Briefly about Indian philosophy. Diversity of philosophical schools of ancient India

In the history of Indian philosophy, there are several periods, the division into which is in itself quite arbitrary. Let us dwell first and foremost on the main ones, which laid the foundation for all Indian philosophy and constituted the philosophical classics of Indian thought and its entire culture, namely: Vedic and epic periods.

Philosophy of the Vedic period.

The main source of information about this period is an extensive complex of literary monuments, united by the common name Veda(literally “knowledge”, “knowledge”) and written in the ancient Indian language Sanskrit (the so-called Vedic Sanskrit).

The Vedas consist of four collections of hymns (samhitas), chants, magic spells, prayers, etc.: Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda (or Atharvangirasa). Each of these collections (usually known as the Vedas proper) grew over time various comments and additions of a ritual, magical, philosophical order - Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads. The actual philosophical views of Ancient India were most fully reflected in the Upanishads.

All Vedic texts are considered sacred books, a divine revelation like the Bible, although in their main features they were probably formed by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Brahmins were considered the true experts and interpreters of the Vedas.

Philosophy of the Upanishads. Originally the Upanishads meant sitting around a teacher for the purpose of knowing the truth. Then this term came to mean secret teaching. The Upanishads develop the themes of the Vedas: the idea of the unity of all things, cosmological themes, the search for cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena, etc. For example, questions were posed such as: “Where is the sun at night?”, “Where do the stars disappear during the day?” etc. But unlike previous texts in the Upanishads, the main attention is paid not to the external, but to the internal side of being and phenomena. At the same time, the main attention is paid to man, his knowledge and, above all, moral improvement. “Who are we?”, “Where did we come from?”, “Where are we going?” - these are the characteristic questions of the Upanishads.

The fundamental principle of existence in the Upanishads is BRakhman- universal, impersonal world soul, spirituality, from which the whole world arises with all its elements. This universality of the Brahman is achieved through his knowledge of himself. Brahman is identical and at the same time opposed atman- individual soul, subjective spiritual principle, “I”.

At the same time, Brahman and Atman are identical, the brahman in the individual realizes himself and thereby passes into the atman, becomes it. In turn, at the highest level of the intuitive “I”, when subject and object are fused together, atman merges with brahman. Thus, we have before us an example of dialectical thinking, in particular, the statement identities of opposites: brahman as the highest objective principle and atman as the subjective spiritual principle. The idea of the identity of brahman and atman, object and subject, world soul and individual soul also means the possibility of their mutual transition.

The doctrine of Brahman and Atman is the central point of the Upanishads, affirming the identity of the existence of an individual person with the universal essence of the world. Related to this is the doctrine of samsara(circle of life) and karma(law of retribution) in the Upanishads. In the teaching of samsara, human life is understood as a certain form of endless rebirth. And the future birth of an individual is determined by the law of karma. The future of a person is the result of those deeds and actions that a person performed in previous lives. And only those who have led a decent lifestyle can expect to be born in future life as a representative of the highest varna (class): brahmana (priest), kshatriya (warrior or representative of government) or vaishya (farmer, artisan or merchant). Those who led an unrighteous lifestyle, in the future, are destined for the fate of a member of the lower varna - a sudra (commoner) or even worse: his atman may end up in the body of an animal.

Therefore, the most important task of man and the main category of the Upanishads is liberation (moksha) him from the “world of objects and passions”, constant moral improvement. This liberation is realized through the dissolution of atman in brahman, the knowledge of the identity of one’s individual soul with the world soul. Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, every person is the “smith” of his own happiness, his entire fate depends on his own behavior.

As already mentioned, knowledge and self-knowledge is one of the most important themes and problems of the Upanishads. But we're talking about First of all, it is not about sensory or even rational knowledge. Genuine, most true knowledge consists in the deepest and most complete union and awareness of the identity of atman and brahman. And only those who are able to realize this identity are freed from the endless series of rebirths of samsara. The soul of such a person merges with the brahman and remains in him forever. At the same time, she is freed from the influence of karma. This is the highest goal and the truest path - "path of the gods" (devayana), unlike the usual way - “the ways of the fathers” (pitryana). Devayana is achieved through austerity and higher knowledge.

Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, a person (unlike, for example, Christianity or Islam) is not considered in relation to other people or to humanity as a whole. And human life itself is thought of differently here. Man is not the “crown of creation” of God, nor is he the owner of one single life. His life is an endless chain of rebirths. But he has the opportunity to break the circle of samsara, get out of the chain of births and achieve the highest goal - liberation from being. Life is therefore seen as a long process of change different lives and one must live them in such a way as to ultimately leave samsara, that is, get rid of life.

Hence the meaning of ancient Indian philosophy, and the nature of the Indian worldview was different than in the West. It was aimed not at changing the external conditions of existence - nature and society, but at self-improvement. In other words, she was not extroverted, but introverted in nature.

In addition, the very term “philosophy” as philosophy, which arose within the framework of Western European culture, is of little use to designate the system of views and worldview of the thinkers of Ancient India. In this context, Hegel apparently was not far from the truth when he wrote that “philosophy in the proper sense begins in the West” 1 . Although it would be wrong, I think, to deny philosophy in general in the ancient Eastern cultural tradition. It’s just that here wisdom is associated primarily not with the substantiation of theoretical concepts aimed at searching for truth in an empirical or rational way, but with higher knowledge and self-knowledge through asceticism, direct comprehension of Brahman and individual identity with it. The path to truth is the path of moral improvement of a person, and not the path of theoretical knowledge.

The Upanishads had a huge influence on the further development of philosophical thought in India. Thus, the doctrine of samsara and karma becomes one of the main ones for the subsequent development of all religious and philosophical trends in India. The Upanishads had a great impact, in particular, on the various philosophical systems of Hinduism and Buddhism. Their influence is also found in the views of such major thinkers as Rammohon Raya, Gandhi, Schopenhauer and others.

Philosophy of the epic period. The name “epic period” (from the word “epic”) is due to the fact that at this time “ Ramayana" And " Mahabharata” serve as a means of expressing the heroic and divine in human relationships. During this period, the ideas of the Upanishads were subjected to great criticism in " Bhagavad Gita"(one of the books of the Mahabharata).

This period in the development of Indian philosophy begins in the 6th century. BC e., when significant changes occur in Indian society: agricultural and handicraft production develops, social differentiation increases, the institution of tribal power loses its influence and the power of the monarchy increases. Along with this, changes are also taking place in the worldview of Indian society. In particular, criticism of Vedic Brahmanism is intensifying. Intuition gives way to research, religion to philosophy. Within philosophy itself, various, including opposing and warring schools and systems appear, which reflect the real contradictions of that time.

Heterodox schools in Indian philosophy. Among the many adherents of new views who rebelled against the authority of the Vedas, we should name, first of all, representatives of such systems as: carvaka(materialists), Jainism, Buddhism. All of them belong to unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Charvaka is a materialistic doctrine in Ancient and Medieval India. A later version of a related philosophical concept - lokayats, with which it is sometimes generally identified. No works of this school have survived, and the source of knowledge about this teaching is the statements of representatives of other schools.

Charvaka denies the concept of brahman, atman, samsara and karma. The basis of all things here is matter in the form of four primary elements: earth, water, fire and air. Both life and consciousness are considered as derivatives of these material primary elements. Matter can think. Death is the end of everything. The name “lokayata” corresponds to the essence and content of this teaching - only this world, or loka, exists. That is why materialists are called lokayats. They are also called Charvakas, named after the founder of this theory - Charvaka.

The theory of knowledge also corresponds to the ontological essence of this teaching. Its basis is sensory perception peace. Only that which is known through direct perception is true. Therefore, there is no reason for the existence of another world, not perceived by the senses. No other world simply can exist. Therefore, religion is a stupid delusion. Belief in God and the other world is, from the point of view of representatives of this school, a sign of feeblemindedness, weakness, and cowardice.

The ethical concept of the Charvakas is based on unlimited pleasure - hedonism(from Greek hedone - pleasure). Recognizing only such realities of life as suffering and pleasure within the framework of the sensory existence of the individual, this school considers wealth and pleasure to be the goals of human existence. The motto of the representatives of this school is to eat, drink and enjoy this life today, because death always comes to everyone. “While life is still yours, live joyfully: no one can escape the piercing gaze of death.” This theory, therefore, affirms selfishness and preaches earthly human desires. All moral standards, according to this teaching, are just human conventions that should not be paid attention to.

Assessing the philosophy of materialists, we can say that it has done a lot to criticize the old religion and philosophy, to debunk the authority of the Vedas, their untruth and inconsistency.

« Philosophy of Charvakas, - writes the largest modern philosopher of India S. Radhakrishnan, - represents a fanatical effort aimed at liberating the contemporary generation from the burden of the past that weighed on it. The elimination of dogmatism, which took place with the help of this philosophy, was necessary in order to make room for the constructive efforts of speculation.» 1.

At the same time, this philosophy was a one-sided worldview that denied the role of intellect and reason in knowledge. Therefore, from her point of view, it was impossible to explain where abstract, universal ideas and moral ideals come from. The result of this one-sidedness was nihilism, skepticism and subjectivism. Since the senses belong to an individual, therefore, everyone can have only their own truth. The result of this one-sidedness is their denial of higher moral goals and values.

However, despite these obvious and serious shortcomings, the Charvaka school laid the foundation for criticism of the Brahmanical trend in Indian philosophy, undermined the authority of the Vedas and had a significant influence on the further development of philosophical thought in India.

Jainism . Its founder is considered to be Mahavira Vardhamana (VI century BC). He also received the name Gina, which means Winner (meaning victory over the cycle of rebirth). At the center of this direction is the existence of the individual. The essence of personality, from the point of view of Jainism, is dualistic: spiritual (jiva) And material (ajiva). The link between jiva and ajiva is karma. However, karma itself is understood here, in contrast to the Upanishads, as a subtle matter, and not as a law of retribution. This combination of inanimate, gross matter with the soul through karma leads to the emergence of personality. And karma constantly accompanies the soul in an endless chain of rebirths.

The human soul is forced to wander, constantly being reborn, as long as it is connected with subtle matter. But right knowledge and asceticism can help her become free from the material world (ajiva). In this case, the soul moves to the higher sphere, where it constantly remains in pure spirituality. This is because the jiva exists in two forms of existence: imperfect and perfect. In the first case, it is in connection with matter and in a state suffering. In the second - jiva released from this connection she becomes free, capable of managing her own existence. In this case, she goes into a state of bliss - nirvana, the highest state of the soul when the ultimate goal is achieved.

According to this, Jainism recognizes two types of knowledge: imperfect based on experience and reason, and perfect, based on intuition and comprehending the truth through direct observation. The second is available only to those who have freed themselves from the dependence of the material world (ajiva). At the same time, Jainism recognizes the relativity of knowledge and the possibility of multiple points of view when considering a subject. His dialectical method is connected with this.

A characteristic feature of the philosophical and ethical concept of Jainism is its development of rules and norms of human behavior and the requirement of their strict observance. Ethical education of the individual is a decisive factor in the transition of the individual’s existence from an imperfect state to a perfect one. And although karma decides everything, ours real life, which is in our own power, can change the impact of the past. And with the help of excessive efforts we can avoid the effects of karma. Therefore, in the teachings of the Jains there is no absolute fatalism, as it may seem at first glance.

The correct life of a person is associated with ascetic behavior, which was practiced in India by many great saints who even gave themselves up to death. Only asceticism leads to the cessation of rebirths and to the liberation of the soul from samsara. Moreover, liberation is individual in nature. Everyone frees themselves. However, the ethics of Jainism, although egocentric, is far from egoistic in nature, as in the teachings of the Charvakas. Egoism and individualism presuppose the opposition of the individual to the social environment, the assertion of one’s own interests at the expense of other people. Meanwhile, the basic ethical principles of Jainism: detachment from worldly wealth, vanity, passions, respect for all living beings, etc. are little compatible with egoism and individualism.

It should be noted that the philosophy of Jainism retains its influence in India today.

Buddhism just like Jainism, it arose in the 6th century. BC e. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, who later received the name Buddha(awakened, enlightened), because after many years of hermitage and asceticism he achieved awakening, that is, he came to understand the correct path of life, rejecting extremes.

A characteristic feature of this teaching is its ethical and practical orientation, and the central question that interests him is existence of personality. Buddhism is based on the “Four Noble Truths”:

human existence from birth to death is inextricably linked with suffering;

there is a cause of suffering, which is the thirst for existence (the desire for life), leading through joys and passions to rebirth;

there is liberation from suffering, elimination of the causes of suffering, i.e. the elimination of this thirst for being;

exists path, leading to liberation from suffering, which rejects both a life devoted only to sensual pleasures and the path of asceticism and self-torture. This is precisely the Buddhist principle of the so-called middle path, which recommends avoiding extremes.

Liberation from suffering as the ultimate goal of a person’s existence is, first of all, the destruction of desires, or more precisely, the extinguishing of their passion. Connected with this is the most important concept of Buddhism in the moral sphere - the concept tolerance (tolerance) and relativity. According to her, the point is not in some generally binding moral precepts, but in not causing harm to others. This is the main principle of personal behavior, which is based on a feeling of kindness and complete satisfaction.

Its concept is organically connected with the ethics of Buddhism knowledge. Cognition here is a necessary way and means of achieving the ultimate goal of a person’s existence. In Buddhism, the distinction between the sensory and rational forms of knowledge is eliminated and the practice of meditation(from lat. rneditatio - concentrated reflection) - in-depth mental concentration and detachment from external objects and internal experiences. The result of this is direct experience of the wholeness of being, complete self-absorption and self-satisfaction. A state of absolute freedom and independence of the inner being of the individual is achieved, which is precisely identical to the extinguishing of desires. It is liberation, or nirvana- a state of supreme bliss, the ultimate goal of a person’s aspirations and his existence, characterized by detachment from life’s worries and desires. This does not mean the death of a person, but his exit from the cycle of rebirth, liberation from samsara and merging with the deity.

Practice meditation constitutes the essence of Buddhist insight into life. Like prayer in Christianity, meditation is the core of Buddhism. Its ultimate goal is enlightenment, or the state of nirvana. It should be borne in mind that in the Buddhist system the determining principle is the absolute autonomy of the individual, his independence from the environment. All connections between a person and real world, including social ones, Buddhism views as negative and generally harmful to humans. Hence the need for liberation from imperfect real existence, from external objects and feelings. Related to this is the belief of most Buddhists that the passions that the human body generates and the anxiety associated with it must be overcome. The main way to do this is to achieve nirvana.

Thus, the philosophy of Buddhism, like Jainism, is egocentric and introvertive in nature.

Orthodox schools in ancient Indian philosophy In contrast to non-orthodox schools (Charvakas, Jainism, Buddhism), in the history of ancient Indian philosophy there were orthodox schools that did not deny the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, relied on them. Let's consider the main philosophical ideas of these schools

Vedanta(the completion of the Vedas) is the most influential system, the most important philosophical basis of Hinduism. She recognizes Brahman as the absolute spiritual essence of the world. Individual souls (atmans) through knowledge or love of God achieve salvation by uniting with God. The way out of the cycle of birth (samsara) lies in considering everything that exists from the point of view of the highest truth; in the knowledge of the truth that the external world surrounding a person is an illusory world, and the true unchanging reality is brahman, with which atman is identified. The main way to achieve this true knowledge is morality and meditation, which means intense meditation on the problems of the Vedas.

The help of the teacher plays an important role in this. Therefore, one of the requirements of Vedanta is the obedient following of the student to the teacher, constant reflection on the truths of Vedanta with the aim of direct and constant contemplation of the truth. Knowledge liberates the soul. Ignorance, on the contrary, enslaves her and increases her desire for sensual pleasures. The study of Vedanta is the main means of liberating the soul.

Mimamsa(reflection, study of the Vedic text on sacrifices). This system concerns the explanation of the ritual of the Vedas. The teaching of the Vedas here is closely associated with dharma - the idea of duty, the fulfillment of which involves, first of all, sacrifice. This fulfillment of one's duty leads to gradual redemption from karma and to liberation as the cessation of rebirth and suffering.

Samkhya(number, enumeration) - it is based not directly on the text of the Vedas, but on independent experience and reflection. In this regard, Samkhya differs from Vedanta and Mimamsa. The teaching of this school expresses the point of view according to which the first cause of the world is matter, nature (prakrita). Along with nature, the existence of absolute soul (purusha). It is thanks to its presence in all things that the things themselves exist. When prakriti and purusha unite, the initial principles of the world arise, both material (water, air, earth, etc.) and spiritual (intelligence, self-awareness, etc.).

Thus Samkhya is dualistic direction in the philosophy of Hinduism.

Yoga(tension, deep thinking, contemplation). The philosophy of this school is aimed at practical psychological training. Her theoretical basis- Samkhya, although yoga also recognizes a personal god. Great place In this system, it is occupied by an explanation of the rules of mental training, the successive steps of which are: self-observation ( pit), mastery of breathing in certain positions (postures) of the body ( asana), isolation of feelings from external influences ( pratyahara), concentration of thought ( dharana), meditation ( dhyana), state of rejection ( samadhi). At the last stage, the liberation of the soul from the bodily shell is achieved, the shackles of samsara and karma are broken. The ethical standards of yoga are associated with the formation of a highly moral personality.

Vaisesika. At an early stage of development, this system contains pronounced materialistic aspects. According to it, all things are constantly changing, but they also contain stable elements - spherical atoms. Atoms are eternal, not created by anyone and have many qualities (17 qualities of atoms). From them various animate and inanimate objects arise. The world, although it consists of atoms, however driving force its development is God, who acts in accordance with the law of karma.

Nyaya(rule, logic) - the study of forms of thinking. In this system the main thing is to study metaphysical problems with the help logic. Nyaya starts with liberation as the ultimate goal human life. According to representatives of this school, the conditions and methods of true knowledge as a means of achieving liberation can be determined with the help of logic and its laws. Liberation itself is understood as the cessation of the influence of negative factors of suffering.

The Bhagavad Gita, often simply called the Gita, is considered the most significant and famous book not only of the epic period, but of the entire history of India. It forms part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata. “Bhagavad Gita” translated means the song of Bhagavat, i.e. god Krishna, or divine song. It was written around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and expressed the need of the masses to replace the old religion of the Upanishads, with its meager abstractions and headed by an indefinite Absolute, with a less abstract and formal one.

The Bhagavad Gita, with its living personal god (Krishna), successfully completed this task and laid the foundation for a new direction of religious thought - Hinduism. It should be borne in mind that the philosophy of the Gita in no way denies, as has already been said, the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, is significantly influenced by the Upanishads. Moreover, the very philosophical basis of the Gita is taken precisely from the Upanishads. The acceptability of the religious and philosophical basis of Hinduism for the broad masses determined the fact that by the beginning of the new era it had gained decisive influence in the ideological sphere of Indian society.

According to the Bhagavad Gita, the ever-changing natural, material reality is not the primary reality - prakriti. The primary, eternal and unchanging existence is the supreme Brahman. One should not be sad about death, for it is not extinction. Although the individual form of human existence may change, the essence of a person is not destroyed even after death, that is, the atman of a person remains unchanged, even if the body has become dust. In the spirit of the Upanishads, the Gita identifies two principles - Brahman And atman. Behind the mortal body is atman, behind the transitory objects of the world is brahman. These two principles are one and identical in nature. The main object of knowledge in the Bhagavad Gita is the supreme Brahman, who has neither beginning nor end. Having known it, a person becomes immortal.

In form, the Gita is a dialogue between the epic hero Arjuna and the god Krishna, who in the plot acts as the charioteer and mentor of Arjuna. The main meaning of the book is that Krishna embodies the highest divine principle of Hinduism, and the book itself is its philosophical basis. Unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita pays more attention to moral issues and is distinguished by its emotional character. The dialogue between Arjuna and the god Krishna takes place on the eve of the decisive battle, when the commander Arjuna is overcome by doubt as to whether he has the right to kill his relatives. He is thus in a situation where he must make a decisive moral choice. This choice, associated with understanding one’s place in the moral world, is the main question that faces the hero of the book and every person. The main problem that needs to be resolved is based on the awareness of the deep moral contradiction between a person’s practical duty and higher moral requirements.

Therefore, unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita draws attention not to the external, ritual factors of achieving a moral world order (sacrifice), but to the internal moral freedom of the individual. To obtain it, sacrifices are not enough, thanks to which only rich people can gain the favor of the gods. Gaining inner freedom is achieved by renouncing external, sensual claims and temptations that await a person at every step. In this regard, the book develops the doctrine of yoga- one of the directions in Indian thought, which has developed a whole range of techniques, thanks to which a special state of spirit and mental balance is achieved. Although it should be borne in mind that the roots of yoga are very ancient, and yoga itself forms common element most ancient Indian systems. In the Bhagavad Gita, yoga acts as a method of mental education, allowing one to free oneself and purify oneself from all kinds of delusions and to cognize the true reality, the primary being - Brahman, the eternal spirit that forms the basis of all things.

The main character of the Gita strives to find moral justification for his actions in the deepest foundations of the eternal spirit - brahmana. To achieve brahmana, an ascetic renunciation of everything transitory, egoistic aspirations, and sensual lusts is required. But giving up this is the way to gain true freedom and achieve absolute value. Arjuna's true battlefield is the life of his own soul and it is necessary to defeat that which hinders its true development. He tries, without succumbing to temptations and subjugating passions, to conquer the true kingdom of man - true freedom. Achieving it is not an easy task. It requires asceticism, suffering and self-denial.

Indian civilization is one of the most ancient in globe. It originated on the Hindustan Peninsula almost 6 thousand years ago. In an attempt to understand myself, the world around us and their place in it, ancient Indian philosophers began to take the first steps in the development of worldview teachings. This is how the philosophy of Ancient India was born, which had a significant influence on the entire world culture.

General characteristics

Indian philosophy dates back to the middle of the first millennium BC. e. Depending on the various sources of philosophical thought, ancient Indian philosophy is usually divided into three main stages:

Vedic - the period of orthodox philosophy of Hinduism (XV-VI centuries BC).
Epic - the period of creation of the famous epics “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”, which considered global problems philosophy of that time, entry into the arena of Buddhism and Jainism (VI-II centuries BC).
Age of Sutras – a period of short philosophical treatises in which individual problems are described (II century BC-VII century AD).

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has developed continuously and naturally, without radical changes in ideas and points of view. All the main provisions are described in the Vedas dating back to the 15th century. BC e. Almost all the literature that followed the Vedas is related to their interpretation. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit and included four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Rice. 1. Vedas.

The main principles of the philosophy of Ancient India include:

improvement inner world person;
the desire to warn against mistakes that in the future may become causes of suffering;
sincere belief in the unchangeable moral order of the Universe;
perception of the Universe as a fertile field for moral actions;
ignorance is the source of all human suffering, while knowledge is a prerequisite for the salvation of everyone;
gaining knowledge through prolonged conscious immersion;
subordination of weaknesses and passions to reason, which is the only path to salvation.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

In Ancient India, philosophical schools were divided into two large groups: orthodox - those that developed on the basis of the teachings of the Vedas, and unorthodox.

Orthodox schools include:

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Nyiya - the very first orthodox school, according to which the world can be known by man only with the help of his senses. This philosophical system is based on the study of metaphysical problems, not in a sensory, but in a logical way.
Vaisesika - preached the eternal cycle of life, consisting of a chain of numerous transformations and the change of one bodily shell to another. This is the so-called samsara - the wheel of eternal reincarnation. Due to reincarnation, the soul is in constant movement and the search for harmony and ideal.

Rice. 2. Wheel of Samsara.

Yoga - a philosophy of a practical nature, aimed at understanding the world around us and our place in it. According to the provisions of this teaching, only a harmonious person is able to control his own body with the help of the power of the spirit. The main task is the complete subordination of the body to the brain.

The emergence of unorthodox philosophical schools is associated with the worship of materialism. It is based only on the body and its feelings, but not on the ephemeral soul.
The heterodox schools of Ancient India include:

Jainism - teaches that all creatures inhabiting the planet consist of identical atoms, and therefore are equal before the Universe. Harming a living person is a terrible sin. Achieving enlightenment in Jainism is incredibly difficult. To do this, you need to completely replace your usual food with solar energy, never respond to evil with violence and not cause even the slightest harm to any living creature.

The main goal of all philosophical schools of Ancient India was to achieve nirvana - the state complete harmony with the Universe, loss of all earthly sensations, dissolution in Space.

Buddhism - according to this philosophical teaching, the ultimate goal of every person’s life should be the destruction of all earthly desires, which invariably lead to suffering. The most important principle of personal behavior is not to cause harm to others.

Emergence philosophy in ancient India dates back to the middle of the first millennium BC. The oldest cultural monument of India is the Vedas - a collection of hymns in honor of gods and heroes, which sets out the mythological and religious idea of the world, man, morality, etc. The Vedas can be divided into four parts: Samhitas (hymns, songs, spells, magic), Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals), Aranyakas (instructions for hermits), Upanishads (philosophical and religious complex). It is in the Upanishads that the beginning of religious and philosophical thinking is indicated. The basis of existence is recognized as the universal principle - Brahma, associated with the individual soul Atman. An integral part of this teaching is the concept of the wheel of Samsara and the law of retribution of karma.

Philosophical schools of ancient India can be divided into orthodox (astika), which recognizes the authority of the Vedas, and unorthodox (nastika), who reject the Vedas for their falsity and verbosity. The first include the schools: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sank-hya, yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, the second - Jainism, Buddhism, Char-vaka-lokayata.

Buddhism is a philosophical and religious teaching associated with the name of Sidhartha Gautama or Buddha (the enlightened one). The teaching focuses on earthly suffering and deliverance from it. Many religions propose supernatural solutions to the problems of earthly life. Buddhism has a different opinion in this regard: salvation from suffering depends only on a person’s personal efforts. The Buddha taught that by understanding how we create suffering for ourselves, we can get rid of it.

Information about the Buddha himself is fragmentary. His many teachings were not written down, but were preserved and collected as an oral tradition. Legends tell of the miraculous conception of Buddha. His mother had a dream that spirits lifted her above the Himalayas and placed her on a divine bed. The future Buddha appeared to her in the form of a white elephant and entered her womb. Before this, he had many incarnations and was again called to earth by his compassion for all who suffer. The sages interpreted this dream as follows: a son will be born who will either become the king of all India, or, having left worldly life, will become an enlightened being and share his insight with the world.

Buddha was born in royal family and was supposed to become heir to the throne. Buddha's father, dreaming that his son would become a king, tried to make his life so pleasant and carefree that he would not have the desire to change anything. However, by the will of the gods, one day he saw “four sights” that his father carefully hid: an old man, a sick man, a dead man and an ascetic monk. Realizing the futility of sensual pleasures, the young prince leaves his wife and wealth and puts on the rough dress of a wandering ascetic.

The future Buddha sought the path to liberation from suffering. Not a single teacher whose student he became gave him the highest knowledge. Continuing his search, he joined five hermits who lived in the forest. Admiring their desire to kill the senses, he decided to try this path of liberation himself. Within six years he surpassed them in his self-denial. One day, sitting on the shore, he overheard a boatman talking to his son: “don’t swim close to the left bank, there you can run aground, and don’t swim close to the right bank, you’ll get entangled in the reeds there; stay in the middle of the river." At that moment, Prince Sidhartha became Buddha (enlightened). He realized that life is a river and in order to swim it is necessary to stay in the middle, and he set out on the middle path. Sitting in deep meditation, he experienced supreme enlightenment. At first he remembered all his past lives. Then I saw the wheel of death and birth, where good and evil deeds are reflected in subsequent life. He was given knowledge about the essence of suffering, its source and the method of deliverance. this knowledge forms the basis of Buddhism.

Four Noble Truths:
1. Life inevitably entails suffering.
2. Suffering comes from our desires.
3. There is a state in which there is no suffering (Nirvana).
4. There is a way to achieve this state.

First Noble Truth. All people experience grief, unfulfilled desires, old age, illness, death, etc. A person may be happy for a while, but happiness is short-lived.
Second Noble Truth. The cause of suffering is a lack of understanding of the true nature of the things we desire. In fact, everything is transitory and changeable. Only recognizing the fact of suffering allows you to see things as they are.
The Third Noble Truth is that suffering can be ended by achieving the Supreme Reality, or Nirvana, a state in which there are no desires or illusions.
The Fourth Noble Truth states that only by living morally, focusedly and wisely, i.e. By following the Noble Eightfold Path, one can destroy desires, and therefore suffering.

The Eightfold Path offers a way to put an end to all past defects and not to accumulate new ones, but to acquire virtues for a favorable rebirth. Perfection on this path means the final exit from the cycle of birth and death into the peace of Nirvana. The Eightfold Path includes:
- righteous understanding, i.e. the ability to overcome illusions;
- righteous thoughts and motives, i.e. it is necessary to get rid of selfishness;
- righteous words, i.e. it is necessary to beware of empty talk, gossip, and abuse;
- righteous action, i.e. moral behavior;
- a righteous lifestyle, i.e. a person's craft should not disturb social harmony;
- righteous effort, i.e. the desire to destroy “harmful” conditions in the past, present and future;
- righteous thought, i.e. improvement of thinking;
- righteous thinking, i.e. ability to calm the mind...

Since the topic of our article is the philosophy of Ancient India briefly, we will consider only the main points of this topic. However, you can fold general idea about philosophy that was formed in the East and in particular in India.

The thinkers of Ancient India treated truth as a multifaceted knowledge that cannot be expressed in full by focusing only on individual aspects. That is why they believed that there are many ways to improve, by choosing one of which you can develop your personality and grow spiritually.

Any philosophical system of the East recognized the ultimate goal of man as his development and self-improvement. It is through one’s own self-development that one could improve the world itself.

Indian philosophy is conventionally divided into 3 main periods:

Vedic (XV-V centuries BC);
Classical (5th century BC - 10th century AD);
Hindu (from the 10th century AD).

The peculiarity of Indian philosophy is its continuous and smooth development, without sharp leaps in the views of thinkers and without sharp changes in ideas.

The most ancient texts related to the philosophy of Ancient India are contained in the Vedas, which were written before the 15th century. BC e. The Vedas are “knowledge”, “knowledge”.

It was this knowledge that served as the beginning of ancient Indian philosophy, while subsequent literature was essentially a commentary or a kind of interpretation of Vedic texts.

Vedic literature is divided into 4 groups in historical sequence:

Samhitas.
Brahmins.
Aranyaki.
Upanishads.

Considering that the Samhitas are ancient texts, then it is they who are usually called the Vedas, and the Upanishads are free additions to the original source, but in a broad sense, all 4 groups are called the Vedas.

Samhitas are 4 collections of hymns:

Rigveda (the oldest of the Vedas, all subsequent ones rely on it);
Samave-da (Veda of Chant);
Yajurveda (Veda of Sacrifice);
At-harvaveda (Veda of Spells).

The Vedas were presented as a revelation given to man by deities. The gods had the gift of all-vision and they passed on their knowledge (Vedas) to the Rishi poets. Rishis are not specific people, but authors of hymns, unique characters.

In ancient Indian philosophy there were two traditions (methods of knowledge):

Shruti (what is described above - the transfer of knowledge from the gods to the rishis);
Smriti (“remembering” literally).

Thus, the Vedas included two separate types of knowledge - sacred and second - profane.

According to most scholars, the Vedas were formed during the formation of class society. Ancient India was not characterized by a slave system, but class inequality was present.

It was this that led to the formation of four groups (varna):

brahmins (priests);
kshatriyas (warriors representing the highest social class);
Vaishyas (artisans, traders, farmers);
Shudras (lowest social class).

All varnas differed in rights, social status, and responsibilities. Exactly like this social organization and reflected in the Vedas.

The earliest Veda is called the Rig Veda. It was divided into 10 mandalas (books). The hymns of the Rig Veda are verses of praise to the gods, who represented the forces of nature; and ritual poems, which included prayers and requests of people to the gods.

The hymns of the Rigveda are not just poetry, but a sacred attempt of the ancient Indians to understand the truth of existence. Space is everything and everyone. Space and time are the unity of diachrony and synchrony. The law of rotation of the Universe is Rita. The Universe develops synchronically, and then a period of diachrony begins when Chaos replaces Cosmos.

From the Rig Veda we learn about such gods as Surya (sun god), Savitr (motivator god), Mitra (god of friendship), Pushan (god of solar energy), Ushas (goddess of the dawn), Agni (god of fire). This is by no means a complete list of gods and divine beings described in the Rig Veda. It is worth noting that none of them is dominant; all of them, to one degree or another, came forward when there was a need for it. Thus, each divine being was represented as a part of the universal spirit.

We looked at what the philosophy of Ancient India is briefly. It is the Vedas, and especially the first verses, that can provide insight into history, religion (in particular), psychology and aesthetics public life India.

Approximately in the sixth century BC, a separate science appeared - philosophy, for reasons difficult to explain and mysterious circumstances, which arose simultaneously in different and opposite places of the continent - Ancient Greece, India and Ancient China. From there, the development of human nirvas occurs through a different explanation of mythological concepts about cultures. This period of development of philosophical teachings, in the indicated centers of civilizations, forms recent history and a different interpretation of mythology, a rethinking of former values and thoughts.

Philosophy in India marked the beginning of the emergence of philosophical Indian knowledge, which arose BC in the middle of the 1st millennium. The initial “steps” of a person in an attempt to comprehend himself, the world around him and outer space, live and inanimate nature, led to progress in the development of the human mind, awareness and intelligence, promoted evolution and differentiation from nature.

Understanding the connection between general culture and the circumstances and events of a past era lies in the very essence of philosophy. The game of the mind, thinking in abstract concepts and the spiritual power of rational-conceptual comprehension of the root causes of all things, which has a global impact on the global course of events, is philosophy.

Taking part in the formation of social ideals, value-worldview and methodological principles, philosophy reminds a person of the social and practical importance of common ideas about the world, raising the question before the thinker about the moral principles of existence. Close in spirit, the eastern philosophies of India and China had common points and significant differences, which had an important influence on the development of the cultures of India and China, as well as the peoples in contact with them.

A brief summary of Ancient Indian philosophy will tell you about many events of the era, about the interests and faith of other peoples, giving an excellent chance to enrich your own horizons. The foundation of Indian philosophy is occupied by the sacred scriptures - the Vedas and the Upanishads (notes) to the Vedas. In Indo-Aryan oriental culture, these texts represent the oldest monument knowledge and teachings accumulated over all times. There are suggestions that the Vedas were not created by anyone, but always existed as truth, due to which the sacred scriptures did not contain erroneous information. Most of them are composed in Sanskrit - mystical and perfect language. It is believed that with the help of Sanskrit, the universe comes into contact with man, showing the path to God. Cosmic truths are presented in partial records of the Vedas. The adapted part of the scriptures "Smriti", including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is recommended for people who are not so gifted such as workers, women and representatives of lower castes, while the other part of the Vedas - "Shrudi", is feasible only for initiates.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The key source of information about the Vedic stage is the Vedas (translated from Sanskrit “Veda” - “knowledge”, “teaching” or “knowledge”).

The philosophy of Ancient India includes three stages:

Vedic – 15th – 5th centuries BC;
Classical – 5th -10th centuries BC;
Hindu - from the 10th century BC.

But in this article you will learn about the Vedic period, the most significant and absolute. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has continuously taken root and shaped the values of society. According to established traditions, the Vedas include four collections of Vedic literature, later enriched with explanations and additions of ritual, magical and philosophical orders (prayers, magic spells, hymns and chants):

"Samhitas";
"Brahmins";
"Aranyaki";
"Upanishads".

The gods differed from people in their omniscience, according to the Vedas, so knowledge was “recognized” and “seen” because it was endowed with a visual nature. This division reflects the historical sequence of development of Indian literature. The oldest collection is the Samhitas, while the last three collections are the resulting explanation, commentary on the Vedas and their additions. As a result, in the subtle literary sense, the Samhitas are the Vedas. Thus, the Samhitas include 4 original hymns: Rig Veda (authoritarian knowledge), Sama Veda (Veda of chants), Yajur Veda (scriptures on sacrifices) and Atharva Veda (knowledge of magic spells), borrowing texts from the Rig Veda. Scientists studying Indian philosophical teachings believe that during the formation of the Indian Vedas, throughout the valley of the majestic Ganges River, society was divided into classes, but this could not be called slave ownership. The social difference between people only increased social inequality, and marked the beginning of the organization of varnas or castes (differences in position in society, privileges and roles): brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Brahmins were priests; Kshatriyas - warriors who made up the highest social castes; Vaishyas were artisans, farmers and traders; Shudras - represented the lowest classes - servants and hired workers. Next, the Indian state arose. The Upanishads reflected the deepest reflection in the philosophical views of Ancient India.

Upanishads

The main philosophical part of the Vedas are the Upanishads. The literal translation from Sanskrit “upa-ni-shad” means “sitting at the feet of the teacher.” The Upanishads are a hidden teaching that cannot be made public a large number people. The text contained in the Upanishads is a statement of heterogeneous philosophical reflections in which a number of issues can be emphasized: adhiyajna (sacrifice), adhyatma (human microcosm) and adhidaivata (deified macrocosm); questions: “What is the position of the sun at night?”, “Where are the stars during the day?” and others. In the Upanishads, the central element is the parallels between the phenomena of the micro- and macrocosm, the idea of the unity of the existing. The hidden and deep foundations of the microcosm “Atman” and the macrocosm “Brahman” are revealed, the study of conditionality and expressions. The basis of the Upanishads is generated by the external and internal aspects of existence, focusing on human comprehension of knowledge and moral improvement, posing the characteristic questions of the Upanishads - “Who are we, where do we come from and where are we going?” The essence of being in the Upanishads is designated “Brahman” - the beginning of everything spiritual, the universal and faceless soul of the universe, reviving the universe. “Brahman” is identical, but opposite to “Atman” - the individual principle of the spiritual “I”. “Brahman” is the highest objective principle, while “Atman” is subjective and spiritual. There is a dharma connection here about Samsara and Karma - about the cycle of life, eternal rebirth and the rule of compensation. Understanding a person’s future occurs through awareness of one’s behavior and actions committed in previous lives. Therefore, leading a decent lifestyle represents the future and rebirth in the upper castes or departure to spiritual world. For unrighteous behavior in current life, leads to future incarnations in the lower classes, and the “Atman” can be reborn into the body of an animal. The main task of the Upanishads is moksha or liberation from material wealth and spiritual self-improvement. Each person is the “smith” of his own happiness and his destiny is shaped by real actions - this is the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

The whole philosophy of India is based on systems. The emergence of philosophical schools began in the sixth century BC. Schools were divided into:

"Astika" - orthodox schools based on the authority of the Vedas. These included the schools: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaisheshika;
Nastikas are unorthodox schools that refute the treatises of the Vedas for being false. These included schools: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka Lokayata.

Let's take a brief look at each of the orthodox schools:

Mimamsa or Purva Mimamsa (first) - founded by the ancient Indian sage Jaimini (3rd-1st centuries BC) and included: research, analysis, interpretation and reflection on the sacred scriptures;
Vedanta - compiled by the sage Vyasa (about 5 thousand years ago), the main goal relied on self-awareness, the individual’s understanding of his original nature and truth;
Yoga - founded by the sage Patanjali (in the 2nd century BC), aims to improve the human spirit through the practice of unifying body and mind, followed by liberation (moksha);
Sankhya - founded by the sage Kapila, the school is aimed at abstracting the spirit (purusha) from matter (prakriti);
Nyaya - and the laws of logic, according to which the external world exists independently of knowledge and reason. Objects of knowledge: our “I”, body, feelings, mind, rebirth, suffering and liberation;
Vaisheshika - founded by the sage Kanada (Uluka) (3-2 centuries BC), which is at the same time an opponent and supporter of Buddhist phenomenalism. Recognizing Buddhism as the source of knowledge and perception, but denying the truth of the facts of soul and substance.

Let's take a brief look at each of the unorthodox schools:

Jainism is translated from Sanskrit as “winner”, a dharmic religion, the founder of which is Jina Mahavira (8-6 centuries BC). The school's philosophy is based on self-improvement of the soul to achieve nirvana;
Buddhism - formed in the 5th-1st centuries BC, the teachings of the school assumed 4 truths: 1 - life is like suffering, 2 - the causes of which are desires and passions, 3 - deliverance occurs only after renouncing desires, 4 - through a series of rebirths and deliverance from the bonds of Samsara;
Charvaka Lokayata is a materialistic atheistic doctrine and low view. The universe and everything that exists came into being naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces, thanks to the 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air.