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In the ninth century, the powerful state of Kievan Rus was created on the territory of Eastern Europe - a significant political and military force until the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century. Rulers Ancient Rus' there were princes, they soon began to call themselves grand princes.
Grand Duke is a title worn by monarchs, rulers Old Russian state, and then Kievan Rus.
The prince combined the following functions as head of state:
– judicial (he held court over the population, over his subordinates);
– military (the prince had to vigilantly defend the borders of his state, organize defense, gather troops and, of course, prepare for an attack when necessary; the Russian people especially appreciated the military courage of the princes);
– religious (in the pagan era of Rus', Grand Duke was the organizer of sacrifices in favor of the pagan gods);
At first, the princely power was elective, but gradually began to gain hereditary status.
The Grand Duke was the main figure in the state; the appanage Russian princes were subordinate to him. The Grand Duke had the right to collect tribute from the princes subordinate to him.

The first prince of Ancient Rus'

Rurik is considered to be the first prince of Ancient Rus', who laid the foundation for the Rurik dynasty. By origin, Rurik was a Varangian, therefore, he could be a Norman or a Swede.
There is no information about the exact origin of the first Russian prince, just as there is little information about his activities. As the chronicles say, he became the sole ruler of Novgorod and Kyiv, then created a united Rus'.
Chronicles say that he had only one son, who was named Igor, who later became the Grand Duke. Rurik had several wives, but Igor himself was born to the Norwegian princess Efanda.

Russian princes of Ancient Rus'

Oleg

After the death of the first Russian prince Rurik, he began to rule close relative Oleg, called the Prophetic. Rurik's son, Igor, was not old enough to rule the state at the time of his father's death. Therefore, Oleg was the ruler and guardian of Igor until he came of age.
Chronicles say that Oleg was a brave warrior and took part in many campaigns. After the death of Rurik, he went to Kyiv, where the brothers Askold and Dir had already established their power. Oleg managed to kill both brothers and take the Kiev throne. At the same time, Oleg called Kyiv “the mother of Russian cities.” It was he who made Kyiv the capital of Ancient Rus'.
Oleg became famous for his successful campaigns against Byzantium, where he won rich booty. He plundered Byzantine cities, and also concluded a trade agreement with Byzantium that was beneficial for Kievan Rus.
Oleg's death is still a mystery to historians. Chronicles claim that the prince was bitten by a snake that crawled out of the skull of his horse. Although most likely this may be nothing more than a legend.

Igor

After Oleg’s sudden death, Rurik’s son, Igor, began to rule the country. Igor took as his wife the legendary Princess Olga, whom he brought from Pskov. She was twelve years younger than Igor when they got engaged. Igor was 25 years old and she was only 13.
Like Oleg, Igor was active foreign policy, it is aimed at conquering nearby lands. Already in 914, after two years of his establishment on the throne, Igor subjugated the Drevlyans and imposed tribute on them. In 920, he first attacked the Pecheneg tribes. The next thing mentioned in the chronicles was his campaign against Constantinople in 941-944, which was crowned with success.
After the campaign against Byzantium, in 945, Prince Igor was killed by the Drevlyans while collecting tribute.
After his death, his wife Princess Olga began to rule. Igor left behind his young son Svyatoslav.

Svyatoslav

Until Igor’s son Svyatoslav came of age, Kievan Rus was ruled by his mother, Princess Olga, who was the regent. Svyatoslav began to rule independently only in 964.
Svyatoslav, unlike his mother, remained a pagan and was against conversion to Christianity.
Svyatoslav became famous primarily as a successful commander. Having ascended the throne, the prince immediately set off on a campaign against Khazar Khaganate in 965. In the same year, he managed to completely conquer it and annex it to the territory of Ancient Rus'. He then defeated the Vyatichi and imposed tribute on them in 966.
The prince also waged an active struggle against the Bulgarian kingdom and Byzantium, where he was successful. After returning from the Byzantine campaign in 972, Prince Svyatoslav was ambushed by the Pechenegs on the rapids of the Dnieper. In this unequal battle he met his death.

Yaropolk

After the murder of Svyatoslav, his son Yaropolk began to rule. It should be said that Yaropolk ruled only in Kyiv, his brothers ruled Novgorod and the Drevlyans. Yaropolk began a war for power and defeated his brother Oleg in 977. The very next year he was killed by his brother Vladimir.
Yaropolk was not remembered as great commander, but had some success in politics. Thus, under him, negotiations were conducted with Emperor Otto II. Chronicles indicate that ambassadors from the Pope came to his court. Yaropolk was an obvious admirer christian church, however, he did not manage to make this religion state.

Ancient Rus': Prince Vladimir

Vladimir was the son of Svyatoslav and seized power in Rus' by killing his brother Yaropolk in 978, becoming the sole prince of Ancient Rus'.
Vladimir became famous primarily for making Rus' a Christian state in 988. However, Vladimir is also known as an excellent commander.
Already in 981-982. Vladimir went on a campaign against the Vyatichi, already subject to tribute, and seized their land, making it Russian. In 983, he opened the way to the Baltic for Rus', conquering the Yatvingian tribe. Later he managed to conquer the Radimichi and, for the first time, the White Croats, and he annexed their lands to Rus'.
In addition to military successes, Vladimir managed to conclude profitable agreements with many European states (Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Byzantium and the Papal States).
Under him, coinage began to be minted, which strengthened the Russian economy. These were the first coins issued on the territory of Kievan Rus. The reason for minting the coin was the desire to prove the sovereignty of the young Christian state. Economic reasons it wasn’t, Rus' got by just fine with Byzantine coins.
Prince Vladimir the Great died in 1015. After his death, the throne was seized by his son Svyatopolk, but he was soon overthrown by Yaroslav the Wise.

The question of who is the first prince of Ancient Rus' in history is still relevant. This is because historians have different attitudes to this topic. Some believe that the answers should be sought in the Tale of Bygone Years, which was written by a famous chronicler. Others say that the information described in this manuscript cannot be considered 100% reliable and needs to be double-checked and research should not be stopped. In this article we will present many various facts and assumptions about this issue.

Background

The first evidence about the country of the Rus appeared in the first third of the 9th century. For example, in the chronicles of 839 one can find information about the ambassadors of the Kagan of the people of Ros, who first arrived in Byzantium, the city of Constantinople, and from there went to the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. It was this year that the ethnonym “Rus” appeared for the first time in historical writings. However, in the Tale of Bygone Years the first campaign of the Russians to the shores of the Bosphorus is dated 866, which, according to some scientists, is an erroneous date.

Civil strife

There is information that already in 862, Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes began to wage internecine wars among themselves. It is written about this in the “Tale”: “Generation after generation rose.” However, none of them could prevail over the others. But ordinary people suffered, innocent women and children died, and, naturally, the question arose of how to stop this senseless war. And it was then that the Slovenes, or Slavs, thought that only a foreign ruler could resolve this issue. They gathered an embassy and sent it to the Varangians who lived on the banks Baltic Sea, which in those days was called Varyazhsky. They came to these lands and addressed the local princes with the following speech: “Our land is huge and abundant, but there is no order in it. We ask you to come to our land, establish order and rule over us.” Three of the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, who were called Russians, or Ros - took advantage of the invitation of the Slavic delegates and went to their land. Among them was the future first prince of Rus'. For about two years, the brothers tried to adapt to new conditions; they either had to fight, or be punished for disobedience, or sit at a friendly table and share bread. Rurik reigned in Novgorod, Sineus ruled Beloozero, and Truvor ruled in Izborsk. Some of the locals were happy about their arrival, while others were against it. Two years later, two of the brothers - Truvor and Sineus - died. Thus, the first Varangian prince in Rus' was Rurik. He began to reign alone over the entire vast land inhabited by Slavic tribes. And since he and his brothers were called Rus, the land soon began to be called Russia.

Khazars and Varangians - enemies and rescuers

According to another version, the call of the Varangians to the land of the Eastern Slavs was not due to civil strife, but to the onslaught of the Khazars. Their raids became unbearable for the local residents, and they decided to find their salvation among the Varangians. Rurik, the first prince in Rus', arrived with his brothers, beat the Khazars, and began to reign. The capital of the newly formed state was the city of Novgorod. There is also a version that these three brothers - younger sons noble family. According to European custom, only the eldest brother received the inheritance, and the rest were left with nothing. That is why Rurik and his brothers decided to take advantage of the invitation of the Slavs.

March on Constantinople

In the same year 862, the Varangians who came with their brothers were eager to move to Mediterranean Sea, they were joined by the warriors of Rurik, who is the first Varangian prince in Rus'. Among them were Dir, as well as his friend and comrade-in-arms Askold. They decided to head to Constantinople and establish a trade route from the “Varangians to the Greeks.” For this, the prince subjugated Kyiv. This is what it says in the Tale. But according to the Nikon and Novgorod Chronicles, Askold and Dir had nothing to do with Rurik. There is even a version that these two warriors are descendants of Kiy, the legendary prince Dnieper glades. He is also the founder of Kyiv.

Igor and Oleg

In Novgorod, Prince Rurik had a son, Igor. When he passed away in 879, his boy was still just a child, and therefore the reign was transferred to Oleg, who also became Igor’s regent. Some historians believe that this issue was not so simple, and power in Novgorod was usurped by Oleg. Even when Igor grew up, he did not want to hand over the reins of power to him. In a word, when the first prince in Rus' Rurik died, Oleg took his place.

Pseudo-roots of Rurik

Some scientists believe that the Varangians are German, Danish, Swedish, Finnish or even Norwegian tribes. And the author of “The Tale of Bygone Years” meant that Rurik and his people lived on lands located in the south of the Varangian, that is, the Baltic Sea, in an area that is located closer to Angeln and Holstein. On the modern map, these lands are located in the northern part of Germany. Is it possible to conclude from this that the first prince in Rus', Rurik, is of German origin? We think not, and the peoples who lived here are much closer to the Russians than to the Germans. By the way, among them there are such names as Russes, or Varins, etc. Some European researchers believe that Rurik may have Swedish roots. However, Russian scientists see behind this version political meaning and completely deny it. During the Livonian War between Sweden and Russia, Ivan the Terrible suggested that there was no blue blood flowing in the veins of the Swedish king Johan the Third, and he reminded the Russian Tsar that Rurik, the first Grand Duke of Rus', was a Varangian and had Swedish roots. But in the 1st half of the 18th century, St. Petersburg academicians with German roots spoke out for the version of the German origin of Rurik and his brothers. This theory began to be called Norman, but Lomonosov, having studied this question, came to the conclusion that it does not correspond to the truth and has no historical realities. And according to the “Tale” it is clearly visible that the Varangians and the Swedes, the Varangians and the Normans are different tribes.

Oleg - the first Russian prince in Rus'

In 882, well known to us from the poem Prophetic Oleg- the regent of Prince Igor, the son of Rurik, gathered a squad and headed from Novgorod to the south. Along the way, he captured Lyubech and Smolensk and established his power in these cities. Oleg's squad consisted of Varangians and the Chud, Meri, Slovenian and Krivichi tribes. They headed towards Kyiv and captured it, killing Rurik's former warriors - Askold and Dir, who ruled this city. After this, Kyiv was declared the capital of Olegov’s state, and the tribes subject to the Novgorod land had to pay tribute to him. Oleg began building fortresses around his capital. There is a chronicler's testimony about this event, according to which Oleg, the first prince of Kievan Rus, spread his power through force and weapons in the lands of the northerners and Drevlyans, and the Radimichi tribe accepted his conditions without a fight, preferring to pay tribute to Oleg rather than to the Khazars. And they, in turn, began an economic blockade against them, blocking the path of Russian merchants through their lands.

March on Byzantium

At the beginning of the 10th century, Russian squads led by Prince Oleg made a victorious campaign against Byzantium. As a result of this, written agreements were concluded on preferential terms of trade for merchants from Kievan Rus. Historians believe that the success of Oleg’s army can be explained by the fact that he managed to rally the forces of all the tribes inhabiting the young Old Russian state, thereby strengthening its statehood. Oleg, who had the title of Grand Duke, ruled Russia for more than 30 years. After him, Rurik’s son, Prince Igor, ascended the throne. This happened in 912 (the year of Oleg's death). Historians argue which of them - Oleg or Igor - was the first Grand Duke of All Rus'. The first can be called such by merit, and the second by origin, since he is the son of the founder of the Russian state.

Prince Igor

Rurik's son, after heading the state, made 2 military campaigns against Byzantium. Initially, he launched a military campaign against Khazaria, where Byzantium involved him. However, he was defeated there, after which Igor’s army turned its arms against Byzantium. However, the Bulgarians managed to warn their Greek allies that the ten thousandth army of Prince Igor was approaching Constantinople. Nevertheless, the Russian fleet managed to plunder Bithynia, Heraclea, Paphlagonia, Nicomedia and Pontus, but was defeated. After this, the Grand Duke, abandoning those who survived in Thrace, fled to his capital with his entourage on several boats. Later, news reached him that the soldiers he had left in Thrace were taken to Constantinople and executed. From Kyiv, he sent an invitation to his allies, the Varangians, to join him and make a new campaign against Byzantium, which he carried out in 944. Igor’s army included the Polyans, Krivichi, Slovenes, Tivertsy, Varangians and Pechenegs. They reached the Danube, and from here Igor sent envoys to Constantinople, who managed to conclude a treaty on duty-free trade. Rus' pledged to defend Byzantium's possessions in Crimea. In 943-944. The army of the Grand Duke made a campaign against Berdaa, and a year later Igor was killed by the Drevlyans, although there is a version that he was killed by his own governor Sveneld due to disagreements in the division of tribute.

Olga

The widow of Igor and the mother of the future Grand Duke Svyatoslav, after the death of her husband, took the reins of government into her own hands, and then the prince of the Drevlians Mal sent matchmakers to her. Olga considered this an insult and ordered the ambassadors to be executed. However, this did not seem enough to her, and she, having gathered an army, in 946 besieged the Drevlyan fortress Iskorosten, which was eventually burned, and the Drevlyans were conquered by the Kievans. Olga imposed a terrible tribute on them. This was her revenge. She did not forgive them for the fact that her husband, the first Prince of All Rus', died at their hands. In 947, Olga went to Novgorod, where she introduced a system of tributes and quitrents, according to which local residents themselves had to take them and give them to tiuns (tax inspectors). It was thanks to her that from then on the policy of the first princes of Rus' was peaceful towards Byzantium. Olga was the first of the rulers of the Old Russian state to officially accept Christianity of the Byzantine rite in 957. He went to Constantinople. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus called Olga the Archon of Rus'. The purpose of her trip was to achieve the baptism and recognition of Rus' by Byzantium as an equal Christian empire. After baptism she was given christian name Elena. Nevertheless, historians claim that she then failed to agree on an alliance, and then she sent ambassadors to Emperor Otto I in Germany with a request to establish a church in Rus'. After this, Constantinople made concessions, and the German embassy had to return. After that Russian army, sent by Olga-Elena, supported the Greeks in the war with the Arabs in Crete. Olga died in 969.

Princes of all Rus'

This was the name of the Russian rulers who had a claim to supreme power over all Russian lands, and the Kyiv princes were called by this title. However, at some period of time Kyiv was in decline, and then Vladimir became the main political and church center of Rus'. After this, the princes of Vladimir were called the princes of “all Rus'”. In the Moscow period, this title did not imply power over everyone former lands The Old Russian state, but only an elevation above other princes.

First Moscow Prince of All Rus'

Daniil Alexandrovich is the ancestor of the Moscow princes belonging to the Rurik dynasty. He is the son of Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky. Daniil Alexandrovich inherited the princely title from his father back in early childhood. He ruled Muscovite Russia from 1263 to 1303. However, while he was too young to rule the state, his uncle Yaroslav Yaroslavovich did it for him. He also raised little Danila after the death of his heroic father. From the age of 15 he began to actively act within his principality. He was called a builder, and the fortifications he built greatly helped in the defense of Moscow.

Victory over the Golden Horde

Having matured a little, he began to pursue his own policy, the main focus of which was to expand the possessions of the principality. He actively took part in princely feuds, with his brothers Andrei and Dmitry for reigning over the Great Vladimir, and for Novgorod. In 1285, he, united with his uncle, defeated the Horde army, and this battle went down in history as the first victory of the Russian army over the Golden Horde. After 15 years, he managed to unite Kolomna, Lopasnya and other lands along the Moscow River to the Moscow principality, and when confronted with the Ryazan prince Konstantin Romanovich, he took him prisoner. But Pereslavl-Zalessky was bequeathed to him by the prince of those lands. The first prince of all Rus', Danila, son of the legendary Alexander Nevsky, died in 1303.

Where did the nicknames of Russian princes come from?

The names of the legendary Russian princes are still heard today, many hundreds of years later. Sometimes they surprise you with bizarre nicknames - for example, Svyatopolk the Accursed or Ivan Kalita. Why Damned? Why Kalita?

But because... In general, let's start in order, with the Prophetic Oleg.
Prince Oleg the Prophet (882 - 912),
Grand Duke of Kyiv

Contrary to the existing stereotype, the word “prophetic” here does not mean “predicting the future,” but rather “prudent, prudent.” We just need to discard the meaning of this word that is familiar to us and take into account the realities of a thousand years ago. Then a rather logical picture, devoid of mysticism, emerges.

Oleg is often called the founder of the Old Russian state. He annexed vast lands to Rus', conquered and subjugated many Eastern European tribes, united the northern and southern centers of the Eastern Slavs, moving the capital to Kyiv, was successful in military campaigns - all this aroused the admiration of his contemporaries.

The nickname given to Oleg fully reflects the attitude of the people towards their ruler as a sensible, far-sighted person.

Prince Vladimir the Baptist (980 – 1015)
He is Vladimir the Great, Vladimir the Holy, Vladimir the Red Sun. Grand Duke of Kyiv.

The chronicles claim that before the adoption of the Christian faith, “Vladimir was overcome by lust, and he had wives: Olova, Yulia, Rogneda, Adelya and Malfrida, from whom he had 13 sons and at least 10 daughters<…>, and he had 300 concubines in Vyshgorod, 300 in Belgorod and 200 in Berestov,<…>. And he was insatiable in fornication, bringing married women to him and corrupting girls.”

But Vladimir’s desire to unite the rapidly developing state with the help of a single religion with one God, strengthen political ties with Byzantium and increase the status of Rus' in the international arena prompted the prince to accept the Christian faith and baptize Rus' according to the Byzantine rite.

The significance of this event is truly great; with the advent of Christianity in Rus', the literacy of the population began to increase rapidly, churches and monasteries became centers of cultural and moral development, strongholds of book and chronicle writing.

After baptism, the prince freed all his concubines, renounced his pagan wives and began to lead a worthy Christian life. righteous life married to the Byzantine princess Anna.

The attitude of his contemporaries towards Prince Vladimir is well reflected by the words from the Tale of Bygone Years: “It is worthy of surprise how much good he did for the Russian land by baptizing it.<…>May the Lord crown him together with the righteous, reward him with the delight of heavenly food and rejoice with Abraham and other patriarchs<…>. Russian people honor his memory by remembering his holy baptism.”

Prince Svyatopolk the Accursed (1015 – 1019)
Grand Duke of Kyiv

In the Tale of Bygone Years, Svyatopolk is called the Accursed, that is, similar to Cain. The reason for such a terrible nickname was the murder of the brothers Boris and Gleb, who were later canonized and became symbols of righteousness and martyrdom for the Russian people.

Prince Svyatopolk once again justified his nickname in 1015 by sending assassins to his brother Svyatoslav, who ruled the Drevlyansky lands.

When Yaroslav the Wise led his army to Kyiv, Prince Svyatopolk opposed him with his squad and hired Pechenegs.

This is considered the first time when, in an internecine struggle, one of the Russian princes resorted to the help of the steppe inhabitants, but in the end Svyatopolk lost the battle and was forced to flee.

The reign of Svyatopolk the Accursed lasted relatively short from 1015 to 1019; in 1019 he was overthrown by Yaroslav the Wise and did not have time to become famous as a worthy ruler or governor.

However, contrary to custom, with the death of Svyatopolk the Accursed, the “bad” name “Svyatopolk” did not leave the list of family princely names until the middle of the 12th century. Some researchers consider this to be indirect evidence of Svyatopolk’s innocence in the murder of his brothers.

There is a version that in fact Yaroslav the Wise is to blame for the death of Boris, who sent Varangian killers to him.

And indeed, the chronicles tell us that of all Svyatopolk’s brothers, the legitimate prince of Kyiv He was recognized only by two brothers - Boris and Gleb, they did not offer any resistance and accepted death in prayers. Thus, the murder of allies by Svyatopolk seems completely illogical.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054)
Grand Duke of Kyiv

With the reign of Prince Yaroslav the Wise, Rus' achieved success in all areas of life. Yaroslav's desire to establish Rus' as a cohesive centralized state, his desire to establish order and legality in the Russian lands prompted the prince to strengthen the system of government of the country.

During his reign, the first written set of laws was created and put into effect - Russian Truth. With the adoption of the Russian Truth, the widespread blood feud was almost completely replaced by a vira (fine), the size of which depended on the position in society of the murdered person.

Prince Yaroslav the Wise showed himself and how outstanding commander, under which the power of Rus' increased many times, and the borders of the state expanded.

Prince Mstislav the Great (1125 – 1132)
Grand Duke of Kyiv

Having ascended the Kiev throne after the death of his father, Prince Mstislav violated what had already been accepted by Yaroslav Rule to the wise inheritance of power by elders in the family.

This caused discontent among many princes, but no one dared to oppose Mstislav, who enjoyed the strong support of the Kyiv elite. In his quest to secure the borders of the Russian state, Prince Mstislav found the glory of a great and talented commander.

Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174)
Grand Duke Vladimir

Although Andrei Bogolyubsky is responsible for the construction of churches in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality subordinate to him, it was not a reverent attitude towards religion that caused the appearance of such a characteristic nickname at first glance.

Due to his character, not wanting to live in the ancient centers of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Andrei Bogolyubsky built himself a new residence - a white-stone palace near the village of Bogolyubovo, for which he received the nickname.

Continuing the policy of his father, Prince Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky did not recognize the power of the Kyiv Grand Duke.

In 1169, he launched a campaign against Kyiv, as a result of which (for the first time in the history of its existence) the city was taken by storm.

What is most noteworthy is that success in such an enterprise was achieved not by the numerous enemies of the Old Russian state - the Polovtsians, Pechenegs, Poles, but by the Russians themselves.

The name of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky is well known to fans medieval weapons, thanks to an intricately patterned battle axe.

Prince Alexander Nevsky (1249-1263)
Prince of Novgorod, Grand Duke of Kiev, Grand Duke of Vladimir.

Alexander Nevsky, the grandson of Mstislav the Daring, a brave and decisive commander, found worldwide fame on the battlefield.

He received the nickname “Nevsky” in 1240 in a significant battle with Swedish knights on the banks of the Neva. While still a very young prince, Alexander managed to win a brilliant victory over the enemy and defend the original Russian lands.

Prince Ivan Kalita (1325 – 1340)
Grand Duke of Moscow

Kalita - ancient Russian word, denoting a small purse or bag for money. There are two versions of the origin of Prince Ivan’s nickname.

According to one of them, he was a generous man, sympathetic to the life and fate of the poor, who always willingly gave alms to the suffering and thereby earned good fame among the people.

According to another, Prince Ivan Kalita accumulated untold wealth and willingly bought and exchanged lands in various principalities, including the Novgorod lands, where this was prohibited by law. It is quite possible that both of these versions are true.
Prince Ivan II the Red (1353 – 1359)

He is Ivan the Meek, Ivan the Gracious, Grand Duke of Moscow.
Prince Ivan Kalita is his father.

One of the famous nicknames of Ivan II is Red, at that time this word was understood to mean beautiful. In other words, this may indicate the extraordinary appearance of Prince Ivan.

However, many researchers believe that in reality the nickname was longer.

In their opinion, the prince was originally nicknamed after the time of his birth “Red Hill” - that was the name of the Sunday following Easter.

But over time, part of the nickname was discarded, and in his years John II remained a man of unprecedented beauty.

In addition, in many sources John II is called “Merciful” and “Meek,” which sheds light on the character and moral qualities of the prince.

Here is a living example of how briefly and succinctly - in just a few words - the personality of a ruler can be characterized.

Military-historical tin miniatures were used in the design of the article. Sculptors - Viktor Grachev and Talent Soodanbegov, artists - Evgenia Filimonova, Yulia Moshura, Svetlana Novikova, Lyubov Kalagina. Illustrations taken from the website of the Russian Knight company.

Reign of Oleg (reign: 882 -912). The formation of a single East Slavic state of Rus' is associated with the name of the Novgorod prince Oleg, a relative of the semi-legendary Rurik. In 882, he made a campaign into the lands of the Krivichi and captured Smolensk, then took Lyubech and Kyiv, which he made the capital of his state. Later he annexed the lands of the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats and Tivertsi. He imposed tribute on the conquered tribes. Successfully fought with the Khazars. In 907, he besieged the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, and imposed an indemnity on the empire. In 911, Oleg concluded a profitable trade agreement with Byzantium. Thus, under Oleg, the territory of the early Russian state begins to form through the forcible annexation of tribal Slavic unions to Kyiv.

Reign of Igor (912-945). After the death of Oleg (according to legend, he died from a snake bite), Igor became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, ruling until 945. Prince Igor is considered the actual founder of the Rurik dynasty. Igor continued the activities of his predecessor. Oleg, subjugated the East Slavic tribal associations between the Dniester and the Danube. In 941 he made an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople. The campaign of 944 was marked by success, Byzantium offered Igor a ransom, and an agreement was concluded between the Greeks and Russians. Igor was the first of the Russians to conclude an agreement between the Greeks and Russians. Igor was the first of the Russian princes to clash with the Pechenegs. He was killed by the Drevlyans while trying to collect tribute from them a second time.

Reign of Olga (945 – 964). After Igor's murder, his widow, Princess Olga, brutally suppressed the Drevlyan uprising. Then she undertook a tour of some lands, establishing a fixed amount of duties for the Drevlyans and Novgorodians, organizing special administrative centers for collecting tribute - camps and graveyards . Thus, a new form of receiving tribute was established - the so-called "cart" . By a certain date, tribute was delivered to camps or graveyards, and the peasant agricultural holding was defined as the unit of taxation (tribute from Rala) or a house with a hearth (tribute from smoke).

Olga significantly expanded the land holdings of the Kyiv Grand Duke's House. She visited Constantinople, where she converted to Christianity. Olga ruled during the childhood of her son Svyatoslav Igorevich and later, during his campaigns.

Princess Olga's campaign against the Drevlyans and Novgorodians meant the beginning of the elimination of the autonomy of the unions of Slavic tribes that were part of the Russian early feudal state. This led to the merger of the military nobility of the tribal unions with the military nobility of the Kyiv prince. This is how the formation of the unification of the ancient Russian service army, headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, took place. Gradually he becomes the supreme owner of all lands of the Russian state.

Reign of Svyatoslav (964 – 972). In 964, Svyatoslav Igorevich, who had reached adulthood, took over the rule of Russia. Under him, until 969, the Kyiv state was largely ruled by his mother, Princess Olga, since Svyatoslav Igorevich spent almost his entire life on campaigns. Svyatoslav, first of all, was a warrior prince who sought to bring Rus' closer to the largest powers of the then world. Under him, the hundred-year period of distant campaigns of the princely squad, which enriched it, ended.

Svyatoslav dramatically changes state policy and begins systematically strengthening the borders of Rus'. In 964-966. Svyatoslav liberated the Vyatichi from the power of the Khazars and subjugated them to Kyiv. In the 60s of the 10th century. defeated the Khazar Kaganate and took the capital of the Kaganate, the city of Itil, fought with the Volga-Kama Bulgarians. In 967, using the proposal of Byzantium, which sought to weaken its neighbors, Rus' and Bulgaria, by pitting them against each other, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria and settled at the mouth of the Danube, in Peryaslavets. Around 971, in alliance with the Bulgarians and Hungarians, he began to fight with Byzantium, but unsuccessfully. The prince was forced to make peace with the Byzantine emperor. On the way back to Kyiv, Svyatoslav Igorevich died at the Dnieper rapids in a battle with the Pechenegs, who had been warned by the Byzantines about his return. The reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich was a time of widespread entry of the ancient Russian state into the international arena, a period of significant expansion of its territory.

ReignVladimirI. (980 – 1015). The formation of the Old Russian state as a political and cultural center was completed under Vladimir I. The son of Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, Vladimir, with the help of his uncle Dobrynya, became a prince in Novgorod in 969. After the death of his father in 977, he took part in the strife and defeated his older brother Yaropolk. By campaigning against the Vyatichi, Lithuanians, Radimichi, and Bulgarians, Vladimir strengthened the possessions of Kievan Rus. To organize defense against the Pechenegs, Vladimir built several defensive lines with a system of fortresses. This was the first serif line in the history of Rus'. To protect the south of Rus', Vladimir managed to attract tribes from its northern part. The successful fight against the Pechenegs led to the idealization of the personality and reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. IN folk legends he received the name Vladimir Red Sun.

La Nina - « baby, girl»).

The characteristic oscillation time is from 3 to 8 years, but the strength and duration of El Niño in reality varies greatly. Thus, in 1790-1793, 1828, 1876-1878, 1891, 1925-1926, 1982-1983 and 1997-1998, powerful phases of El Niño were recorded, while, for example, in 1991-1992, 1993, 1994 this phenomenon , often repeating, was weakly expressed. The 1997-1998 El Niño was so strong that it attracted the attention of the world public and the press. At the same time, theories about the connection between the Southern Oscillation and global changes climate. Since the early 1980s, El Niño also occurred in 1986-1987 and 2002-2003.

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✪ El Niño and La Niña (narrated by oceanographer Vladimir Zhmur)

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Description

Normal conditions along the western coast of Peru are determined by the cold Peruvian Current, carrying water from the south. Where the current turns to the west, along the equator, cold and nutrient-rich waters rise from deep depressions, which contributes to active development plankton and other life forms in the ocean. The cold current itself determines the aridity of the climate in this part of Peru, forming deserts. Trade winds drive the heated surface layer of water into western zone tropical part Pacific Ocean, where the so-called tropical warm pool (TTB) is formed. In it, the water is heated to depths of 100-200 m. The atmospheric Walker circulation, manifested as trade winds, coupled with low blood pressure over the Indonesia region, leads to the fact that in this place the level of the Pacific Ocean is 60 cm higher than in its eastern part. And the water temperature here reaches 29-30 °C versus 22-24 °C off the coast of Peru.

However, everything changes with the onset of El Niño. The trade winds are weakening, the TTB is spreading, and water temperatures are rising across a vast area of the Pacific Ocean. In the region of Peru, the cold current is replaced by a warm current moving from the west to the coast of Peru. water mass, upwelling weakens, fish die without food, and westerly winds bring humid air masses and downpours to the deserts, even causing floods. The onset of El Niño reduces the activity of Atlantic tropical cyclones.

History of discovery

The first mention of the term "El Niño" dates back to 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrilo reported at a congress Geographical Society in Lima, that Peruvian sailors called the warm northerly current "El Niño" since it is most noticeable on days Catholic Christmas (El Niño called the Christ Child). In 1893, Charles Todd suggested that droughts in India and Australia were occurring at the same time. Norman Lockyer pointed out the same thing in 1904. The connection between the warm northerly current off the coast of Peru and floods in that country was reported in 1895 by Peset and Eguiguren. The Southern Oscillation was first described in 1923 by Gilbert Thomas Walker. He introduced the terms “Southern Oscillation”, “El Niño” and “La Niña”, and examined the zonal convection circulation in the atmosphere in the equatorial zone of the Pacific Ocean, which now received his name. For a long time Almost no attention was paid to the phenomenon, considering it regional. Only towards the end of the 20th century did the connections between El Niño and the planet’s climate become clear.

Quantitative description

Currently, for a quantitative description of the phenomena, El Niño and La Niña are defined as temperature anomalies of the surface layer of the equatorial part of the Pacific Ocean lasting at least 5 months, expressed in a deviation of water temperature by 0.5 °C higher (El Niño) or lower (La Niña) side.

First signs of El Niño:

Increase in air pressure over the Indian Ocean, Indonesia and Australia.
A drop in pressure over Tahiti, over the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.
Weakening of the trade winds in the South Pacific until they cease and the wind direction changes to the westerly.
Warm air mass in Peru, rain in the Peruvian deserts.

In itself, an increase in water temperature off the coast of Peru by 0.5 °C is considered only a condition for the occurrence of El Niño. Typically, such an anomaly can exist for several weeks and then disappear safely. And only a five-month anomaly classified as El Niño phenomenon, can cause significant damage to the region’s economy due to a drop in fish catches.

The Southern Oscillation Index is also used to describe El Niño. It is calculated as the difference in pressure over Tahiti and over Darwin (Australia). Negative index values indicate the El Niño phase, and positive values indicate the La Niña phase.

Early stages and characteristics

The Pacific Ocean is a huge heat-cooling system that determines the movement of systems air masses. Changing Pacific Ocean temperatures affect weather on a global scale. Rain fronts are moving from the western ocean towards the Americas, while drier weather sets in in Indonesia and India.

While not a direct cause of El Niño, the Madden-Julian Oscillation moves an area of excess precipitation west to east along the tropical belt with a period of 30-60 days, which can influence the rate of development and intensity of El Niño and La Niña in several ways. . For example, air flows from the west, passing between areas of low atmospheric pressure formed by the Madden-Julian oscillation, can trigger the formation of cyclonic circulations north and south of the equator. As these cyclones intensify, westerly winds within the equatorial Pacific also intensify and shift eastward, thus becoming integral part in the development of El Niño. The Madden-Julian oscillation may also be a source of propagating east direction Kelvin waves Kelvin wave), which in turn are strengthened by El Niño, leading to a mutually reinforcing effect.

Southern Oscillation

The Southern Oscillation is an atmospheric component of El Niño and represents fluctuations in air pressure in the surface layer of the atmosphere between the waters of the east and western parts Pacific Ocean. The magnitude of the oscillation is measured using the Southern Oscillation Index. Southern Oscillation Index, SOI). The index is calculated based on the difference in surface air pressure over Tahiti and over Darwin (Australia). El Niño occurred when the index took negative values, which meant a minimal difference in pressure between Tahiti and Darwin.

Low atmospheric pressure usually formed over warm waters, and high - over cold ones, partly due to the fact that intense convection occurs over warm waters. El Niño is associated with prolonged warm periods in central and eastern regions tropical Pacific. This is causing the Pacific trade winds to weaken and rainfall levels to fall over eastern and northern Australia.

Atmospheric Walker circulation

During the period when conditions do not correspond to the formation of El Niño, the Walker circulation is diagnosed near the surface of the earth in the form of easterly trade winds, which move masses of water and air, heated by the sun, to the west. It also promotes upwelling along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador, bringing rich nutrients water close to the surface, increasing the concentration of fish. In the western part of the Pacific Ocean during these periods there is warm, humid weather with low pressure, excess moisture accumulates in typhoons and thunderstorms. As a result of these movements, the sea level in the western part at this time is 60 cm higher.

Impact on the climate of different regions

In South America El Niño effect most pronounced. This phenomenon usually causes warm and very humid summer periods(December to February) on the northern coast of Peru and Ecuador. When El Niño is strong, it causes severe flooding. These, for example, happened in January 2011. Southern Brazil and northern Argentina also experience wetter than normal periods, but mainly in the spring and early summer. Central Chile experiences mild winters with a large number rains, and Peru and Bolivia sometimes experience winter snowfalls that are unusual for the region. Drier and warmer weather is observed in the Amazon Basin, Colombia and Central America. Humidity is falling in Indonesia, increasing the likelihood of forest fires. This also applies to the Philippines and northern Australia. From June to August, dry weather occurs in Queensland, Victoria, New South Wales and eastern Tasmania. In Antarctica, the western Antarctic Peninsula, Ross Land, Bellingshausen and Amundsen seas are covered with large amounts of snow and ice. At the same time, the pressure increases and becomes warmer. IN North America Winters are generally getting warmer in the Midwest and Canada. Central and southern California, northwestern Mexico, and the southeastern United States become wetter, while the northwestern Pacific United States becomes drier. During La Niña, on the other hand, the Midwest becomes drier. El Niño also leads to a decrease in Atlantic hurricane activity. East Africa, including Kenya, Tanzania and the White Nile Basin, experiences long rainy seasons from March to May. Droughts plague southern and central Africa from December to February, mainly Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Botswana.

An El Niño-like effect is sometimes observed in the Atlantic Ocean, where the water along the equatorial coast of Africa becomes warmer and the water off the coast of Brazil becomes colder. Moreover, there is a connection between this circulation and El Niño.

Impact on health and society

El Niño causes extreme weather conditions associated with epidemic disease frequency cycles. El Niño is associated with an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases: malaria, dengue fever and Rift Valley fever. Malaria cycles are associated with El Niño in India, Venezuela and Colombia. There is an association with outbreaks of Australian encephalitis (Murray Valley Encephalitis - MVE) occurring in south-eastern Australia following heavy rains and floods caused by La Niña. A notable example is the severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever that occurred due to El Niño following extreme rainfall events in northeastern Kenya and southern Somalia in 1997–98.

It is also believed that El Niño may be associated with the cyclical nature of wars and the emergence of civil conflicts in countries whose climate is influenced by El Niño. A study of data from 1950 to 2004 found that El Niño was associated with 21% of all civil conflicts during that period. Moreover, the risk of civil war during El Niño years is twice as high as during La Niña years. It is likely that the connection between climate and military action is mediated by crop failures, which often occur in hot years.

Recent cases

El Niño was observed from September 2006 to early 2007. As a result, the drought of 2007 caused a spike in prices for food products and related civil unrest in Egypt, Cameroon and Haiti.

In June 2014, the UK Met Office reported a high probability of El Niño developing in 2014, however, its forecast did not come true. In the fall of 2015, the World Meteorological Organization reported that the emerging ahead of schedule and dubbed "Bruce Lee", El Niño could be one of the most powerful since 1950. Rain and floods accompanied the Christmas holidays in the USA (along the Mississippi River), in South America (along La Plata) and even in North-West England. In 2016, the influence of El Niño continued.

Notes

Scientific Network. El Niño phenomenon
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