When did the state appear in Rus'? The emergence of ancient Rus'

According to the widespread version, the foundations of the state in Rus' were laid by the Varangian squad of Rurik, called by the Slavic tribes to reign. However, the Norman theory has always had many opponents.

Background

It is believed that the Norman theory was formulated in the 18th century by a German scientist at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Gottlieb Bayer. However, a century earlier it was first voiced by the Swedish historian Peter Petrei. Subsequently, many major Russian historians adhered to this theory, starting with Nikolai Karamzin.

The Norman theory was most convincingly and fully outlined by the Danish linguist and historian Wilhelm Thomsen in his work “The Beginning of the Russian State” (1891), after which the Scandinavian origins of Russian statehood were considered virtually proven.

In the first years of Soviet power, the Norman theory took hold in the wake of the growth of ideas of internationalism, but the war with Nazi Germany turned the vector of the theory of the origin of the Russian state from Normanism to the Slavic concept.

Today, the moderate Norman theory prevails, to which Soviet historiography returned in the 1960s. It recognizes the limited influence of the Varangian dynasty on the emergence of the Old Russian state and focuses on the role of the peoples living southeast of the Baltic Sea.

Two ethnonyms

The key terms used by the “Normanists” are “Varangians” and “Rus”. They are found in many chronicle sources, including in the Tale of Bygone Years:

“And they said to themselves [the Chud, Slovenes and Krivichi]: “Let’s look for a prince who would rule over us and judge us by right.” And they went overseas to the Varangians, to Rus'.”

The word “Rus” for supporters of the Norman version is etymologically related to the Finnish term “ruotsi”, which traditionally denoted the Scandinavians. Thus, linguist Georgy Khaburgaev writes that from “Ruotsi” the name “Rus” can be formed purely philologically.

Norman philologists do not ignore other similar-sounding Scandinavian words - “Rhodes” (Swedish “rowers”) and “Roslagen” (the name of a Swedish province). In the Slavic vowel, in their opinion, “Rhodes” could well turn into “Russians”.

However, there are other opinions. For example, the historian Georgy Vernadsky disputed the Scandinavian etymology of the word "Rus", insisting that it comes from the word "Rukhs" - the name of one of the Sarmatian-Alan tribes, which is known as "Roksolans".

“Varyags” (other scan. “Væringjar”) “Normanists” also identified with the Scandinavian peoples, focusing either on the social or on the professional status of this word. According to Byzantine sources, the Varangians are, first of all, mercenary warriors without an exact localization of place of residence and specific ethnicity.

Sigismund Herberstein in “Notes on Muscovy” (1549) was one of the first to draw a parallel between the word “Varangian” and the name of the tribe of Baltic Slavs - “Vargs”, which, in his opinion, had a common language, customs and faith with the Russians. Mikhail Lomonosov argued that the Varangians “were from different tribes and languages.”

Chronicle evidence

One of the main sources that brought to us the idea of ​​“calling the Varangians to reign” is “The Tale of Bygone Years.” But not all researchers are inclined to unconditionally trust the events described in it.

Thus, the historian Dmitry Ilovaisky established that the Legend of the Calling of the Varangians was a later insertion into the Tale.

Moreover, being a collection of different chronicles, “The Tale of Bygone Years” offers us three different references to the Varangians, and two versions of the origin of Rus'.

In the “Novgorod Chronicle,” which absorbed the “Initial Code” that preceded the Tale from the end of the 11th century, there is no longer a comparison of the Varangians with the Scandinavians. The chronicler points to Rurik’s participation in the founding of Novgorod, and then explains that “the essence of the people of Novgorod is from the Varangian family.”

In the “Joachim Chronicle” compiled by Vasily Tatishchev, new information appears, in particular, about the origin of Rurik. In it, the founder of the Russian state turned out to be the son of an unnamed Varangian prince and Umila, the daughter of the Slavic elder Gostomysl.

Linguistic evidence

It has now been precisely established that a number of words in the Old Russian language are of Scandinavian origin. These are both terms of trade and maritime vocabulary, and words found in everyday life - anchor, banner, whip, pud, yabednik, Varangian, tiun (princely steward). A number of names also passed from Old Scandinavian to Russian - Gleb, Olga, Rogneda, Igor.

An important argument in defense of the Norman theory is the work of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus “On the Administration of the Empire” (949), which gives the names of the Dnieper rapids in Slavic and “Russian” languages.

Each “Russian” name has a Scandinavian etymology: for example, “Varuforos” (“Big Pool”) clearly echoes the Old Icelandic “Barufors”.

Opponents of the Norman theory, although they agree with the presence of Scandinavian words in the Russian language, note their insignificant number.

Archaeological evidence

Numerous archaeological excavations carried out in Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdovo, at the Rurik settlement, as well as in other places in the north-east of Russia, indicate traces of the presence of the Scandinavians there.

In 2008, at the Zemlyanoy settlement of Staraya Ladoga, archaeologists discovered objects with the image of a falling falcon, which later became the coat of arms of the Rurikovichs.

Interestingly, a similar image of a falcon was minted on coins of the Danish king Anlaf Guthfritsson, dating back to the middle of the 10th century.

It is known that in 992, the Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan described in detail the burial ceremony of a noble Rus with the burning of a boat and the construction of a mound. Russian archaeologists discovered graves of this type near Ladoga and in Gnezdovo. It is assumed that this method of burial was adopted from immigrants from Sweden and spread right up to the territories of the future Kievan Rus.

However, historian Artemy Artsikhovsky noted that, despite the Scandinavian objects in funerary monuments North-Eastern Rus', burials were carried out not according to Scandinavian, but according to local rites.

Alternative view

Following the Norman theory, Vasily Tatishchev and Mikhail Lomonosov formulated another theory - about the Slavic origin of Russian statehood. In particular, Lomonosov believed that the state on the territory of Rus' existed long before the calling of the Varangians - in the form of tribal unions of the northern and southern Slavs.

Scientists build their hypothesis on another fragment of “The Tale of Bygone Years”: “after all, they were called Russia from the Varangians, and before there were Slavs; although they were called polyans, the speech was Slavic.” The Arab geographer Ibn Khordadbeh wrote about this, noting that the Rus are a Slavic people.

The Slavic theory was developed by historians XIX century Stepan Gedeonov and Dmitry Ilovaisky.

The first ranked the Russians among the Baltic Slavs - the Obodrites, and the second emphasized their southern origin, starting from the ethnonym “Rusy”.

In 2007, Newsweek published the results of studies of the genome of living representatives of the Rurikovich house. It was noted that the results of DNA analyzes of Shakhovsky, Gagarin and Lobanov-Rostovsky (the Monomashich family) rather indicate the Scandinavian origin of the dynasty. Boris Malyarchuk, head of the genetics laboratory at the Institute of Biological Problems of the North, notes that such a haplotype is often present in Norway, Sweden and Finland.

Anatoly Klyosov, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at Moscow and Harvard universities, disagrees with such conclusions, noting that “there are no Swedish haplotypes.” He defines his belonging to the Rurikovichs by two haplogroups - R1a and N1c1. The common ancestor of the carriers of these haplogroups, according to Klenov’s research, could indeed have lived in the 9th century, but its Scandinavian origin is questioned.

“The Rurikovichs are either carriers of haplogroup R1a, Slavs, or carriers of the South Baltic, Slavic branch of haplogroup N1c1,” the scientist concludes.

A professor at the institute is trying to reconcile two polar opinions World history RAS Elena Melnikova, arguing that even before the arrival of Rurik, the Scandinavians were well integrated into the Slavic community. According to the scientist, the situation can be clarified by analyzing DNA samples from Scandinavian burials, of which there are many in northern Russia.

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The purpose of the lesson:

consider the process of formation of the Old Russian state,

to form in students an idea of ​​the prerequisites and stages of the creation and formation of the Old Russian state, to acquaint them with the reasons and significance of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'.

Equipment: manual “History of Russia in portraits and illustrations from the 9th century to the 30s.” XII century” is presented on each desk, textbook by A.A. Vakhrushev, D.D. Danilov “The world around us” 3rd grade. (“My Fatherland”) interactive board, presentation.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment: Getting students in the mood for work.

The bell rang and we started the lesson. Let's try to make sure that we feel comfortable with our communication, pleased with our knowledge, and surprised with our efforts.

Slide 2 – Lesson plan

1. Updating knowledge.

Slide number 3 – “The Slavs came and sat along the Dnieper”

Questions for the class

What topic did we study in the last lesson?

What new have we learned from this topic?

Now we know that our ancestors were the Eastern Slavs.

We look at the map of the settlement of Slavic tribes.

Students answer the following questions (ability to extract information from a historical map):

Show on the map the places of settlement of the Drevlyans, Polyans, Dregovichs, Krivichis and Radimichis, and explain why these tribes were called that way.

The chronicle records: “The Slavs came and sat along the Dnieper.”

How do you understand this statement of the chronicler? (Children's answer is based on knowledge about natural areas, geographical position and the meaning of the river from the course “The World Around us” for grade 2)

Do you think there was a trade route along the Dnieper before the arrival of the Slavs?

(Long before the arrival of the Slavs, trade communications between the Varangians and the Greeks already passed along the Dnieper)

Do you think the Slavs got involved in this trade or remained indifferent?

The route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” is a trade route from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.

Let's look at the “path from the Varangians to the Greeks.”

Together with the children we find the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. (we show the path on the map on the interactive board)

We find the Varangian Sea (Baltic) and begin the journey on the Varangian boat.

Slide No. 5 – Traveling on the map

We trace: Which rivers, lakes and seas does the water trade route pass through?

Why did you have to swim upstream? (Work according to the map)

Student answer: the Volkhov River flows into Lake Ladoga, the Lovat River flows into Lake Ilmen

What city - the tribal center of the Ilmen Slavs arose on the banks of the Volkhov? (Novgorod)

Teacher: How can overseas guests get from one river to another?

Students find the clue - “drag”.

A portage is a section between two navigable rivers, through which in the old days a ship was dragged to continue its journey.

Slide No. 6 - Why was the city of Smolensk called that?

Did the rooks need to be repaired after being dragged?

(Where the ancient merchants pitched their ships before sailing to Kyiv is Smolensk, the main city of the Slavic Krivichi tribe)

What is the southernmost city of the East Slavic world located on the Dnieper?

Using the map, students find Kyiv.

Teacher: Kyiv was a key assembly point for Russian trade; trading boats flocked to it from everywhere from the Volkhov, from the Western Dvina, the Upper Dnieper and its tributaries.

Slide No. 7 - Why do you think the Varangian merchants considered the path after Kyiv down the Dnieper difficult?

Leading question-hint: What impeded the movement of the boat in the north in the river basin: Lovat and Western Dvina. (Work according to the map) (Volok)

Teacher's explanation:

After Kyiv, the Dnieper flows through the steppe and there were rapids in the lower reaches of the Dnieper.

The Dnieper rapids are a rocky elevation of the river bottom that accelerates the flow and impedes navigation.

This is a place where steppe nomads often attacked merchant caravans of ships.

Who can say what significance the trade route had for Rus'?

Russian merchants often visited Constantinople and saw the structure of the state in the Byzantine Empire.

Conclusion. The trade “route from the Varangians to the Greeks” that passed along the Dnieper became a source of wealth and prosperity for Russian cities located at the crossroads of the busy roads of the past. There is a need for protection from enemies.

Statement of the lesson problem.

Prerequisites for the creation of a state Eastern Slavs.

What is a state? (Students rely on knowledge of topic No. 3 “Where the Motherland Begins”)

Slides No. 8–9 – Why didn’t such a state arise on Slavic territory in the 7th–8th centuries? (We lead students to the idea that the creation of a state requires certain conditions)

Work in groups (filling out the table) (Appendix 1)

Checking the completion of the table by group

Slide No. 10 – Social stratification of the Eastern Slavs.

We begin to consider the conditions for the formation of a state on the land of Ancient Rus'.

We know from the textbook that the Slavic tribe consists of clans or, in other words, clan communities.

The prince and the boyars stand out.

At the beginning of the 9th century. V southern steppes The formidable Pecheneg nomads appeared.

To protect against the attacks of steppe nomads, what should the Slavic tribe have done? (The appearance of a military squad)

Who became the head of this military squad?

In the 9th century. Trade began to play an increasingly important role in the life of the Slavs.

What were the people whose main occupation was trade called? (Merchants)

What could Russian merchants trade?

Who produced Russian goods - fabrics, dishes, weapons, jewelry? (Craftsmen)

Teacher: In the cities, power passed to the princes, who established and maintained order. Gradually, the cities subjugated the surrounding territories, which were inhabited by various Eastern Slavic tribes. This is how reigns arose that recognized the power of a single prince.

Slide No. 11 – Phys. just a minute

Slide No. 12 – The general military threat came from

The general military threat that came from the steppe nomads in the south and the Vikings in the northwest, from the Ugrians in the southwest, and civil strife among the tribes forced the princes to unite and create a state.

Finding a solution to a problem is the discovery of new knowledge.

Slides No. 13 – Founder of the princely dynasty

Slide number 14 – The reign of Askold and Dir in Kyiv

Slides No. 15 -16 – Formation of two state centers

To prove that in the 9th century. Two state centers have been formed: in Kyiv and Novgorod, we will fill out the scheme in groups. One group represents Novgorod, and the other – Kyiv.

Each group fills out its own column on the card. Students are asked to open the manual and find the answer on the map

Group work using cards. (Appendix 2)

What conclusion have we come to? (Student statements)

Conclusion: That on the land of the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century two state centers were formed. In the 9th century, the prerequisites for the transition to a new stage of civilization and the creation of a state arose in the world of the Eastern Slavs.

Slide No. 17 – Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus

In 879 Rurik died. His son Igor was still too young, so Rurik’s relative, Oleg, took over power in Novgorod.

Oleg decided to take possession of the “path from the Varangians to the Greeks” and unite all the East Slavic tribes.

In 882, Oleg took the young Igor and, at the head of his squad, set off on a campaign south along the Dnieper.

By cunning, having captured Kyiv and killed Askold and Dir, Oleg united Novgorod and Kyiv. So in 882 the northern and southern lands Rus', stretching from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper.

Writing in a notebook.

In 882, the formation of a single ancient Russian state took place - Kievan Rus. The capital became the city of Kyiv. The Grand Duke of Kiev Oleg became the ruler of the Old Russian state.

Slide number 18 - Why does a state arise in Rus'?

1. Tools of labor are developed

2. Trade is developing. (Trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”)

3. The development of tools of labor leads to the emergence of social, or public, inequality.

4. Development of a certain standard of living for people.

5. A state almost always arises where it is necessary to protect borders from some external threats

Slide No. 19 – Why did Oleg declare Kyiv the capital of the state?

Slide No. 20–21 – Primary consolidation

Now the students are given cards with a table that they fill out. This is followed by discussion between groups. (Appendix 3)

Slide number 22 - “And Oleg ruled over the glades, and the Drevlyans, and the northerners, and the Radimichi.”

Slide number 23 – How did the first princes rule Russia?

The prince, ruling Kievan Rus, relied on what military force? (Druzhina)

Who helped him control the Ancient

Slide No. 24 – Signs of a state in the 9th–10th centuries.

Group work on the table. (Appendix 4)

Slide number 25 – What is a state?

The state has its own territory, which is controlled by the head of state, who has an army and a treasury, and so that this treasury is not empty, everyone pays taxes.

Slide number 26 – “Paths of the Great Polyudye”

What is polyudye?

Polyudye is the annual collection of tribute by the Kyiv princes from their subject lands.

What time of year is tribute collected? (Winter)

What is tribute?

Tribute is a natural or monetary collection from conquered tribes and peoples.

What products and goods did the Russian people give to the prince?

(Flax, furs, honey, wax, fish....)

Slide number 27 – The campaign of Grand Duke Oleg and his squad to Constantinople and the conclusion of a duty-free trade agreement with Byzantium.

Ruling Kievan Rus, Oleg relied on what military force? (Druzhina)

How did the prince's squad live? (military spoils, trade and polyudya)

What is the reason for Oleg and his squad’s campaign against Constantinople?

The squad is the armed detachment of the prince.

Constantinople - this is how in Rus' the capital of the Byzantine state was called ConstantinopleRus.

Slide No. 28 – Phys. just a minute

They stood up together.
Once! Two! Three!
We are now heroes!
We will put our palms to our eyes,
Let's spread our strong legs.
Turning to the right
Let's look around majestically,
And you need to go left too
Look from under your palms.
And to the right and again
Over the left shoulder.

Slide number 29 – The fate of Prince Igor.

How many campaigns did Igor make against Byzantium?

Give the dates of your trips. (1st campaign in 941 ended in failure, 2nd campaign in 944 ended in the conclusion of a mutually beneficial agreement.)

Why did Prince Igor return to the city of Iskorosten?

The chronicle records: “If a wolf gets into the habit of the sheep, he carries out the whole flock.” Who owns this statement?

What happened between the residents of Iskorosten and the squad of Prince Igor?

Slide number 30 – Wise ruler Olga”

Olga's revenge on the Drevlyans.

“I want to take revenge for my husband’s insult.”

The chronicle says: “Olga went with her son and retinue across the Drevlyan land, establishing a schedule for tribute and taxes.” From now on, all tribes subordinate to Kyiv began to pay a strictly defined amount of tribute.

Pogost was a place where taxes were collected under the first Russian princes.

Taxes - payments in products, money.

Lesson - a certain amount of tribute was established for each community.

In 957 Olga went to Constantinople. The Patriarch of Constantinople himself performed the baptismal ceremony over Olga. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus became her godfather

Slide number 31 - Prince Svyatoslav - a real ancient Russian knight

Who was the first famous conquering ruler in Rus'? (Homework - tell us about the military campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav, and how they influenced the development of the Old Russian state)

By the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav, Kievan Rus was a fully formed state - with a developed system for collecting tribute.

Which Russian prince, when starting a war, sent a warning to his enemies: “I’m coming to you”?

What did the expression “I'm coming to you” mean?

With which nomads in 964-967? Svyatoslav led the war?

Where did Svyatoslav die?

Slide number 32 – Fight for the throne

Prince Svyatoslav divided the land between his sons.

In 972, Svyatoslav died, and soon the brothers quarreled among themselves and went to war against each other.

The first strife began in Rus'. Oleg and Yaropolk died in the struggle.

In 980, Vladimir became the sole ruler of Rus'.

Slide number 33 – Strengthening the defense of Rus'

Rus' experienced an increasingly strong onslaught of nomads - the Pechenegs.

The Pechenegs periodically plundered Russian cities and villages, took the inhabitants captive, and then sold them in slave markets.

Slide No. 34 – Strengthening the Defense of Rus'

When did the formidable Pecheneg nomads first come to Russian land? (In 968, the Pechenegs siege Kyiv)

How did Prince Vladimir strengthen the border of the state to prevent Pecheneg raids? (built fortresses and outposts)

How was communication between the outposts? (signal fires on the towers)

In which fairy tale by Pushkin is this described? (“The Tale of the Golden Cockerel”)

Slide No. 35 – Strengthening the Old Russian state under the reign of Prince Vladimir

Why are most Russian epics associated with the name of Prince Vladimir?

In epics, Vladimir appears as a fighter against nomadic tribes, a patron of heroes, and a generous ruler. This is due to the enormous organizational measures taken by Vladimir to protect the borders, which were deposited in people’s memory.

Which Russian heroes do you know from Russian epics?

Where do you think Ilya Muromets, Dobrynya Nikitich and Alyosha Popovich are depicted in this picture?

Slide number 36 – Religious reforms

Strengthening the pagan faith (986)

What religion did the Slavs worship?

What pagan gods do you know?

By order of Vladimir, pagan idols were placed near the princely palace. But it was not possible to strengthen paganism with a pantheon of main gods.

It was difficult to force people to believe in the old gods in a new way, and in its previous form, paganism did not suit the authorities. Why?

The pantheon of pagan gods (980) did not lead to the unity of the cult and separated parts of the country.

Slide number 37 – Religious reforms

Orthodox Christianity. Catholic Christianity. Islam. Judaism.

Slide No. 38-39 - Why did Prince Vladimir abandon paganism and choose Orthodox Christianity?

Slide number 40 - Why did Prince Vladimir abandon paganism and choose Orthodox Christianity? (Children's statement)

A single country also required a single religion. Until the 10th century, the Eastern Slavs worshiped pagan gods. In Europe at this time Christianity was established everywhere. Christians also appeared in Rus', and even the great Olga, Vladimir’s grandmother, accepted the new faith and was baptized. Taking all this into account, Vladimir Svyatoslavich, on the advice of many of his close associates, also decided to become a Christian and baptize his subjects.

Slide No. 41 – Strengthening the Old Russian state under the rule of the prince Vladimir

In what century did pagan Ancient Rus' become an Orthodox - Christian country?

How did the baptism of Rus' take place? (Look at the illustration)

Find the prince and princess during the baptism of the people of Kiev?

Which priests baptized Russian people? (Greek)

Writing in a notebook.

988 adoption of Christianity in Rus'.

Slide No. 42 – The meaning of accepting Christianity in Rus'

1. Strengthened the state and the power of the prince;

3. Contributed to the introduction of Rus' to Byzantine culture

Stone construction began in Rus'

The Tithe Church is the first stone church of Kievan Rus, which was erected by Byzantine and Russian craftsmen in honor of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in 988-996. Prince Vladimir allocated a tenth of his income - tithes - for the maintenance and construction of the temple (hence the name of the Church of the Tithes). Vladimir transferred the ashes of his grandmother, Princess Olga, to the Tithe Church.

Slide No. 43 – Lesson summary

Now you know that at the end of the 10th century, during the reign of Vladimir, Christianity was adopted in Rus'. This new religion replaced paganism. After its adoption, many good things came into the lives of people who sought to keep the commandments Orthodox faith. Results of Vladimir's reign: under Prince Vladimir, the Old Russian state was formed with a single territory, a system of power, a single faith and Orthodox culture.

Slide number 44 – Homework

Slide No. 45 – 47 list of used literature

Slide number 48 – reference

Presentation No. 1 When did the state appear in Rus'?

Presentation No. 2 Main events in the life of the first princes

Presentation No. 3 The First Princes

Presentation No. 4 Rulers of Rus' crossword puzzle

Presentation No. 5 Ancient Rus' crossword puzzle

Presentation No. 6 Terms

When did the state appear in Rus'?

work completed by 4th grade student Dima Zhestovsky 02/10/10

The Russians did not immediately develop into one nation. Their ancestors were numerous Slavic tribes who lived in the territory of Eastern Europe. Each tribe was called differently: Polyans, Drevlyans, Volynians, Radimichi, Northerners, Vyatichi, Krivichi, etc.

02/10/10 4 In ancient times, the Eastern Slavs lived in forest areas between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers. Then they began to move north, up the Dnieper. This land was covered with dense forests, and deep rivers flowed among the forests. Slavic tribes loved to settle along the banks of these rivers.

The Slavs lived in tribes - unions of clans, that is, in one village the inhabitants were related by family ties and descended from the same ancestor.

The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. The Slavs sowed rye, wheat, barley, and millet. It was not easy to cultivate the land, especially in the forest belt: here it had to first be recaptured from the forest.

In addition to farming, the ancient Slavs also raised livestock - sheep, cows and pigs, hunted various animals, and fished. A very important economic activity was beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees.

They lived in above-ground pillar houses or semi-dugouts, where stone or adobe hearths and ovens were built. They lived in half-dugouts in the cold season, and in above-ground buildings in the summer.

In ancient times they did not know how to make stoves and chimneys, but they built hearths among the dwellings, where they lit a fire, and the smoke escaped into a hole in the roof or wall. Benches, tables and all household utensils were made of wood.

Clothes for cold winters were made from animal skins. They usually put bast shoes on their feet, and later they learned to make leather shoes. And in the summer, when it was warm, men wore only shirts and pants. If they had to fight in hot weather, they would take off their shirts and fight half-naked. Instead of a shirt, a piece of coarse fabric like a cloak was often thrown over the shoulders. Women's clothing - longer shirts and the same raincoats as men's.

The Slavs deified the forces of nature. Their religion was pagan. The god of the sun was called Dazhdbog, the god of the wind - Stribog, the god of thunderstorms - Perun. The gods had to be appeased and sacrificed to them.

The ancient Slavs worshiped their gods and made sacrifices to them on a special round platform - a temple. In the middle of the temple there were idols - wooden images of gods.

Gradually, important changes took place in the social life of the Slavs. More than a thousand years ago, Slavic tribes began to unite, and rich cities appeared, protected by fortress walls.

In each city, power passes into the hands of military leaders - princes.

There was no peace between the tribes, their neighbors oppressed them, the princes defended their lands and fought with each other.

In 882, the Novgorod prince Oleg, who had the strongest squad, united most of the tribes. He chose the city of Kyiv as his capital. This is how the Old Russian state arose.

One prince - one faith. Another hundred years later, in 988 Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich ordered all residents of Rus' to accept Christianity - a new faith in the one God Jesus Christ. He took this step to unite the diverse inhabitants of his state.

All over the country they began to destroy old idols and build new temples in their place. In the capital of the state - Kyiv - the Church of St. Sophia - the Wisdom of God - was built, the most beautiful temple of the Old Russian land at that time.

During the VI-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of class formation and the creation of the preconditions for feudalism. The territory where ancient Russian statehood began to take shape was located at the intersection of routes along which the migration of peoples and tribes took place, and nomadic routes ran. The South Russian steppes were the scene of endless struggle among moving tribes and peoples. Often Slavic tribes attacked the border regions of the Byzantine Empire.

In the 7th century In the steppes between the Lower Volga, Don and North Caucasus, a Khazar state was formed. The Slavic tribes in the regions of the Lower Don and Azov came under his rule, retaining, however, a certain autonomy. The territory of the Khazar kingdom extended to the Dnieper and the Black Sea. At the beginning of the 8th century. The Arabs inflicted a crushing defeat on the Khazars, and through North Caucasus deeply invaded the north, reaching the Don. Big number the Slavs - allies of the Khazars - were captured.

The Varangians (Normans, Vikings) penetrate into Russian lands from the north. At the beginning of the 8th century. they settled around Yaroslavl, Rostov and Suzdal, establishing control over the territory from Novgorod to Smolensk. Some of the northern colonists penetrate into southern Russia, where they mix with the Rus, taking their name. The capital of the Russian-Varangian Kaganate, which ousted the Khazar rulers, was formed in Tmutarakan. In their struggle, the opponents turned to the Emperor of Constantinople for an alliance.

In such a complex environment, the consolidation of Slavic tribes into political unions took place, which became the embryo of the formation of a unified East Slavic statehood.

Photo active tours

In the 9th century. As a result of the centuries-long development of East Slavic society, the early feudal state of Rus' was formed with its center in Kyiv. Gradually, all the East Slavic tribes united in Kievan Rus.

The topic of the history of Kievan Rus considered in the work seems not only interesting, but also very relevant. Recent years have been marked by changes in many areas of Russian life. The lifestyle of many people has changed, the system of life values ​​has changed. Knowledge of the history of Russia, the spiritual traditions of the Russian people, is very important for increasing the national self-awareness of Russians. A sign of the revival of the nation is the ever-increasing interest in the historical past of the Russian people, in their spiritual values.

FORMATION OF THE ANCIENT RUSSIAN STATE IN THE 9th century

The time from the 6th to the 9th centuries is still the last stage of the primitive communal system, the time of the formation of classes and the imperceptible, at first glance, but steady growth of the preconditions of feudalism. The most valuable monument, containing information about the beginning of the Russian state, is the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years, where the Russian land came from, and who first began to reign in Kyiv and where the Russian land came from,” compiled by the Kyiv monk Nestor around 1113.

Having begun his story, like all medieval historians, with global flood, Nestor tells about the settlement of Western and Eastern Slavs in Europe in ancient times. He divides the East Slavic tribes into two groups, the level of development of which, according to his description, was not the same. Some of them lived, as he put it, in a “beastly manner,” preserving the features of the tribal system: blood feud, remnants of matriarchy, the absence of marriage prohibitions, “kidnapping” (kidnapping) of wives, etc. Nestor contrasts these tribes with the glades, in whose land Kyiv was built. The Polyans are “sensible men”; they have already established a patriarchal monogamous family and, obviously, have overcome blood feud (they are “distinguished by their meek and quiet disposition”).

Next, Nestor talks about how the city of Kyiv was created. Prince Kiy, who reigned there, according to Nestor’s story, came to Constantinople to visit the Emperor of Byzantium, who received him with great honors. Returning from Constantinople, Kiy built a city on the banks of the Danube, intending to settle here for a long time. But the local residents were hostile to him, and Kiy returned to the banks of the Dnieper.

Nestor considered the formation of the principality of Polans in the Middle Dnieper region to be the first historical event on the path to the creation of the Old Russian states. The legend about Kiy and his two brothers spread far to the south, and was even brought to Armenia.

Byzantine writers of the 6th century paint the same picture. During the reign of Justinian, huge masses of Slavs advanced to the northern borders of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine historians colorfully describe the invasion of the empire by Slavic troops, who took away prisoners and rich booty, and the settlement of the empire by Slavic colonists. The appearance of the Slavs, who dominated communal relations, on the territory of Byzantium contributed to the eradication of slave-owning orders here and the development of Byzantium along the path from the slave-owning system to feudalism.

The successes of the Slavs in the fight against the powerful Byzantium indicate a relatively high level of development of Slavic society for that time: the material prerequisites had already appeared for equipping significant military expeditions, and the system of military democracy made it possible to unite large masses of Slavs. Long-distance campaigns contributed to the strengthening of the power of the princes in the indigenous Slavic lands, where tribal principalities were created.

Archaeological data fully confirms the words of Nestor that the core of the future Kievan Rus began to take shape on the banks of the Dnieper when the Slavic princes made campaigns in Byzantium and the Danube, in the times preceding the attacks of the Khazars (7th century).

The creation of a significant tribal union in the southern forest-steppe regions facilitated the advance of Slavic colonists not only in the southwest (to the Balkans), but also in the southeast direction. True, the steppes were occupied by various nomads: Bulgarians, Avars, Khazars, but the Slavs of the Middle Dnieper region (Russian land) were obviously able to protect their possessions from their invasions and penetrate deep into the fertile black earth steppes. In the VII-IX centuries. The Slavs also lived in the eastern part of the Khazar lands, somewhere in the Azov region, participated together with the Khazars in military campaigns, and were hired to serve the Kagan (Khazar ruler). In the south, the Slavs apparently lived in islands among other tribes, gradually assimilating them, but at the same time absorbing elements of their culture.

During the VI-IX centuries. Productive forces grew, tribal institutions changed, and the process of class formation began. As the most important phenomena in the life of the Eastern Slavs during the VI-IX centuries. The development of arable farming and the development of crafts should be noted; the collapse of the clan community as a labor collective and the separation from it of individual peasant farms, forming a neighboring community; the growth of private land ownership and the formation of classes; the transformation of the tribal army with its defensive functions into a squad that dominates its fellow tribesmen; seizure by princes and nobles of tribal land into personal hereditary property.

By the 9th century. Everywhere in the territory of settlement of the Eastern Slavs, a significant area of ​​arable land cleared from forest was formed, indicating the further development of productive forces under feudalism. An association of small clan communities, characterized by a certain unity of culture, was the ancient Slavic tribe. Each of these tribes assembled a national assembly (veche). The power of the tribal princes gradually increased. The development of intertribal ties, defensive and offensive alliances, the organization of joint campaigns and, finally, the subjugation of their weaker neighbors by strong tribes - all this led to the consolidation of tribes, to their unification into larger groups.

Describing the time when the transition from tribal relations to the state took place, Nestor notes that various East Slavic regions had “their own reigns.” This is confirmed by archaeological data.

The formation of an early feudal state, which gradually subjugated all the East Slavic tribes, became possible only when the differences between the south and the north in terms of agricultural conditions were somewhat smoothed out, when in the north there was a sufficient amount of plowed land and the need for hard collective labor in cutting and forest uprooting has decreased significantly. As a result, the peasant family emerged as a new production team from the patriarchal community.

The decomposition of the primitive communal system among the Eastern Slavs occurred at a time when the slave system had already outlived its usefulness on a world-historical scale. In the process of class formation, Rus' came to feudalism, bypassing the slave-owning formation.

In the 9th-10th centuries. antagonistic classes of feudal society are formed. The number of vigilantes is increasing everywhere, their differentiation is increasing, and the nobility - the boyars and princes - are being separated from their midst.

An important question in the history of the emergence of feudalism is the question of the time of the appearance of cities in Rus'. In the conditions of the tribal system, there were certain centers where tribal councils gathered, a prince was chosen, trade was carried out, fortune telling was carried out, court cases were decided, sacrifices were made to the gods and celebrations were celebrated. important dates of the year. Sometimes such a center became the focus of the most important types of production. Most of these ancient centers later turned into medieval cities.

In the 9th-10th centuries. feudal lords created a number of new cities that served both the purposes of defense against nomads and the purposes of domination over the enslaved population. Craft production was also concentrated in cities. The old name “grad”, “city”, denoting a fortification, began to be applied to a real feudal city with a detinets-kremlin (fortress) in the center and an extensive craft and trading area.

Despite the gradual and slow process of feudalization, one can still indicate a certain line, starting from which there is reason to talk about feudal relations in Rus'. This line is the 9th century, when the Eastern Slavs had already formed a feudal state.

The lands of the East Slavic tribes united into a single state received the name Rus. The arguments of “Norman” historians who tried to declare the Normans, who were then called Varangians in Rus', the creators of the Old Russian state, are unconvincing. These historians stated that the chronicles meant the Varangians by Rus. But as has already been shown, the prerequisites for the formation of states among the Slavs developed over many centuries and by the 9th century. gave noticeable results not only in the West Slavic lands, where the Normans never penetrated and where the Great Moravian state arose, but also in the East Slavic lands (in Kievan Rus), where the Normans appeared, robbed, destroyed representatives of local princely dynasties and sometimes became princes themselves. It is obvious that the Normans could neither promote nor seriously hinder the process of feudalization. The name Rus' began to be used in sources in relation to part of the Slavs 300 years before the appearance of the Varangians.

The first mention of the Ros people was found in the middle of the 6th century, when information about them had already reached Syria. The glades, called, according to the chronicler, Russia, become the basis of the future ancient Russian nation, and their land - the core of the territory of the future state - Kievan Rus.

Among the news belonging to Nestor, one passage has survived, which describes Rus' before the Varangians appeared there. “These are the Slavic regions,” writes Nestor, “that are part of Rus' - the Polyans, the Drevlyans, the Dregovichi, the Polochans, the Novgorod Slovenes, the Northerners...”2. This list includes only half of the East Slavic regions. Consequently, Rus' at that time did not yet include the Krivichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Croats, Ulichs and Tivertsy. At the center of the new state formation was the Polyan tribe. The Old Russian state became a kind of federation of tribes; in its form it was an early feudal monarchy

ANCIENT Rus' OF THE END OF THE IX – BEGINNING OF THE 12TH CENTURY.

In the second half of the 9th century. Novgorod prince Oleg united power over Kiev and Novgorod in his hands. The chronicle dates this event to 882. The formation of the early feudal Old Russian state (Kievan Rus) as a result of the emergence of antagonistic classes was a turning point in the history of the Eastern Slavs.

The process of uniting the East Slavic lands as part of the Old Russian state was complex. In a number of lands, the Kyiv princes encountered serious resistance from local feudal and tribal princes and their “husbands.” This resistance was suppressed by force of arms. During the reign of Oleg (late 9th - early 10th centuries), a constant tribute was already levied from Novgorod and from the lands of the North Russian (Novgorod or Ilmen Slavs), Western Russian (Krivichi) and North-Eastern lands. The Kiev prince Igor (beginning of the 10th century), as a result of a stubborn struggle, subjugated the lands of the Ulitches and Tiverts. Thus, the border of Kievan Rus was advanced beyond the Dniester. A long struggle continued with the population of the Drevlyansky land. Igor increased the amount of tribute collected from the Drevlyans. During one of Igor’s campaigns in the Drevlyan land, when he decided to collect a double tribute, the Drevlyans defeated the princely squad and killed Igor. During the reign of Olga (945-969), Igor's wife, the land of the Drevlyans was finally subordinated to Kyiv.

The territorial growth and strengthening of Rus' continued under Svyatoslav Igorevich (969-972) and Vladimir Svyatoslavich (980-1015). The Old Russian state included the lands of the Vyatichi. The power of Rus' extended to the North Caucasus. The territory of the Old Russian state expanded in a western direction, including the Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus'.

With the formation of the early feudal state, more favorable conditions were created for maintaining the security of the country and its economic growth. But the strengthening of this state was associated with the development of feudal property and the further enslavement of the previously free peasantry.

Supreme power in the Old Russian state belonged to the Grand Duke of Kyiv. At the princely court there lived a squad, divided into “senior” and “junior”. The boyars from the prince's military comrades turn into landowners, his vassals, patrimonial fiefs. In the XI-XII centuries. the boyars are being formalized as a special class and are being consolidated legal status. Vassalage is formed as a system of relations with the prince-suzerain; his characteristic features become the specialization of the vassal service, the contractual nature of the relationship and the economic independence of the vassal4.

Princely warriors took part in government. Thus, Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, together with the boyars, discussed the issue of introducing Christianity, measures to combat “robberies” and decided on other matters. Certain parts of Rus' were ruled by their own princes. But the Grand Duke of Kiev sought to replace the local rulers with his proteges.

The state helped strengthen the rule of feudal lords in Rus'. The apparatus of power ensured the flow of tribute, collected in money and in kind. The working population also performed a number of other duties - military, underwater, participated in the construction of fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. Individual princely warriors received control over entire regions with the right to collect tribute.

In the middle of the 10th century. under Princess Olga, the size of duties (tributes and quitrents) was determined and temporary and permanent camps and graveyards were established in which tribute was collected.

The norms of customary law have developed among the Slavs since ancient times. With the emergence and development of class society and the state, along with customary law and gradually replacing it, written laws appeared and developed to protect the interests of the feudal lords. Already in Oleg’s treaty with Byzantium (911) the “Russian law” was mentioned. The collection of written laws is “Russian Truth”, the so-called “Short Edition” (late 11th - early 12th centuries). In its composition, the “Most Ancient Truth” was preserved, apparently written down at the beginning of the 11th century, but reflecting some norms of customary law. It also talks about the remnants of primitive communal relations, for example, about blood feud. The law considers cases of replacing revenge with a fine in favor of the relatives of the victim (later in favor of the state).

The armed forces of the Old Russian state consisted of the squad of the Grand Duke, the squads that were brought by the princes and boyars subordinate to him, and the people's militia (warriors). The number of troops with which the princes went on campaigns sometimes reached 60-80 thousand. Foot militia continued to play an important role in the armed forces. Detachments of mercenaries were also used in Rus' - nomads of the steppes (Pechenegs), as well as Cumans, Hungarians, Lithuanians, Czechs, Poles, and Norman Varangians, but their role in the armed forces was insignificant. The Old Russian fleet consisted of ships hollowed out of trees and lined with boards along the sides. Russian ships sailed in the Black, Azov, Caspian and Baltic seas.

The foreign policy of the Old Russian state expressed the interests of the growing class of feudal lords, who expanded their possessions, political influence and trade relations. Striving to conquer individual East Slavic lands, the Kyiv princes came into conflict with the Khazars. Advancement to the Danube, the desire to seize the trade route along the Black Sea and the Crimean coast led to the struggle of the Russian princes with Byzantium, which tried to limit the influence of Rus' in the Black Sea region. In 907, Prince Oleg organized a campaign by sea against Constantinople. The Byzantines were forced to ask the Russians to conclude peace and pay an indemnity. According to the peace treaty of 911. Rus' received the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople.

The Kyiv princes undertook campaigns in more distant lands- beyond the Caucasus Range, to the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea (campaigns 880, 909, 910, 913-914). The expansion of the territory of the Kyiv state began to be especially active during the reign of Princess Olga's son, Svyatoslav (Svyatoslav's campaigns - 964-972). He dealt the first blow to the Khazar empire. Their main cities on the Don and Volga were captured. Svyatoslav even planned to settle in this region, becoming the successor to the empire he destroyed6.

Then the Russian squads marched to the Danube, where they captured the city of Pereyaslavets (previously owned by the Bulgarians), which Svyatoslav decided to make his capital. Such political ambitions show that the Kyiv princes had not yet connected the idea of ​​the political center of their empire with Kiev.

The danger that came from the East - the invasion of the Pechenegs - forced the Kyiv princes to pay more attention to the internal structure of their own state.

ADOPTION OF CHRISTIANITY IN Rus'

At the end of the 10th century. Christianity was officially introduced in Rus'. The development of feudal relations prepared the way for the replacement of pagan cults with a new religion.

The Eastern Slavs deified the forces of nature. Among the gods they revered, the first place was occupied by Perun, the god of thunder and lightning. Dazhd-bog was the god of the sun and fertility, Stribog was the god of thunderstorms and bad weather. Volos was considered the god of wealth and trade, the creator of all human culture- god-blacksmith Svarog.

Christianity began to penetrate early into Rus' among the nobility. Back in the 9th century. Patriarch Photius of Constantinople noted that Rus' changed “pagan superstition” to “Christian faith”7. Christians were among Igor's warriors. Princess Olga converted to Christianity.

Vladimir Svyatoslavich, having been baptized in 988 and appreciating the political role of Christianity, decided to make it the state religion in Rus'. Russia's adoption of Christianity occurred in a difficult foreign policy situation. In the 80s of the 10th century. The Byzantine government turned to the prince of Kyiv with a request for military assistance to suppress uprisings in the lands under its control. In response, Vladimir demanded an alliance with Russia from Byzantium, offering to seal it with his marriage to Anna, the sister of Emperor Vasily II. The Byzantine government was forced to agree to this. After the marriage of Vladimir and Anna, Christianity was officially recognized as the religion of the Old Russian state.

Church institutions in Rus' received large land grants and tithes from state revenues. Throughout the 11th century. bishoprics were founded in Yuryev and Belgorod (in the Kyiv land), Novgorod, Rostov, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk and Turov. Several large monasteries arose in Kyiv.

The people met the new faith and its ministers with hostility. Christianity was imposed by force, and the Christianization of the country dragged on for several centuries. Pre-Christian (“pagan”) cults continued to live among the people for a long time.

The introduction of Christianity was a progress compared to paganism. Together with Christianity, the Russians received some elements of the higher Byzantine culture, they joined, like others European peoples, to the heritage of antiquity. The introduction of a new religion increased the international significance of ancient Rus'.

DEVELOPMENT OF FEUDAL RELATIONS IN Rus'

Time from the end of the X to the beginning of the XII century. is an important stage in the development of feudal relations in Rus'. This time is characterized by the gradual victory of the feudal mode of production over a large territory of the country.

IN agriculture Rus' was dominated by sustainable field agriculture. Cattle breeding developed more slowly than agriculture. Despite the relative increase in agricultural production, harvests were low. Frequent phenomena were shortages and hunger, which undermined the Kresgyap economy and contributed to the enslavement of the peasants. The economy maintained great importance hunting, fishing, beekeeping. The furs of squirrels, martens, otters, beavers, sables, foxes, as well as honey and wax went to the foreign market. The best hunting and fishing areas, forests and lands were seized by the feudal lords.

In the XI and early XII centuries. part of the land was exploited by the state by collecting tribute from the population, part of the land area was in the hands of individual feudal lords as estates that could be inherited (they later became known as estates), and estates received from princes for temporary conditional holding.

The ruling class of feudal lords was formed from local princes and boyars, who became dependent on Kyiv, and from the husbands (combatants) of the Kyiv princes, who received control, holding or patrimony of the lands “tortured” by them and the princes. The Kyiv Grand Dukes themselves had large land holdings. Distribution of land by princes to warriors, strengthening feudal relations of production, was at the same time one of the means used by the state to subjugate the local population to its power.

Land ownership was protected by law. The growth of boyar and church land ownership was closely related to the development of immunity. The land, which was previously peasant property, became the property of the feudal lord “with tribute, virami and sales,” that is, with the right to collect taxes and court fines from the population for murder and other crimes, and, consequently, with the right of trial.

With the transfer of lands into the ownership of individual feudal lords, peasants in different ways became dependent on them. Some peasants, deprived of the means of production, were enslaved by landowners, taking advantage of their need for tools, equipment, seeds, etc. Other peasants, sitting on land subject to tribute, who owned their own tools of production, were forced by the state to transfer the land under the patrimonial power of the feudal lords. As the estates expanded and the smerds became enslaved, the term servants, which previously meant slaves, began to apply to the entire mass of the peasantry dependent on the landowner.

Peasants who fell into bondage to the feudal lord, legally formalized by a special agreement - nearby, were called purchases. They received from the landowner a plot of land and a loan, which they worked on on the feudal lord's farm with the master's equipment. For escaping from the master, the zakuns turned into serfs - slaves deprived of all rights. Labor rent - corvée, field and castle (construction of fortifications, bridges, roads, etc.), was combined with nagural quitrent.

The forms of social protest of the popular masses against the feudal system were varied: from flight from their owner to armed “robbery”, from violating the boundaries of feudal estates, setting fire to the trees belonging to the princes to open uprising. The peasants fought against the feudal lords with weapons in their hands. Under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, “robberies” (as armed uprisings of peasants were often called at that time) became a common phenomenon. In 996, Vladimir, on the advice of the clergy, decided to apply the death penalty against “robbers”, but then, having strengthened the apparatus of power and, needing new sources of income to support the squad, he replaced the execution with a fine - vira. The princes paid even more attention to the fight against popular movements in the 11th century.

At the beginning of the 12th century. happened further development crafts. In the village, under the conditions of state dominance of the natural economy, the production of clothing, shoes, utensils, agricultural implements, etc. was home production, not yet separated from agriculture. With the development of the feudal system, some of the community artisans became dependent on the feudal lords, others left the village and went under the walls of princely castles and fortresses, where craft settlements were created. The possibility of a break between the artisan and the village was due to the development of agriculture, which could provide the urban population with food and the beginning of the separation of crafts from agriculture.

Cities became centers for the development of crafts. In them by the 12th century. there were over 60 craft specialties. Russian artisans of the 11th-12th centuries. produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products, their products played an important role in the development of trade relations between the city and the countryside. Old Russian jewelers knew the art of minting non-ferrous metals. Tools, weapons, household items, and jewelry were made in craft workshops.

With its products, Rus' gained fame in Europe at that time. However, the social division of labor in the country as a whole was weak. The village lived on subsistence farming. The penetration of small retail traders into the village from the city did not disrupt the natural nature of the rural economy. Cities were centers of internal trade. But urban commodity production did not change the natural economic basis of the country’s economy.

Rus''s foreign trade was more developed. Russian merchants traded in the possessions of the Arab Caliphate. The Dnieper route connected Rus' with Byzantium. Russian merchants traveled from Kyiv to Moravia, the Czech Republic, Poland, Southern Germany, from Novgorod and Polotsk - along the Baltic Sea to Scandinavia, Polish Pomerania and further to the west. With the development of crafts, the export of handicraft products increased.

Silver bars and foreign coins were used as money. Princes Vladimir Svyatoslavich and his son Yaroslav Vladimirovich issued (albeit in small quantities) minted silver coin. However, foreign trade did not change the natural nature of the Russian economy.

With the growth of the social division of labor, cities developed. They arose from castle fortresses, which were gradually overgrown with settlements, and from trade and craft settlements, around which fortifications were erected. The city was connected with the nearest rural district, from whose products it lived and whose population it served with handicrafts. In the chronicles of the 9th-10th centuries. 25 cities are mentioned in the news of the 11th century - 89. The heyday of ancient Russian cities fell in the 11th-12th centuries.

Craft and merchant associations arose in the cities, although a guild system did not develop here. In addition to free artisans, patrimonial artisans also lived in cities, who were slaves of princes and boyars. The city nobility consisted of the boyars. Big cities Rus' (Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Novgorod, Smolensk, etc.) were administrative, judicial and military centers. At the same time, having grown stronger, the cities contributed to the process of political fragmentation. This was a natural phenomenon under conditions of the dominance of subsistence farming and the weak economic ties between individual lands.

PROBLEMS OF STATE UNITY OF Rus'

The state unity of Rus' was not strong. The development of feudal relations and the strengthening of the power of the feudal lords, as well as the growth of cities as centers of local principalities, led to changes in the political superstructure. In the 11th century the head of the state was still headed by the Grand Duke, but the princes and boyars dependent on him acquired large land holdings in different parts of Rus' (in Novgorod, Polotsk, Chernigov, Volyn, etc.). The princes of individual feudal centers strengthened their own apparatus of power and, relying on local feudal lords, began to consider their reigns as paternal, that is, hereditary possessions. Economically, they were almost no longer dependent on Kyiv; on the contrary, the Kiev prince was interested in their support. Political dependence on Kyiv weighed heavily on local feudal lords and princes who ruled in certain parts of the country.

After the death of Vladimir, his son Svyatopolk became prince in Kyiv, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb and began a stubborn struggle with Yaroslav. In this fight Svyatopolk used military assistance Polish feudal lords. Then a massive popular movement against the Polish invaders began in the Kyiv land. Yaroslav, supported by the Novgorod townspeople, defeated Svyatopolk and occupied Kyiv.

During the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich, nicknamed the Wise (1019-1054), around 1024, a large uprising of the Smerds broke out in the northeast, in the Suzdal land. The reason for it was severe hunger. Many participants in the suppressed uprising were imprisoned or executed. However, the movement continued until 1026.

During the reign of Yaroslav, the strengthening and further expansion of the borders of the Old Russian state continued. However, signs of feudal fragmentation of the state appeared more and more clearly.

After the death of Yaroslav government passed to his three sons. Seniority belonged to Izyaslav, who owned Kiev, Novgorod and other cities. His co-rulers were Svyatoslav (who ruled in Chernigov and Tmutarakan) and Vsevolod (who reigned in Rostov, Suzdal and Pereyaslavl). In 1068, nomadic Cumans attacked Rus'. Russian troops were defeated on the Alta River. Izyaslav and Vsevolod fled to Kyiv. This accelerated the anti-feudal uprising in Kyiv, which had been brewing for a long time. The rebels destroyed the princely court, released Vseslav of Polotsk, who had previously been imprisoned by his brothers during an inter-princely strife, and was released from prison and elevated to reign. However, he soon left Kyiv, and Izyaslav a few months later, with the help Polish troops, resorting to deception, again occupied the city (1069) and committed a bloody massacre.

Urban uprisings were associated with the peasant movement. Since anti-feudal movements were also directed against christian church, the leaders of the rebellious peasants and townspeople were sometimes the Magi. In the 70s of the 11th century. There was a major popular movement in the Rostov land. Popular movements took place in other places in Rus'. In Novgorod, for example, the masses of the urban population, led by the Magi, opposed the nobility, headed by the prince and bishop. Prince Gleb, with the help of military force, dealt with the rebels.

The development of the feudal mode of production inevitably led to the political fragmentation of the country. Class contradictions intensified noticeably. The devastation from exploitation and princely strife was aggravated by the consequences of crop failures and famine. After the death of Svyatopolk in Kyiv, there was an uprising of the urban population and peasants from the surrounding villages. The frightened nobility and merchants invited Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh (1113-1125), Prince of Pereyaslavl, to reign in Kyiv. The new prince was forced to make some concessions to suppress the uprising.

Vladimir Monomakh pursued a policy of strengthening the grand ducal power. Owning, in addition to Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Suzdal, Rostov, ruling Novgorod and part of South-Western Rus', he simultaneously tried to subjugate other lands (Minsk, Volyn, etc.). However, contrary to the policy of Monomakh, the process of fragmentation of Rus' continued, caused by economic reasons. By the second quarter of the 12th century. Rus' was finally fragmented into many principalities.

CULTURE OF ANCIENT Rus'

The culture of ancient Rus' is the culture of early feudal society. Oral poetry reflected the life experience of the people, captured in proverbs and sayings, in the rituals of agricultural and family holidays, from which the cult pagan principle gradually disappeared, and the rituals turned into folk games. Buffoons - traveling actors, singers and musicians, who came from the people's environment, were bearers of democratic tendencies in art. Folk motifs formed the basis for the remarkable song and musical creativity of the “prophetic Boyan,” whom the author of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” calls “the nightingale of the old time.”

The growth of national self-awareness found particularly vivid expression in the historical epic. In it, the people idealized the time of political unity of Rus', although still very fragile, when the peasants were not yet dependent. The image of the “peasant son” Ilya Muromets, a fighter for the independence of his homeland, embodies the deep patriotism of the people. Folk art influenced the traditions and legends that developed in the feudal secular and church environment, and helped the formation ancient Russian literature.

The emergence of writing was of enormous importance for the development of ancient Russian literature. In Rus', writing apparently arose quite early. The news has been preserved that the Slavic educator of the 9th century. Konstantin (Kirill) saw books in Chersonesus written in “Russian characters.” Evidence of the presence of writing among the Eastern Slavs even before the adoption of Christianity is an early 10th-century clay vessel discovered in one of the Smolensk mounds. with an inscription. Writing became widespread after the adoption of Christianity.

I understand that such an article can break the fan, so I will try to avoid sharp corners. I am writing more for my own pleasure, most of the facts will be from the category taught at school, but nevertheless I will gladly accept criticism and corrections, if there are facts. So:

Ancient Rus'.

It is assumed that Rus' appeared as a result of the merger of a number of East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes. The first mentions of us are found in the 830s. Firstly, in the area of ​​813. (very controversial dating) some Rosas successfully raided the city of Amastris (modern Amasra, Turkey) in Byzantine Palphagonia. Secondly, the ambassadors of the “Kagan Rosov” as part of the Byzantine embassy came to the last emperor of the Frankish state, Louis I the Pious (a good question, however, is who they really were). Thirdly, the same Dews ran in 860, already to Constantinople, without much success (there is an assumption that the famous Askold and Dir commanded the parade).

The history of serious Russian statehood begins, according to the most official version, in 862, when a certain Rurik appeared on the scene.

Rurik.

In fact, we have a pretty bad idea of ​​who it was or whether there was one at all. The official version is based on the “Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor, who, in turn, used the sources available to him. There is a theory (quite similar to the truth) that Rurik was known as Rurik of Jutland, from the Skjoldung dynasty (a descendant of Skjold, the king of the Danes, mentioned already in Beowulf). I repeat that the theory is not the only one.

Where this character came from in Rus' (specifically, in Novgorod) is also an interesting question. Personally, the closest theory to me is that he was originally a hired military administrator, moreover in Ladoga, and brought the idea of ​​hereditary transfer of power with him from Scandinavia, where it was just coming into fashion. And he came to power entirely by seizing it during a conflict with another similar military leader.

However, in the PVL it is written that the Varangians were nevertheless called upon by three tribes of Slavs, unable to resolve controversial issues themselves. Where did this come from?

Option one- from the source that Nestor read (well, you understand, there would be enough people from among the Rurikovichs who wanted to do exciting editing in their spare time. Princess Olga could also have done this, in the midst of a conflict with the Drevlyans, who for some reason had not yet realized that they would break the prince in half and offer a replacement, as has always been done in such cases in their memory - a bad idea).

Option two- Nestor could have been asked to write this by Vladimir Monomakh, who was actually called by the people of Kiev, and who really did not want to prove with his fingers the legitimacy of his reign to everyone who was older than him in the family. In any case, somewhere from Rurik a reliably known idea of ​​a Slavic state appears. “Somewhere” because the real steps in building such a state were taken not by Rurik, but by his successor, Oleg.

Oleg.

Called "the prophetic", Oleg took the reins of Novgorod Rus in 879. Probably (according to PVL), he was a relative of Rurik (possibly brother-in-law). Some identify Oleg with Odd Orvar (Arrow), the hero of several Scandinavian sagas.

The same PVL claims that Oleg was the guardian of the real heir, Rurik’s son Igor, something like a regent. In general, in a good way, the power of the Rurikovichs is very for a long time was passed on to the “eldest in the family,” so Oleg could be a full-fledged ruler not only in practice, but also formally.

Actually, what Oleg did during his reign - he made Rus'. In 882 he gathered an army and in turn subjugated Smolensk, Lyubech and Kyiv. Based on the history of the capture of Kyiv, we, as a rule, remember Askold and Dir (I won’t say for Dir, but the name “Askold” seems very Scandinavian to me. I won’t lie). PVL believes that they were Varangians, but had no relation to Rurik (I believe, because I heard somewhere that not only did they have - Rurik at one time sent them along the Dnieper with the task “capture everything that is worth little "). The chronicles also describe how Oleg defeated his compatriots - he hid military paraphernalia from the boats, so that they looked like merchant ships, and somehow lured both governors there (according to the official version from the Nikon Chronicle - he let them know that he was there . but said he was sick, and on the ships he showed them young Igor and killed them. But perhaps they were simply inspecting the incoming merchants, not suspecting that an ambush awaits them on board).

Having seized power in Kyiv, Oleg appreciated the convenience of its location in relation to the eastern and southern (as far as I understand) lands compared to Novgorod and Ladoga, and said that his capital would be here. He spent the next 25 years “swearing in” the surrounding Slavic tribes, capturing some of them (the northerners and Radimichi) from the Khazars.

In 907 Oleg undertakes a military campaign against Byzantium. When 200 (according to PVL) boats with 40 soldiers on board each appeared in sight of Constantinople, Emperor Leo IV the Philosopher ordered the city’s harbor to be blocked with tensioned chains - perhaps in the hope that the savages would be satisfied with plundering the suburbs and go home. "Savage" Oleg showed ingenuity and put the ships on wheels. The infantry, under the cover of sailing tanks, caused confusion within the city walls, and Leo IV hastily ransomed. According to the legend, at the same time an attempt was made to slip wine with hemlock to the prince during the negotiations, but Oleg somehow sensed the moment and pretended to be a teetotaler (for which, in fact, upon his return he was called “Prophetic”). The ransom was a lot of money, tribute and an agreement according to which our merchants were exempt from taxes and had the right to live in Constantinople for up to a year at the expense of the crown. In 911, however, the agreement was re-signed without exempting merchants from duties.

Some historians, having not found a description of the campaign in Byzantine sources, consider it a legend, but recognize the existence of the treaty of 911 (perhaps there was a campaign, otherwise why would the Eastern Romans bend so much, but without the episode with the “tanks” and Constantinople).

Oleg left the stage due to his death in 912. Why and where exactly is a very good question, the legend tells about a horse’s skull and a poisonous snake (interestingly, the same thing happened with the legendary Odd Orvar). The circular ladles hissed, foaming, Oleg left, but Rus' remained.

Generally speaking, this article should be brief, so I will try to briefly summarize my thoughts below.

Igor (reigned 912-945). The son of Rurik, took over the rule of Kiev after Oleg (Igor was governor of Kyiv during the war with Byzantium in 907). He conquered the Drevlyans, tried to fight with Byzantium (however, the memory of Oleg was enough, the war did not work out), concluded with her in 943 or 944 an agreement similar to the one that Oleg concluded (but less profitable), and in 945 he unsuccessfully went for the second time take tribute from the same Drevlyans (there is an opinion that Igor perfectly understood how all this could end, but could not cope with his own squad, which at that time was not particularly surprising). Husband of Princess Olga, father of the future Prince Svyatoslav.

Olga (reigned 945-964)- Igor's widow. She burned the Drevlyan Iskorosten, thereby demonstrating the sacralization of the figure of the prince (the Drevlyans offered her to marry their own prince Mal, and 50 years before that it seriously could have worked). She carried out the first positive taxation reform in the history of Rus', establishing specific deadlines for collecting tribute (lessons) and creating fortified courtyards for its reception and housing for collectors (cemeteries). She laid the foundation for stone construction in Rus'.

What’s interesting is that from the point of view of our chronicles, Olga never officially ruled; from the moment of Igor’s death, his son, Svyatoslav, ruled.

The Byzantines were not put off by such subtleties, and in their sources Olga is mentioned as the archontissa (ruler) of Rus'.

Svyatoslav (964 - 972) Igorevich. Generally speaking, 964 is rather the year of the beginning of his independent rule, since formally he was considered the Prince of Kyiv from 945. But in practice, until 969, his mother, Princess Olga, ruled for him, until the prince got out of the saddle. From PVL “When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to gather many brave warriors, and he was fast, like a pardus, and fought a lot. On campaigns, he did not carry carts or boilers with him, did not cook meat, but, thinly slicing horse meat, or an animal, or beef, and fried it on coals; he did not have a tent, but slept, spreading a sweatcloth with a saddle on his head - and all his other warriors were the same, and he sent (envoys) to other lands with the words: . .. I’m coming to you!” Actually destroyed Khazar Khaganate(to the joy of Byzantium), imposed tribute on the Vyatichi (to his own joy), conquered the First Bulgarian Kingdom on the Danube, built Pereyaslavets on the Danube (where he wanted to move the capital), frightened the Pechenegs and, on the basis of the Bulgarians, quarreled with Byzantium; the Bulgarians fought against it on the side of Rus' - the vicissitudes of wars. In the spring of 970, he put up a free army of 30,000 people from his own, Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians against Byzantium, but lost (possibly) the battle of Arcadiopolis, and, taking a retreat, left the territory of Byzantium. In 971, the Byzantines already laid siege to Dorostol, where Svyatoslav set up his headquarters, and after a three-month siege and another battle, they convinced Svyatoslav to take another compensation and go home. Svyatoslav did not make it home - first being stuck in the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, and then running into the Pecheneg prince Kurya, in a battle with whom he died. Byzantium ended up with Bulgaria as a province and minus one dangerous rival, so it seems to me that Kurya stuck around on the doorsteps all winter for a reason. However, there is no evidence of this.

By the way. Svyatoslav was never baptized, despite repeated proposals and the possible breakdown of the engagement with the Byzantine princess - he himself explained this by saying that the squad would not specifically understand such a maneuver, which he could not allow.

The first prince to distribute reigns to more than one son. Perhaps this led to the first strife in Rus', when, after the death of their father, the sons fought for the Kiev throne.

Yaropolk (972-978) and Oleg (prince of the Drevlyans 970-977) Svyatoslavichs- two of the three sons of Svyatoslav. Legitimate sons, unlike Vladimir, the son of Svyatoslav and the housekeeper Malusha (however, it is still a good question how such a small thing played a role in Rus' in the mid-10th century. There is also an opinion that Malusha is the daughter of the same Drevlyan prince Mal who executed Igor) .

Yaropolk had diplomatic relations with the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. In 977, during a strife, speaking against his brothers, he attacked Oleg’s possessions in the land of the Drevlyans. Oleg died during the retreat (if you believe the chronicle, Yaropolk lamented). In fact, after the death of Oleg and Vladimir’s flight somewhere “overseas”, he became the sole ruler of Rus'. In 980 Vladimir returned with a squad of Varangians, began to take the cities, Yaropolk left Kyiv with the better fortified Roden, Vladimir besieged it, famine began in the city and Yaropolk was forced to negotiate. Instead of or in addition to Vladimir, two Varangians appeared on the spot and did their job.

Oleg is the prince of the Drevlyans, the first successor of Mal. Perhaps he accidentally started the strife by killing the son of governor Yaropolk, Sveneld, who was poaching on his land. Version from the chronicle. Personally, it seems to me (along with Wikipedia) that the brothers would have had enough motives even without their father-voivodes burning with a thirst for revenge. Also, perhaps, he laid the foundation for one of the noble families of Maravia - only the Czechs and only the 16th-17th centuries have evidence of this, so whether to believe it or not is up to the conscience of the reader.

Brief history of Rus'. How Rus' was created

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