coast of the Black Sea.

    Battle of Borodino 1812
    During the Patriotic War of 1812, the commander-in-chief of the united Russian armies M.I. Kutuzov decided to stop the advance of Napoleon's army towards Moscow near the village of Borodino. Russian troops went on the defensive in a strip 8 km wide. The right flank of the position of the Russian troops adjoined the Moscow River and was protected by a natural barrier - the Koloch River. The center rested on the Kurgannaya heights, and the left flank abutted the Utitsky forest, but had open space in front of it. To strengthen the position on the left flank, artificial earthen fortifications were built - flashes, which were occupied by the army of P. I. Bagration. Napoleon, who adhered to offensive tactics, decided to strike at the left flank of the combat formation of the Russian troops, break through the defenses and reach their rear, and then, pressing them to the Moscow River, destroy them. On August 26 (September 7), after powerful artillery preparation, the French army (135 thousand people) attacked Bagration’s flushes. After eight attacks, by 12 noon they were captured by the enemy, but the retreating Russian troops (120 thousand people) prevented his breakthrough on the left flank. The French onslaught in the center on Kurgan Heights (Raevsky's battery) ended just as fruitlessly. Napoleon's attempt to introduce the guard, the last reserve, into the battle was thwarted by a raid by the Cossacks of M. I. Platov and the cavalry of F. P. Uvarov. By the end of the day, the Russian army continued to stand firmly in the Borodino positions. Napoleon, convinced of the futility of the attacks and fearing that the Russian troops would take active action, was forced to withdraw his troops to the starting line. During the battle, the French lost 58 thousand, and the Russians - 44 thousand people. On the Borodino field the myth of the invincibility of Napoleonic army was dispelled.

    Navarino naval battle 1827
    The battle in Navarino Bay (the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese Peninsula) between the united squadrons of Russia, England and France, on the one hand, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, on the other, took place during the Greek national liberation revolution of 1821-1829.

    The united squadrons included: from Russia - 4 battleships, 4 frigates; from England - 3 battleships, 5 corvettes; from France - 3 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 corvettes. Commander - English Vice Admiral E. Codrington. The Turkish-Egyptian squadron under the command of Muharrem Bey consisted of 3 battleships, 23 frigates, 40 corvettes and brigs.

    Before the start of the battle, Codrington sent an envoy to the Turks, then a second one. Both envoys were killed. In response, the united squadrons attacked the enemy on October 8 (20), 1827. The Battle of Navarino lasted about 4 hours and ended with the destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. His losses amounted to about 60 ships and up to 7 thousand people. The Allies did not lose a single ship, with only about 800 men killed or wounded.

    During the battle, the following distinguished themselves: the flagship of the Russian squadron "Azov" under the command of Captain 1st Rank M.P. Lazarev, which destroyed 5 enemy ships. Lieutenant P. S. Nakhimov, midshipman V. A. Kornilov and midshipman V. I. Istomin - future heroes of the Battle of Sinop and the defense of Sevastopol in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 - skillfully acted on this ship.

    Battle of Sinop 1853
    At the beginning of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, actions at sea became decisive. The Turkish command planned to land a large assault force in the area of ​​Sukhum-Kale and Poti. For these purposes, it concentrated large naval forces in the Sinop Bay under the command of Osman Pasha. To destroy it, a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet under the command of P.S. left Sevastopol. Nakhimov. On the approach to Sinop, Nakhimov discovered a Turkish squadron consisting of 7 large frigates, 3 corvettes, 2 steam frigates, 2 brigs and 2 military transports, which were under the protection of coastal batteries. Nakhimov blocked the enemy in Sinop Bay and decided to attack him. Nakhimov had 6 battleships, 2 frigates and 1 brig at his disposal.

    The signal for battle was raised on Nakhimov's flagship at 9:30 a.m. on November 18 (30). On the approach to the bay, the Russian squadron was met with fire from Turkish ships and coastal batteries. The Russian ships continued to approach the enemy without firing a single shot, and only when they arrived at the places designated by disposition and anchored did they open fire. During the battle, which lasted 3 hours, 15 of 16 enemy ships were set on fire, and 4 of 6 coastal batteries were blown up.

    The Battle of Sinop ended in the complete victory of Russian weapons. The Turks lost almost all their ships and over 3,000 killed. The wounded commander of the Turkish squadron, Vice Admiral Osman Pasha, the commanders of three ships and about 200 sailors surrendered. The Russian squadron had no losses in ships. The defeat of the Turkish squadron significantly weakened Turkey's naval forces and thwarted its plans to land troops on the Caucasus coast.

    The Battle of Sinop was the last major battle of the era of the sailing fleet.

    Defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855.
    During the Crimean War, the 120,000-strong Anglo-French-Turkish army began an assault on Sevastopol on October 5 (17), 1854, which was defended by a garrison of 58 thousand people. For 11 months, Russian troops steadfastly held the defense of the city, despite the enemy's superiority in forces and means. The organizers of the defense of Sevastopol were Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov, and after his death - P.S. Nakhimov and V.I. Istomin. Attempts by the Russian field army to lift the siege of the city were unsuccessful. On August 27 (September 8), 1855, its defenders left the South Side and crossed to the North Side via a floating bridge.

    Defense of Shipka 1877-1878
    During the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. A Russian-Bulgarian detachment under the command of N. G. Stoletov occupied the Shipka Pass in the Stara Planina Mountains (Bulgaria). For 5 months, from July 7 (19), 1877 to January 1878, Russian and Bulgarian soldiers repelled all attempts by Turkish troops to seize the pass, holding it until the Russian Danube Army launched a general offensive.

    Siege of Plevna in 1877
    During the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. The united Russian-Romanian troops, after unsuccessful assaults on Plevna, moved on to a siege, blocking the Turkish troops. On the night of November 27-28 (December 9-10), parts of the Turkish garrison attempted to break the blockade, but, having lost 6 thousand people killed and 43 thousand prisoners, capitulated. The losses of the Russian-Romanian troops amounted to 39 thousand people killed. In the battles near Plevna from July 8 (20) to November 28 (December 10), 1877, the tactics of rifle chains were developed, and the need to increase the role of howitzer artillery in preparing the attack was revealed.

    Shutrm of Kars in 1877
    One of the important achievements of Russian military art is the skillful assault on the Kare fortress during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Before the start of the assault, artillery bombardment of the fortress, whose garrison consisted of 25 thousand people, was carried out for 8 days (with interruptions). After which, on November 5 (17), 1877, a simultaneous attack began by five columns of a detachment (14.5 thousand people) under the command of General I. D. Lazarev. During a fierce battle, Russian troops broke the enemy's resistance and captured the fortress on November 6 (18). More than 17 thousand Turkish soldiers and officers were captured.

    Defense of Port Arthur in 1904
    On the night of January 27 (February 9), 1904, Japanese destroyers suddenly attacked the Russian squadron stationed in the outer roadstead in Port Arthur, damaging 2 battleships and one cruiser. This act started the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

    At the end of July 1904, the siege of Port Arthur began (garrison - 50.5 thousand people, 646 guns). The 3rd Japanese Army, which stormed the fortress, numbered 70 thousand people, about 70 guns. After three unsuccessful assaults, the enemy, having received reinforcements, launched a new assault on November 13 (26). Despite the courage and heroism of the defenders of Port Arthur, the commandant of the fortress, General A. M. Stessel, contrary to the opinion of the military council, surrendered it to the enemy on December 20, 1904 (January 2, 1905). In the fight for Port Arthur, the Japanese lost 110 thousand people and 15 ships.

    The cruiser "Varyag", part of the 1st Pacific Squadron, together with the gunboat "Koreets" during the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905. entered on January 27 (February 9), 1904, into an unequal battle with the ships of the Japanese squadron, sank one destroyer and damaged 2 cruisers. "Varyag" was scuttled by the crew to avoid its capture by the enemy.

    BATTLE OF MUKDE 1904

    The Battle of Mukden took place on February 6 (19) - February 25 (March 10), 1904 during the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Three Russian armies (293 thousand bayonets and sabers) took part in the battle against five Japanese armies (270 thousand bayonets and sabers).

    Despite the almost equal balance of forces, Russian troops under the command of General A.N. Kuropatkin were defeated, but the goal of the Japanese command - to encircle and destroy them - was not achieved. The Mukden battle, in concept and scope (front - 155 km, depth - 80 km, duration - 19 days), was the first front-line defensive operation in Russian history.

    Battles and operations of the First World War 1914-1918.
    World War I 1914-1918 was caused by the aggravation of contradictions between the leading powers of the world in the struggle for the redistribution of spheres of influence and investment of capital. 38 states with a population of over 1.5 billion people were involved in the war. The reason for the war was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Ferdinand, in Sarajevo. By August 4-6 (17-19), 1914, Germany fielded 8 armies (about 1.8 million people), France - 5 armies (about 1.3 million people), Russia - 6 armies (over 1 million people). people), Austria-Hungary - 5 armies and 2 army groups (over 1 million people). Military actions covered the territory of Europe, Asia and Africa. The main land fronts were the Western (French). Eastern (Russian), the main naval theaters of military operations are the North, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas. There were five campaigns during the war. The most significant battles and operations involving Russian troops are given below.

    The Battle of Galicia is a strategic offensive operation of the troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of General N.I. Ivanov, carried out on August 5 (18) - September 8 (21), 1914 against the Austro-Hungarian troops. The offensive zone of the Russian troops was 320-400 km. As a result of the operation, Russian troops occupied Galicia and the Austrian part of Poland, creating the threat of an invasion of Hungary and Silesia. This forced the German command to transfer some troops from the Western to the Eastern Theater of Operations (TVD).

    Warsaw-Ivangorod offensive operation of 1914
    The Warsaw-Ivangorod offensive operation was carried out by the forces of the North-Western and South-Western fronts against the 9th German and 1st Austro-Hungarian armies from September 15 (28) to October 26 (November 8), 1914. In the oncoming battles, Russian troops stopped advancing the enemy, and then launching a counter-offensive, threw him back to his original positions. Large losses (up to 50%) of the Austro-German troops forced the German command to transfer part of their forces from the Western to the Eastern Front and weaken their attacks against Russia’s allies.

    The Alashkert operation was carried out by Russian troops in the Caucasian theater of operations on June 26 (July 9)—July 21 (August 3), 1915. From July 9 to July 21, the strike force of the 3rd Turkish Army pushed back the main forces of the 4th Corps of the Caucasian Army and created the threat of a breakthrough her defense. However, Russian troops launched a counterattack on the left flank and rear of the enemy, who, fearing an encirclement, began to hastily retreat. As a result, the plan of the Turkish command to break through the defenses of the Caucasian Army in the Kara direction was thwarted.

    Erzurum operation 1915-1916
    The Erzurum operation was carried out by the forces of the Russian Caucasian army under the command of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, December 28, 1915 (January 10, 1916) - February 3 (16), 1916. The purpose of the operation was to capture the city and fortress of Erzurum, defeat the 3rd Turkish army until reinforcements arrive. The Caucasian army broke through the heavily fortified defenses of the Turkish troops, and then, with attacks on directions converging from the north, east and south, took Erzurum by storm, throwing the enemy 70-100 km to the west. The success of the operation was achieved thanks to the right choice the direction of the main attack, careful preparation of the offensive, wide maneuver of forces and means.

    Brusilovsky breakthrough 1916
    In March 1916, at the conference of the Entente powers in Chantilly, the actions of the allied forces in the upcoming summer campaign were agreed upon. In accordance with this, the Russian command planned to launch a major offensive on all fronts in mid-June 1916. The main blow was to be delivered by troops of the Western Front from the Molodechno region to Vilna, and auxiliary attacks by the Northern Front from the Dvinsk region and the Southwestern Front from the Rivne region to Lutsk. During the discussion of the campaign plan, differences emerged among the top military leadership. Commander of the Western Front, Infantry General A.E. Evert expressed concern that the front troops would not be able to break through the enemy’s well-prepared engineering defenses. The recently appointed commander of the Southwestern Front, cavalry general A.A. Brusilov, on the contrary, insisted that his front not only could, but should, intensify its actions.

    At the disposal of A.A. Brusilov there were 4 armies: the 7th - General D.G. Shcherbachev, 8th - General A.M. Kaledin, 9th - General P.A. Lechitsky and 11th - General V.V. Sakharov. The front forces numbered 573 thousand infantry, 60 thousand cavalry, 1770 light and 168 heavy guns. They were opposed by an Austro-German group consisting of: 1st (commander - General P. Puhallo), 2nd (commander General E. Bem-Ermoli), 4th (commander - Archduke Joseph Ferdinand), 7th ( commander - General K. Pflanzer-Baltina) and the South German (commander - Count F. Bothmer) army, totaling 448 thousand infantry and 27 thousand cavalry, 1300 light and 545 heavy guns. The defense, up to 9 km deep, consisted of two, and in some places three, defensive lines, each of which had two or three lines of continuous trenches.

    In May, the Allies, due to the difficult situation of their troops in the Italian theater of operations, turned to Russia with a request to speed up the start of the offensive. The headquarters decided to meet them halfway and set out 2 weeks ahead of schedule.

    The offensive began along the entire front on May 22 (June 4) with a powerful artillery bombardment, which lasted in different areas from 6 to 46 hours. The greatest success was achieved by the 8th Army, which advanced in the Lutsk direction. After only 3 days, its corps took Lutsk, and by June 2 (15) they defeated the 4th Austro-Hungarian Army. On the left wing of the front in the zone of action of the 7th Army, Russian troops, having broken through the enemy’s defenses, captured the city of Yazlovets. The 9th Army broke through an 11-kilometer front in the Dobronouc area and defeated the 7th Austro-Hungarian Army, and then cleared all of Bukovina.

    The successful actions of the Southwestern Front should have supported the troops of the Western Front, but General Evert, citing the incompleteness of the concentration, ordered the offensive to be postponed. The Germans immediately took advantage of this mistake by the Russian command. 4 infantry divisions from France and Italy were transferred to the Kovel area, where units of the 8th Army were supposed to advance. On June 3 (16), German army groups of generals von Marwitz and E. Falkenhayn launched a counterattack in the direction of Lutsk. In the Kiselin area, a fierce defensive battle began with the German group of General A. Linsingen.

    From June 12 (25) there was a forced calm on the Southwestern Front. The offensive resumed on June 20 (July 3). After a powerful bombardment, the 8th and 3rd armies broke through the enemy's defenses. The 11th and 7th advancing in the center did not achieve much success. Units of the 9th Army captured the town of Delyatin.

    When, at last, Headquarters realized that the success of the campaign was being decided on the Southwestern Front, and transferred reserves there, time had already been lost. The enemy concentrated large forces there. Special army (commander - General V.M. Bezobrazov), consisting of selected guards units and the help of which Nicholas II really counted on, in fact turned out to be ineffective due to the low combat skills of the senior officers. The fighting became protracted, and by mid-September the front had finally stabilized.

    Offensive troops of the Southwestern Front ended. It lasted more than a hundred days. Despite the fact that the initial success was not used by the Headquarters to achieve a decisive result on the entire front, the operation was of great strategic importance. The Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia and Bukovina suffered complete defeat. Its total losses amounted to about 1.5 million people. Russian troops alone captured 8,924 officers and 408,000 soldiers. 581 guns, 1,795 machine guns, and about 450 bomb throwers and mortars were captured. The losses of Russian troops amounted to about 500 thousand people. To eliminate a breakthrough; the enemy was forced to transfer 34 infantry and cavalry divisions. This eased the situation for the French at Verdun and the Italians in Trentino. The English historian L. Hart wrote: “Russia sacrificed itself for the sake of its allies, and it is unfair to forget that the allies are Russia’s unpaid debtors for this.” The immediate result of the actions of the Southwestern Front was Romania's renunciation of neutrality and its accession to the Entente.

    Military actions during the period between the Civil and Great Patriotic Wars
    Soviet-Japanese military conflict in the area of ​​Lake Khasan in 1938
    In the second half of the 30s of the XX century. The situation in the Far East sharply worsened, where cases of violation of the state border of the USSR by the Japanese, who occupied the territory of Manchuria, became more frequent. The Main Military Council of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army (RKKA), taking into account the growing tension in the Far East, on June 8, 1938, adopted a resolution on the creation on the basis of the Separate Red Banner Far Eastern Army (OK-DVA) of the Red Banner Far Eastern Front under the command of Marshal of the Soviet Union V.K. Blucher.

    In early July, the command of the Posyet border detachment, having received information about the impending capture of the Zaozernaya heights by the Japanese (the Manchu name is Zhangofeng), sent a reserve outpost there. The Japanese side regarded this step as provocative, considering that Zhangofeng is located on the territory of Manchuria. By decision of the Japanese government, the 19th Infantry Division was transferred to the Lake Khasan area, and two more infantry divisions, one infantry and one cavalry brigade were preparing for relocation. On July 15, 5 Japanese violated the border in the area of ​​Lake Khasan, and when Soviet border guards tried to detain them, one person was killed. This incident led to an escalation in late July and early August of hostilities between Soviet and Japanese troops in the area of ​​the Zaozernaya and Bezymyannaya heights.

    To defeat the enemy, the commander of the Red Banner Far Eastern Front formed the 39th Rifle Corps (about 23 thousand people), which included the 40th and 32nd Rifle Divisions, the 2nd Mechanized Brigade and reinforcement units.

    On August 6, 1938, after aviation and artillery preparation, units of the 39th Rifle Corps went on the offensive with the goal of defeating Japanese troops in the zone between the Tumen-Ula River and Lake Khasan. Overcoming fierce enemy resistance, the 40th Infantry Division, in cooperation with the 96th Infantry Regiment of the 32nd Infantry Division, captured the Zaozernaya height on August 8, and the main forces of the 32nd Infantry Division stormed the Bezymyannaya height the next day. In this regard, on August 10, the Japanese government proposed to the USSR government to begin negotiations, and on August 11, hostilities between the Soviet and Japanese forces ceased.

    The losses of Japanese troops, according to Japanese sources, amounted to about 500 people. killed and 900 people. wounded. Soviet troops lost 717 people killed and 2,752 people wounded, shell-shocked and burned.

    Battle of the Khalkhin Gol River 1939
    In January 1936, in the context of an increased threat of attack on the Mongolian People's Republic(Mongolian People's Republic) On the part of Japan, the government of Mongolia turned to the government of the USSR with a request for military assistance. On March 12, in Ulaanbaatar, the Soviet-Mongolian Protocol on Mutual Assistance was signed for a period of 10 years, which replaced the 1934 agreement. In accordance with this protocol, by May 1939, the 57th separate rifle corps was stationed on the territory of Mongolia, the base of which was subsequently deployed by the 1st Army Group.

    The situation on the eastern border of the Mongolian People's Republic began to heat up after a surprise attack on May 11, 1939 by Japanese-Manchurian troops on the border outposts eastern of the Khalkhin Gol River. By the end of June 1939, the Japanese Kwantung Army had 38 thousand soldiers and officers, 310 guns, 135 tanks, 225 aircraft. The Soviet-Mongolian troops, which were taken over by Divisional Commander K. Zhukov on June 12, 1939, numbered 12.5 thousand soldiers and commanders, 109 guns, 266 armored vehicles, 186 tanks, 82 aircraft.

    The enemy, using numerical superiority, went on the offensive on July 2 with the goal of encircling and destroying Soviet-Mongolian units and seizing an operational bridgehead on the western bank of Khalkhin Gol for the deployment of subsequent offensive actions in the direction of Soviet Transbaikalia. However, during three days of bloody battles, all Japanese troops that managed to cross the river were destroyed or driven back to its eastern bank. Subsequent attacks by the Japanese throughout most of July did not bring them success, as they were repulsed everywhere.

    In early August, the Japanese 6th Army was created under the command of General O. Rippo. It consisted of 49.6 thousand soldiers and officers, 186 artillery and 110 anti-tank guns, 130 tanks, 448 aircraft.

    The Soviet-Mongolian troops, consolidated in July into the 1st Army Group under the command of Corps Corps G. K. Zhukov, numbered 55.3 thousand soldiers and commanders. They included 292 heavy and light artillery, 180 anti-tank guns, 438 tanks, 385 armored vehicles and 515 aircraft. For ease of control, three groups of troops were created: Northern, Southern and Central. Having forestalled the enemy, after powerful air strikes and almost three hours of artillery preparation, the Northern and Southern groups went on the offensive on August 20. As a result of the decisive actions of these groups on the enemy flanks, on August 23, four Japanese regiments were encircled. By the end of August 31, the group of Japanese troops was completely defeated. Air combat continued until September 15, and on September 16, at Japan’s request, a Soviet-Japanese agreement on a cessation of hostilities was signed.

    During the battles at Khalkhin Gol, the Japanese lost 18.3 thousand people killed, 3.5 thousand wounded and 464 prisoners. Soviet troops suffered the following losses: 6,831 people killed, 1,143 people missing, 15,251 people wounded, shell-shocked and burned.

    Soviet-Finnish War 1939-1940
    By the end of the 30s, relations between the Soviet Union and Finland worsened, which feared great-power aspirations on the part of the USSR, and the latter, in turn, did not exclude its rapprochement with the Western powers and their use of Finnish territory to attack the USSR. Tension in relations between the two countries was also caused by the construction by the Finns of powerful defensive fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus, the so-called Mannerheim Line. All attempts to normalize Soviet-Finnish relations through diplomatic means were unsuccessful. The USSR government, guaranteeing the inviolability of Finland, demanded that it cede part of the territory on the Karelian Isthmus, offering in return an equivalent territory within the Soviet Union. However, this demand was rejected by the Finnish government. On November 28, 1939, the Soviet government broke off diplomatic relations with Finland. The troops of the Leningrad Military District were given the task of “crossing the border and defeating the Finnish troops.”

    By the end of November 1939, the Finnish armed forces, together with a trained reserve, numbered up to 600 thousand people, about 900 guns of various calibers, and 270 combat aircraft. 29 ships. Almost half of the ground forces (7 infantry divisions, 4 separate infantry and 1 cavalry brigades, several separate infantry battalions), united in the Karelian Army, was concentrated on the Karelian Isthmus. Special groups of troops were created in the Murmansk, Kandalaksha, Ukhta, Rebolsk and Petrozavodsk directions.

    On the Soviet side, the border from the Barents Sea to the Gulf of Finland was covered by four armies: in the Arctic - the 14th Army, which was supported by the Northern Fleet; in northern and central Karelia - the 9th Army; north Lake Ladoga- 8th Army; on the Karelian Isthmus - the 7th Army, for the support of which the Red Banner Baltic Fleet and the Ladoga Military Flotilla were allocated. In total, the group of Soviet troops numbered 422.6 thousand people, about 2,500 guns and mortars, up to 2,000 tanks, 1,863 combat aircraft, more than 200 warships and vessels.

    The military operations of the Soviet troops in the war with Finland are divided into two stages: the first lasted from November 30, 1939 to February 10, 1940, the second from February 11 to March 13, 1940.

    At the first stage, troops of the 14th Army, in cooperation with the Northern Fleet, in December captured the Rybachy and Sredniy peninsulas, the city of Petsamo and closed Finland’s access to the Barents Sea. At the same time, the troops of the 9th Army, advancing to the south, penetrated 35-45 km deep into the enemy’s defenses. Units of the 8th Army fought forward up to 80 km, but some of them were surrounded and forced to retreat.

    The most difficult and bloody battles took place on the Karelian Isthmus, where the 7th Army was advancing. By December 12, army troops, with the support of aviation and the navy, overcame the support zone (forefield) and reached the front edge of the main strip of the Mannerheim Line, but were unable to break through it on the move. Therefore, the Main Military Council at the end of December 1939 decided to suspend the offensive and plan a new operation to break through the Mannerheim Line. On January 7, 1940, the North-Western Front, disbanded at the beginning of December 1939, was recreated. The front included the 7th Army and the 13th Army, created at the end of December. For two months, Soviet troops underwent training on overcoming long-term fortifications at special training grounds. At the beginning of 1940, part of the forces was separated from the 8th Army, on the basis of which the 15th Army was formed.

    On February 11, 1940, after artillery preparation, the troops of the Northwestern Front under the command of Army Commander 1st Rank S.K. Timoshenko went on the offensive. On February 14, units of the 123rd Infantry Division of the 7th Army crossed the main strip of the Mannerheim Line and the 84th Infantry Division from the front reserve and a mobile group (two tanks and a rifle battalion) were introduced into the breakthrough.

    On February 19, the main forces of the 7th Army reached the second stripe, and the left flank formations of the 13th Army reached the main stripe of the Mannerheim Line. After regrouping and the approach of artillery and rear forces, Soviet troops resumed their offensive on February 28. After heavy and lengthy battles, they defeated the main forces of the Karelian army and by the end of March 12 captured Vyborg. On the same day, a peace treaty was signed in Moscow between the USSR and Finland, and from 12 o'clock the next day hostilities ceased. According to the agreement, the border on the Karelian Isthmus was moved back by 120-130 km (beyond the Vyborg-Sortavala line). The USSR also received a small territory north of Kuolajärvi, several islands in the Gulf of Finland, the Finnish part of the Sredniy and Rybachy peninsulas in the Barents Sea, and was given the Hanko Peninsula for a period of 30 years with the right to create a naval base on it.

    The war between the Soviet Union and Finland came at a high price for both countries. According to Finnish sources, Finland lost 48,243 people killed and 43,000 wounded. The losses of the Soviet troops amounted to: 126,875 people killed, missing, died from wounds and illnesses, as well as 248 thousand wounded, shell-shocked and frostbitten.

    So big losses Soviet troops were due not only to the fact that they had to break through heavily fortified defenses and operate in difficult natural and climatic conditions, but also to shortcomings in the preparation of the Red Army. Soviet troops were not prepared to overcome dense minefields or to take decisive action in breaking through the complex system of long-term fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus. There were serious shortcomings in the command and control of troops, the organization of operational and tactical cooperation, in providing personnel with winter uniforms and food, and in the provision of medical care.

    The enemy turned out to be better prepared for war, although he also suffered significant losses in people. The Finnish army, its equipment, weapons and tactics were well adapted to conducting combat operations in terrain with numerous lakes and large forests, in conditions of heavy snow and harsh winters, using natural obstacles.

    The most important battles and operations of the Second World War 1939-1945.
    The largest war in human history was prepared and unleashed by the main aggressive states of that period: Nazi Germany, fascist Italy and militaristic Japan. The war is usually divided into five periods. First period (September 1, 1939 - June 21, 1941): the beginning of the war and the invasion of German troops into Western Europe. Second period (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942): Nazi Germany's attack on the USSR, expansion of the war, the collapse of Hitler's blitzkrieg doctrine. Third period (November 19, 1942 - December 31, 1943): a turning point in the course of the war, the collapse of the offensive strategy of the fascist bloc. Fourth period (January 1, 1944 - May 9, 1945): the defeat of the fascist bloc, the expulsion of enemy troops from the USSR, liberation from the occupation of European countries, the complete collapse of Nazi Germany and its unconditional surrender. Fifth period (May 9—September 2, 1945): the defeat of militaristic Japan, the liberation of the peoples of Asia from Japanese occupation, the end of the Second World War.

    The USSR took part in World War II in the European Theater of Operations during the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945, and in the Asian and Pacific Theater of Operations during the Soviet-Japanese War of 1945.

    Based on the “Barbarossa” plan developed by Hitler’s leadership, fascist Germany, violating the Soviet-German non-aggression pact, at dawn on June 22, 1941, suddenly, without declaring war, attacked the Soviet Union.

    Battle of Moscow 1941-1942
    The battle consisted of two stages. The first stage is the Moscow strategic defensive operation September 30 - December 5, 1941. The operation was carried out by troops of the Western, Reserve, Bryansk and Kalinin fronts. During the fighting, the following additional units were added to the Soviet troops: the directorates of the Kalinin Front, the 1st Shock Army, the 5th, 10th and 16th armies, as well as 34 divisions and 40 brigades.

    During the operation, the Oryol-Bryansk, Vyazemsk, Kalinin, Mozhaisk-Maloyaroslavets, Tula and Klin-Solnechnogorsk frontal defensive operations were carried out. The duration of the operation is 67 days. The width of the combat front is 700-1,110 km. The depth of withdrawal of Soviet troops is 250-300 km. Beginning on September 30, the operation marked the beginning of the Battle of Moscow, which became the main event of 1941 not only on the Soviet-German front, but throughout the entire Second World War.

    During fierce battles on the distant and near approaches to Moscow, by December 5, Soviet troops stopped the advance of the German Army Group Center literally at the walls of the capital. The highest self-sacrifice, mass heroism of soldiers of various branches of the Red Army, the courage and fortitude of Muscovites, fighters of destruction battalions, militia formations

    As sad as it is to realize, it is impossible to deny the fact that numerous wars played an important role in shaping our world. They shaped our history, creating and destroying entire nations. Society has been changing for thousands of years with the help of wars.

    There are many small battles in the history of mankind, but there are also battles that significantly influenced the course of all history. The ten battles listed may not be the largest in history in terms of numbers involved.

    But it was they who changed history, the consequences of which we feel to this day. The different outcome of these battles has made the current world in which we live very, very different.

    Stalingrad, 1942-1943. This battle effectively put an end to Hitler's plans for world domination. Stalingrad became the starting point for Germany on its still long path to defeat in World War II. German troops sought to capture the city on the Volga and the left bank of the river at any cost. This would make it possible to cut off the oil fields of the Caucasus from the rest of the country. But the Soviet troops survived and during the counterattack surrounded a significant part of the fascist group. The battle lasted from July 1942 to February 1943. When the battle ended, the death toll on both sides exceeded 2 million. 91 thousand German soldiers and officers were captured. Germany and its allies were never able to recover from such heavy losses, essentially fighting only defensive battles until the very end of the war. Major offensives were launched only twice - during the Battle of Kursk in July 1943 and in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. Although it is unlikely that a German victory at Stalingrad would have led to a general defeat for the USSR in the war, it would undoubtedly have dragged on for many more years. months. Perhaps this was precisely the time that the Germans did not have enough to create their own version of the atomic bomb.

    Midway. The Battle of Midway Atoll became a kind of “Stalingrad” for the Japanese. This naval battle took place from June 4 to June 6, 1942. According to the plans of the Japanese Admiral Yamamoto, his fleet was to capture a small atoll four hundred miles west of the Hawaiian Islands. The atoll was planned to be used in the future as a springboard for an attack on the strategically important islands of the Americans. However, the United States was able to intercept the radiogram and decipher it. The Japanese emphasis on surprise did not materialize. They were met by a battle-ready US fleet under the command of Admiral Nimitz. During the battle, the Japanese lost all 4 of their aircraft carriers, all the aircraft on them, and some of their best pilots. The Americans lost only 1 aircraft carrier. It is curious that only the ninth attack by US aircraft on the Japanese fleet was crowned with decisive success, and even then only due to chance. It was all about minutes; the Americans were just very lucky. The defeat effectively meant the end of Japan's Pacific expansion. The islanders could never recover from it. This is one of the few battles of World War II in which the American enemy was outnumbered, but the United States still won.

    Shares 31 BC At that time, the Roman Republic was ruled by two people - Antony controlled Egypt and the eastern provinces, and Octavian controlled Italy, the western territories and Africa. Powerful rulers eventually came together in a mortal battle for power over the entire vast empire. On one side came the combined fleet of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, and on the other, the smaller naval forces of Octavian. The decisive naval battle took place near the Greek cape of Actium. Roman troops under the command of Agrippa defeated Antony and Cleopatra. They lost two-thirds of their fleet, and about 200 ships. In fact, it was not even a battle, but Anthony’s attempt to break through the encirclement to Egypt, where he still had troops. But the defeat actually put an end to the politician’s hopes of becoming Emperor of Rome - mass desertion of soldiers to Octavian’s camp began. Anthony did not have a plan B, he had to commit suicide along with Cleopatra. And Octavian, who became emperor, received sole power in the country. He turned a republic into an empire.

    Waterloo, 1815. The battle was the result of Napoleon's attempt to regain power lost during the war against all of Europe. The exile to the island of Elba did not break Bonaparte’s imperial ambitions; he returned to France and quickly seized power. But a united army of the British, Dutch and Prussians under the command of the Duke of Wellington opposed him. It significantly outnumbered the French troops. Napoleon had only one chance - to defeat the enemy piece by piece. To do this, he moved to Belgium. The armies met near the small settlement of Waterloo, in Belgium. During the battle, Napoleon's troops were defeated, which led to the rapid fall of his reign. Bonaparte's power was largely shaken after his campaign in Russia in 1812. Then, during his retreat in winter, he lost a significant part of his army. But it was this last failure that brought the final line under Napoleon's rule. He himself was sent to another place of exile, much more remote - to the island of St. Helena. History cannot say what would have happened if Napoleon had prevailed over Wellington. However, a landslide victory could be the starting point for Bonaparte's plans to retain power. The history of Europe could have taken a completely different path.

    Gettrysburg, 1863. This battle took place between Confederate and Union troops during the American Civil War. If the plans of the southerners were destined to come true, then General Lee would be able to break through to Washington and force Lincoln and his associates to flee from there. Another state would appear - the Confederacy of the States of America. But on the other side of the battle was George Meade, who, although with difficulty, did not allow these plans to come true. The battle lasted three hot July days. On the third and decisive day, the Confederates launched their main Pickett's attack. The troops advanced across open terrain towards the fortified elevated positions of the northerners. The southerners suffered huge losses, but showed incredible courage. The attack failed, becoming the largest defeat for the Confederacy in that war. Northern losses were also high, which prevented Meade from completely destroying the Southern army, to Lincoln's displeasure. As a result, the Confederacy was never able to recover from that defeat, fighting increasingly defensive battles. The defeat of the South during the war became inevitable, because the North was more densely populated, more industrially developed, and simply richer. But the history of a great country could have followed a completely different scenario.

    Battle of Tours, 732. Europeans often call this battle the Battle of Poitiers. You may have heard little about her. A different outcome of this battle would have led to the fact that Europeans would now bow towards Mecca five times every day and diligently study the Koran. Few details of that battle have reached us. It is known that about 20 thousand francs fought on the side of Charles Martel Caroling. On the other side, there were 50 thousand Muslims under the command of Abdur-Rahman ibn Abdallah. He sought to bring Islam to Europe. The Franks were opposed by Umayyad troops. This Muslim empire stretched from Persia to the Pyrenees, the caliphate had the most powerful military force in the world. Despite the numerical superiority of his opponents, Martell, with his skillful leadership, managed to defeat the Muslims and kill their commander. As a result, they fled to Spain. Charles's son, Pepin the Short, then completely ousted the Muslims from the continent. Today, historians praise Charles as a guardian of Christianity. After all, his defeat in that battle would mean that Islam would become the main faith of Europe. As a result, this particular faith would become the main one in the world. One can only guess how Western civilization would have developed then. Most likely, she would have taken a completely different path. The victory also laid the foundations for Frankish dominance in Europe for a long time.

    Battle of Vienna, 1683. This battle is a later "remake" of the Battle of Tours. Muslims again decided to prove that Europe is a territory for Allah. This time the eastern troops marched under the flag of the Ottoman Empire. Under the command of Kara-Mustafa, from 150 to 300 thousand soldiers acted. They were opposed by about 80 thousand people under the leadership of the Polish king Jan Sobieski. The decisive battle took place on September 11, after a two-month siege of the Austrian capital by the Turks. The battle marked the end of Islamic expansion into Europe. There has been a turning point in the almost three-century history of the war between the countries of Central Europe and Turkey. Austria soon recaptured Hungary and Transylvania. And Kara-Mustafa was executed by the Turks for his defeat. Meanwhile, history could have turned out completely differently. If the Turks had arrived at the walls of Vienna earlier than in July, the city would probably have fallen before September. This gave the Poles and their allies time to prepare to break the blockade and provide the necessary forces and equipment. Nevertheless, it is worth noting the courage of the Christians, who were able to win, despite the two- or even three-fold superiority of the Turks.

    Yorktown, 1781. In terms of the number of combatants, this battle was quite small. On one side, thousands of Americans and the same number of French fought, and on the other, 9 thousand British. But by the time the battle ended, the world could be said to have changed forever. It would seem that the powerful British Empire, the superpower of that time, should have easily defeated a handful of colonists led by George Washington. For most of the war this was the case. But by 1781, those same upstart Americans had learned to fight. In addition, the sworn enemies of the British, the French, also came to their aid. As a result, the American forces, although small, were fully trained. The British under the command of Cornwallis captured the town. However, the troops were caught in a trap. The peninsula was closed by the Americans, and the French fleet blocked it from the sea. After several weeks of fighting, the British surrendered. The victory demonstrated that the new territories had military power. The battle was a turning point in the war for the independence of the new state - the United States of America.

    Battle of Salamis, 480 BC. To imagine the scale of this battle, one need only mention that almost a thousand ships took part in the battle. The naval forces of united Greece under the command of Themistocles were opposed by the Persian fleet of Xerxes, which by that time had captured part of Hellas and Athens. The Greeks understood that on the open sea they could not resist an enemy superior in numbers. As a result, the battle took place in the narrow Strait of Salamis. The long, winding path along it in every possible way deprived the Persians of their advantage. As a result, their ships entering the Gulf of Eleusincus were immediately attacked by many Greek triremes. The Persians could not turn back, because their other ships were following them. As a result, Xerxes' fleet became a chaotic mass. Light Greek ships entered the strait and destroyed their opponents. Xerxes suffered a humiliating defeat, which stopped the Persian invasion of Greece. Soon the conquerors were completely defeated. Greece was able to preserve its culture, and it was this that served as the basis for the entire Western civilization. If events had turned out differently then, Europe would be different today. This is what makes us consider the Battle of Salamis one of the most significant in history.

    Adrianople, 718. Like the Battle of Tours and the Battle of Vienna for Central Europe, the Battle of Adrianople was a turning point for Eastern Europe in the fight against the armies of Islam. At that time, Caliph Suleiman started the conquest of Constantinople, which the Arabs had previously failed to achieve. The city was surrounded by a huge army, and 1800 ships surrounded it from the sea. If Constantinople, the largest Christian city at that time, had fallen, hordes of Muslims would have flooded the Balkans, Eastern and Central Europe. Until then, Constantinople, like a bottle in a cork, prevented Muslim armies from crossing the Bosphorus. Their ally, the Bulgarian Khan Terver, came to the aid of the defending Greeks. She defeated the Arabs near Adrianople. As a result of this, as well as the enemy’s fleet destroyed a little earlier by the Greeks, the 13-month siege was lifted. Constantinople continued to play an important political role for the next 700 years, until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

    The heroism and courage of Soviet soldiers shown during the battles of the Great Patriotic War deserve eternal memory. The wisdom of military leaders, which became one of the most important components of the overall victory, continues to amaze us today.

    Over the long years of the war, so many battles took place that even some historians disagree on the meaning of certain battles. And yet, the largest battles, which have a significant impact on the further course of military operations, are known to almost every person. It is these battles that will be discussed in our article.

    Name of the battleMilitary leaders who took part in the battleOutcome of the battle

    Aviation Major A.P. Ionov, Aviation Major General T.F. Kutsevalov, F.I. Kuznetsov, V.F. Tributs.

    Despite the stubborn struggle of the Soviet soldiers, the operation ended on July 9 after the Germans broke through the defenses in the area of ​​the Velikaya River. This military operation smoothly turned into the fight for the Leningrad region.

    G.K. Zhukov, I.S. Konev, M.F. Lukin, P.A. Kurochkin, K.K. Rokossovsky

    This battle is considered one of the bloodiest in the history of the Second World War. At the cost of millions of losses, the Soviet army managed to delay the advance of Hitler's army on Moscow.

    Popov M.M., Frolov V.A., Voroshilov K.E., Zhukov G.K., Meretskov K.A.

    After the siege of Leningrad began, local residents and military leaders had to fight fierce battles for several years. As a result, the blockade was lifted and the city was liberated. However, Leningrad itself suffered horrific destruction, and the death toll of local residents exceeded several hundred thousand.

    I.V. Stalin, G.K. Zhukov, A.M. Vasilevsky, S.M. Budyonny, A.A. Vlasov.

    Despite huge losses, Soviet troops managed to win. The Germans were thrown back 150-200 kilometers, and Soviet troops managed to liberate the Tula, Ryazan and Moscow regions.

    I.S. Konev, G.K. Zhukov.

    The Germans were pushed back another 200 kilometers. Soviet troops completed the liberation of the Tula and Moscow regions and liberated some areas of the Smolensk region

    A.M. Vasilevsky, N.F. Vatutin, A.I. Eremenko, S.K. Timoshenko, V.I. Chuikov

    It is the victory at Stalingrad that many historians call one of the most important turning points during the Second World War. The Red Army managed to win a strong-willed victory, throwing the Germans far back and proving that the fascist army also has its vulnerabilities.

    CM. Budyonny, I.E. Petrov, I.I. Maslennikov, F.S. October

    Soviet troops were able to win a landslide victory, liberating Checheno-Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Stavropol Territory and Rostov Region.

    Georgy Zhukov, Ivan Konev, Konstantin Rokossovsky

    The Kursk Bulge became one of the bloodiest battles, but ensured the end of the turning point during the Second World War. Soviet troops managed to push the Germans back even further, almost to the country’s border.

    V.D. Sokolovsky, I.Kh. Baghramyan

    On the one hand, the operation was unsuccessful, because Soviet troops failed to reach Minsk and capture Vitebsk. However, the fascist forces were severely wounded, and as a result of the battle, tank reserves were practically running out.

    Konstantin Rokossovsky, Alexey Antonov, Ivan Bagramyan, Georgy Zhukov

    Operation Bagration turned out to be incredibly successful, because the territories of Belarus, part of the Baltic states and areas of Eastern Poland were recaptured.

    Georgy Zhukov, Ivan Konev

    Soviet troops managed to defeat 35 enemy divisions and directly reach Berlin for the final battle.

    I.V. Stalin, G.K. Zhukov, K.K. Rokossovsky, I.S. Konev

    After prolonged resistance, Soviet troops managed to take the capital of Germany. With the capture of Berlin, the Great Patriotic War officially ended.


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