1. What species is modern man classified as?

Answer. View Homo sapiens.

2. What are rudiments and atavisms?

Answer. Rudimental organs or rudiments are some organs or parts thereof that do not function in adult animals and are “superfluous” for them. The presence of rudiments is evidence of a common origin.

Atavisms are the appearance in humans, animals or plants of characteristics characteristic of their distant ancestors.

Questions after § 69

1. What concept underlies modern scientific ideas about the origin of man?

Answer. K. Linnaeus. in his book “System of Nature”, he singled out a genus of people with one species - Homo sapiens L. - and placed him in the order of primates along with the lower and great apes. In 1760, C. Linnaeus published the work “Relatives of Man,” in which he emphasized the external and internal similarities between humans and monkeys.

Jean Baptiste Lamarck in his work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809) pointed to the kinship of man with monkeys and assumed that man descended from the ancient great apes as a result of the transition to upright walking, and a herd lifestyle primitive people contributed to the development of speech.

Charles Darwin made a significant contribution to solving the problem of anthropogenesis. In his works “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871) and “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872), he used extensive factual material to show the striking similarity of humans with animals and especially with apes. Based on this, he came to the conclusion that monkeys and humans have a common ancestor, paying attention to the influence social factors in human evolution.

2. What evidence indicates a connection between humans and animals?

Answer. Data from comparative embryology and anatomy clearly show similarities in the structure and development of the human body with animals.

Humans are characterized by the main features inherent in the Chordata type and the Vertebrate subtype. In humans (as in all chordates) in the early stages of embryonic development internal skeleton represented by a chord, the neural tube is laid on the dorsal side, the body has bilateral symmetry. As the embryo develops, the notochord is replaced by the spinal column, and the skull and five sections of the brain are formed. The heart is located on the ventral side, and a skeleton of paired free limbs appears.

Humans are characterized by the main features of the class Mammals. The human spine is divided into five sections, the skin is covered with hair and contains sweat and sebaceous glands. Like other mammals, humans are characterized by viviparity, the presence of a diaphragm, mammary glands and feeding of the young with milk, a four-chambered heart, and warm-bloodedness.

Humans are characterized by the main features of the Placental subclass. The mother carries the fetus inside her body, and the fetus is nourished through the placenta.

Humans are characterized by the main features of the order Primates. These include grasping limbs, the presence of nails, the location of the eyes in one plane (which provides three-dimensional vision), the replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones, etc.

A lot of common features in humans and apes: similar structure of the brain and facial parts of the skull, well-developed frontal lobes of the brain, big number convolutions of the cerebral cortex, the disappearance of the caudal spine, the development of facial muscles, etc. In addition to morphological signs, a number of other data indicate the similarity of humans and great apes: similar Rh factors, blood group antigens (ABO); the presence of a menstrual period and pregnancy lasting 9 months, like chimpanzees and gorillas; similar sensitivity to pathogens of the same diseases, etc.

IN Lately Methods for determining the evolutionary relatedness of organisms by comparing their chromosomes and proteins are widely used. The greater the similarity between proteins, the greater the relationship between species. Studies have shown that human and chimpanzee proteins are 99% similar.

The kinship between humans and animals is also evidenced by the presence of atavisms in humans (external tail, multiple nipples, abundant facial hair, etc.) and rudiments (appendix, ear muscles, third eyelid, etc.)

3. What's it like? systematic position modern man?

Answer. Full scientific classification person

Kingdom: Animals

Type: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrates

Class: Mammals

Subclass: Placental

Order: Primates

Suborder: Dry-nosed

Infraorder: Narrownose

Superfamily: Apes

Family: Hominids

Subfamily: Hominins

Genus: People

Species: Homo sapiens

Subspecies: Homo sapiens sapiens

4. What fundamental differences exist between humans and animals? How can they be explained?

Answer. There are fundamental differences between humans and animals. Only humans are characterized by true upright walking. In this regard, characteristic changes occurred in the structure of the human skeleton: the spine acquired an S-shape, arching of the foot appeared, the big toe of the lower extremities moved closer to the rest and assumed the function of support, the pelvic bones became wider, and the chest flattened in the anteroposterior direction. .

The freed upper limbs with flexible hands and opposable thumbs turned into labor organs.

In the human skull, the cerebral region predominates over the facial region. Average weight The human brain is 1350–1500 g, while gorillas and chimpanzees are only 460–600 g.

A person has consciousness and abstract thinking, is able to communicate through speech (second signaling system) and abstract symbols (writing), as well as transmit and perceive knowledge accumulated by previous generations. He created art and science. Human evolution is out of control biological factors and acquired a social character.

As the facts irrefutably testify, there was a time when people did not exist on Earth - they once appeared on it. And along with them, human society inevitably appeared. People always live only as part of individual specific societies - socio-historical organisms, which together form human society as a whole. People cannot exist outside the system of social relations. This has been noticed for a long time. Even Aristotle, who lived in the 4th century. BC, called man a political animal, that is, living in a state (polity), in society. This idea was developed in the work of the Scottish thinker A. Ferguson “Essay on the History of Civil Society” (1767). He argued that man, initially, by nature, is a social being. “Humanity,” he wrote, “should be considered in the groups in which it has always existed. The history of an individual man is only a single manifestation of the feelings and thoughts acquired by him in connection with his race, and every study relating to this subject must proceed from entire societies, not individuals." The idea that people have always lived in societies was also defended by his contemporary, Voltaire. In his “Philosophy of History” (1765) he wrote: “The foundations for society have always existed, therefore society has always existed.”

But if man and society arose, then the question of where their roots go is legitimate. The natural answer is that the origins of man and society must be sought in the animal world. However, there is too much difference between the society we live in now and the animal world. Huge cities, multi-storey buildings, factories and factories, railways, cars, airplanes, theaters, museums, books, magazines, newspapers - there is nothing similar in the animal world. Not only modern, but in general any “civilized,” as they say, society differs from the animal world.

Related to this is the fairly widespread idea that humans have nothing to do with animals at all. They refer to biblical legends, according to which people were created by God separately from animals. In recent decades, this idea has found expression in various fantastic hypotheses, according to which the ancestors modern people flew to Earth from space.

In reality, however, the kinship between animals and humans is undeniable. Some scientists came to this conclusion back in the 18th century. And in the next - XIX century. - The idea of ​​human origin from animals has become widespread. It was, as we know, deeply substantiated in the work of the great English naturalist Charles Darwin “The Descent of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871). It quite convincingly showed that the distant ancestors of humans were apes (anthropoids).

Charles Darwin also touched upon the problem of the origin of society. He characterized man as a social animal. From this he concluded that human ancestors also lived not alone or even in families, but in broader associations. But having proved that man descended from animals, Charles Darwin at the same time was unable to draw a specific picture of the transformation of an animal into a man - for this he lacked factual data. He could say even less about the emergence of human society.

By now the situation has changed dramatically. Science has accumulated a huge amount of factual material related to this problem. In the light of this material, it became clear that between the immediate animal ancestors of man, on the one hand, and people, such as they are now - people modern type On the other hand, there is a long transition period that began at least 1.6 million years ago.

This was the period of the transformation of animals into humans, the formation of man (anthropogenesis) and at the same time the period of the formation of human society (sociogenesis). Anthropogenesis (from the Greek anthropos - man and genesis - origin) and sociogenesis (from the Latin societas - society and Greek genesis - origin) were two inextricably linked sides of one single process - anthroposociogenesis - the process of formation of man and society. People who lived during this period differed from both animals and modern people. These were emerging people (proto-people). Accordingly, they lived in an emerging society (proto-society).

The process of anthropogenesis and sociogenesis, which began 1.6 million years ago, ended approximately 35-40 thousand years ago. The primordial people and the primordial society were replaced by the formed ones, ready people who already lived in a ready-made, established society.

How exactly the process of human formation took place can be judged from the bone remains of human ancestors, proto-humans, and the earliest modern humans that have come down to us. They are studied by paleoanthropology (from the Greek palaios - ancient, anthropos - man, logos - teaching).

Public relations immaterial, incorporeal, they have no physical existence. Therefore, in fact, nothing reached us from them and could not reach us. It is possible to judge how the process of formation of society proceeded only by indirect data. Such data, on the one hand, are the same bone remains of ancestral people, on the other hand, their stone tools and other material monuments that have come down to us. They are studied by archeology (from the Greek archaios - ancient, logos - teaching).

But even direct data can be interpreted in different ways. Different scientists paint a different picture of the formation of man and his evolution. stone tools. This is especially true for indirect data. Therefore, the only way to understand the essence of sociogenesis is to compare its starting point and final result.

The starting point of sociogenesis is the association of animal ancestors of humans. A certain idea of ​​them can be formed by studying the associations of existing animals. The final result of sociogenesis is an established human society. It exists in different forms. One of social forms earlier, others - later. The earliest form of existence of an established human society is a society that we usually call primitive or primitive communal, and in Western science - primitive, tribal, egalitarian, stateless, classless. It existed in the form large quantity in many ways completely independent primitive communities.

A comparison of animal associations and primitive communities can provide the key to understanding what the process of sociogenesis consisted of.

Animals and their associations

Of all the sciences about the animal world, the most interesting for us is the one that studies the behavior of animals in natural or close to natural conditions. It is called ethology (from the Greek ethos - character, character and logos - teaching). This science has revealed the incentives and motives for animal behavior. They are biological instincts. These primarily include food, sexual and self-preservation instincts. Special place occupies an instinct that encourages us to take care of our offspring. It is called maternal when only the female takes care of the cubs, and parental when the male is also involved in this matter.

Maternal or parental instinct is the only need in the animal world, the satisfaction of which consists in caring for others. All other instincts of a given animal individual presuppose and require his concern only for himself. This is especially easy to notice in the example of the food instinct. In an adult animal, this instinct can be satisfied in one and only one way - by providing itself with food. It directly encourages one thing - to search for food for yourself and only for yourself. If an animal finds so much food that there is enough for others, or if another animal takes possession of the found food, then this does not in the slightest degree change the general direction of its behavior. It is focused on caring only about oneself. In this sense, the food instinct is an individualistic instinct. The sexual instinct and the instinct of self-preservation are of the same nature.

Individualistic instincts determine the behavior of an animal in all spheres of its activity, excluding only the area of ​​relationships with its young. Therefore, it is quite legitimate to talk about the dominance of zoological individualism in the animal world, taken as a whole. Animal egoism, i.e. orientation towards satisfying one’s individualistic instincts not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, under certain conditions inevitably presupposes the unification of animals. Where animals alone are unable to satisfy their instincts, including individualistic ones, they unite to joint activities. In conditions where joint hunting is more successful than solo hunting, wolves and wild dogs form packs. The danger posed by predators encourages monkeys to form herds.

An animal's desire to satisfy its instincts may be consistent with the same aspirations of other individuals of the same species, or it may conflict with them. If, in animals leading a solitary lifestyle, the clash of aspirations of individual individuals occurs from time to time, then in animals living in associations, this kind of contradiction is more or less permanent. That's why necessary condition the existence of any somewhat durable zoological association is the systematic harmonization of the conflicting aspirations of all the animals that make up its composition. It is carried out through dominance.

Dominance is a kind of relationship between two animals in which one animal gets the opportunity to satisfy its instincts, regardless of the needs of the other animal and even at its expense, and this second animal is forced to refrain from satisfying its instincts if this desire comes into conflict with the aspirations first animal. The first animal occupies the position (acquires “status,” as ethologists say) of the dominant (dominant), and the second - the position (status) of the dominated (subordinate).

The dominant animal is usually the stronger one, the subordinate animal is the weaker one. One of known methods status determination - fight. However, most often, dominance relationships are established without physical confrontation. Sometimes the threat from one animal is enough to turn another into a subordinate. In other cases (usually when the animals differ sharply in strength) threats are not required.

In a zoological association, dominance relations are established between all animals, excluding young ones. The elementary relationships of dominance that exist between every two adult animals form a complex hierarchical system in which each animal occupies a specific place. In a zoological association, there is thus a system of ranks. One of the animals can only be dominant. In this case, it has the highest rank and plays the role of leader. Most members of the association become dominant in relation to some and subordinate in relation to others. Individual animals are in a position of being dominated only. The behavior of each animal largely depends on its position in the hierarchy, on its rank.

These relationships are clearly visible in groups of monkeys living in captivity. When animals are given food, one leader often initially approaches it, sometimes several other monkeys begin to eat with him, whom he encourages to do this with his behavior. When these animals are satisfied, it is the turn of the next in rank. The weakest animals gain access to food only after the main part of the group leaves the feeding area. Teenagers and old animals find themselves in the worst situation. They often go hungry even when there is enough food available.

Sometimes they try to interpret dominance as curbing zoological individualism. In reality, it represents the most striking manifestation of animal egoism. Dominant animals satisfy their instincts, completely disregarding the needs of subordinate animals, and sometimes at their expense.

Under natural conditions, dominance relationships manifest themselves in different ways in associations of different animals and in different spheres of activity. Monkeys are primarily herbivorous animals. Their food, as a rule, is scattered in space and is available to everyone. Therefore, dominance relations in this area are almost not manifested in monkeys. However, when a more or less rare or attractive food object appears in the field of view of several animals, it is the dominant animal that takes possession of it, and the subordinates, as a rule, give in without much resistance.

Chimpanzees, the apes closest to humans, have observed cases of hunting more or less large animals. Fights broke out over the spoils. All the meat, or at least the bulk of it, went to the dominant animals. The rest, as a rule, received nothing. In the sphere of meat distribution among chimpanzees, zoological individualism completely dominated.

Dominance is the only way to reconcile the competing aspirations of the members of an ordinary zoological association. Dominance prevents constant conflicts within an association of higher animals and ensures relative peace and order within such an association.

Usually, psychics and mediums allegedly communicate with the spirits of the dead or with representatives of alien civilizations. But there are people who claim that they can establish a psychic connection with animals and can even tell the owner what the pet is missing.

1. Laura Stinchfield

One of California's most renowned "animal psychics," Laura Stinchfield has made a name for herself as a communication liaison between pets and their owners. She "specialises" in dog psychology and states that many dogs are aggressive due to PTSD. Stinchfield also claims that dogs are surprisingly perceptive and often want to give their owners advice about other people.

2. Hillary Renaissance

Hillary Renaissance specializes in finding lost animals. She learned about her gift at the age of 16, when she felt that her cat had a stomach ache. Then she helped one woman find her lost cat. Eventually, Renaissance realized that she could make a living from her unusual spiritual connection with animals. However, her occupation has its drawbacks. For example, the psychic admitted that if an animal has a headache, then she also starts to have a headache. She has helped dozens of people find their missing pets.

3. Terry Jay

In 1990, horse trainer Terry Jay from Reno announced that she had discovered the gift of psychic communication with animals. While working in an equine therapy program for disabled children, she suddenly realized that she could hear the thoughts of horses. Terry subsequently became a specialist in "psychic communication with horses", claiming that she could help with the behavior, training, health and handling of any horse. According to Terry Jay, each animal has a unique personality and point of view that she is supposedly able to recognize.

4. Paula Brown

Paula Brown is the founder of an art that she called fur shui (which combines communication with animals and feng shui). Paula, who is a graduate of the Tibetan Black Hat School, the Hawaiian Institute of Feng Shui, and also attended the Qi Gong program at the Imperial College of Traditional Oriental Medicine, claims to be able to communicate with animals and can improve their health by redirecting the chi energy in the animal's body. Despite the fact that Brown lives in California, her activities have become famous even in Finland.

5. Kazuko Tao

Kazuko Tao has always been interested in metaphysics, studying "meditation, energy healing of mind, body and spirit, and spiritual reading" in 1980. She became involved with animal communication after her cat got cancer.

Unlike many psychics who communicate with animals, Thao went to veterinary school and officially began working as a veterinary technician in 1988. Since 1990, she began offering her services in communicating with animals. Although Tao respects Western medicine, she prefers alternative medicine and treats animals with acupuncture, chiropractic care, and herbal infusions.

6. Karen Anderson

Karen Anderson worked as a deputy sheriff in Bailey, Colorado. Suddenly, Karen began to claim that her psychic abilities allowed her to read the energy of suspects and criminals. It turned out that when Karen was still a child, she discovered her ability to talk to animals by mentally calling a stray cat and instilling in him that she was a friend. Since 2002, the woman began working as a professional animal communicator, and she allegedly helped law enforcement agencies solve crimes by communicating with the spirits of the dead.

7. Neville Rowe

Neville Rowe, an electrical engineer and hypnotherapist originally from New Zealand, claims to have come into contact with a group of six or seven dolphins living in different seas Worldwide. Soon, Rowe stated that he began to mentally communicate with galactic social entities called Sols, who control the evolution of the Earth and solar system. Rowe eventually died as a result of a fall while hiking at Squaw Peak in Arizona.

8. Latifa Mina

Latifa Meena, who was originally a freelance technical trainer, eventually became the most renowned animal psychiatrist and animal liaison in Louisville, Kentucky. She claims to be able to communicate with animals, regardless of the language they are used to. She also claims to be able to communicate with the spirits of departed animals and can find out if they are happy beyond the bounds.

9. White earlobe

Dr. Shirley Lippensteiner worked for 10 years as a scientific anthropologist in South-East Asia, Northern and South America, Africa and Pacific Ocean. Near the ruins of an Aztec temple in Mexico, Lippensteiner allegedly fainted because " astral energy pierced her heart." After this, she gained new knowledge and began new life as Lobulo Blanco (white earlobe). Shirley now offers her services as a shaman.

10. Communication with dinosaurs

There are surprisingly few psychics who communicate with dinosaur spirits. In December 1995, a group of people appeared at the Burning Man festival offering psychic channeling with extinct lizards. In 2006, a certain Mademoiselle Simone tried to contact the client's father in order to find the missing will, but accidentally contacted the spirit of Dimetrodon.

The ghost of a dinosaur appeared in the green smoke, broke several crystals on the chandelier and roared something through the medium's mouth. The initially frustrated client allegedly checked his father's library and found the will in a book about dinosaurs.

Seven experiments that will change the world Sheldrake Rupert

ANIMALS AND PEOPLE: THE INVISIBLE CONNECTION

In the city where I was born, Newark-on-Trent, there lived next door to us a widow who had a cat. The widow's son served in the merchant navy. This woman once said that she always knows exactly when her son will return from sailing, regardless of whether he reported it or not. She determined the moment of return by the behavior of the cat, which every time sat down on the rug near front door and meowed for an hour or two until the owner’s son appeared on the threshold. “That’s why I always managed to put the kettle on,” added the widow.

This woman was not at all prone to superstitions, although what she said looked quite fantastic. What made me think was the fact that she spoke completely calmly about this paranormal phenomenon. Was the cat really behaving unusually, or was its owner under the influence of some kind of illusion? I soon became convinced that many pet owners had similar stories to tell. Most of the narrators noted that their pets somehow accurately determine when long-absent family members should return home, and in most such cases they show anxiety before the owner appears.

In 1919, the American naturalist William Long published an extremely interesting book entitled “How Animals Talk,” where he described the behavior of his old setter named Don. In particular, he told how in school years Don met him upon his arrival from boarding school.

“When I entered school, I was involuntarily separated from Don, but it turned out that he always had a presentiment of when I should return home. The dog could dutifully remain near the house for months and obey my mother, who was not particularly interested in him, but as soon as I was supposed to arrive from the boarding school, Don would leave and wait for me on a hillock from which the entire surrounding area could be seen. Whenever I arrived, at noon or midnight, the dog invariably waited for me in the same place. One day I drove home unannounced, and at the same time Don unexpectedly ran away. He did not return home even to eat, and in the end my mother went to look for him and found him on the same hill. Seeing Don at the meeting place, she returned home and began cleaning my room, guessing that I would arrive soon. If the dog is used to spending time in some kind of certain place, her behavior can be explained in any way, but Don went out to the hill only when I had to return. Moreover, he always arrived at the meeting place a few minutes before I boarded the train. It turns out that Don always knew exactly when I was going home.”

There are a lot of such stories. Can we take them seriously? Any skeptic will always prefer to explain them by a coincidence, the animal’s heightened sense of smell and hearing, its habits - or by the gullibility, trustfulness and self-deception of the owner, who wants to believe in the unusualness of his pet.

But such conclusions do not have a serious scientific basis. No research in this area has yet been carried out at all, and not because no one is interested in this kind of experiment. On the contrary, the inexplicable abilities of domestic animals are of keen interest to everyone who has encountered their manifestations. The material side of research is also not a problem, since experiments in this area practically do not require special funding. I suppose that scientific work Three persistent prejudices stand in the way in this direction. This is a prejudice against research of any kind. paranormal phenomena, prejudice against taking pets seriously and prejudice against any experimentation with pets. At the end of the chapter I will detail the problems associated with these biases, but for now it is better to simply forget about them and turn to the actual experiments.

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The wonderful Danish artist Humon has created a series of cute drawings illustrating the different types of gender roles in the animal kingdom.

1. Spotted lizards

Spotted lizards also have three types of males, each of which has its own behavioral tactics and external differences: Males with orange, blue or yellow throats.
Orange-throated males are full of testosterone and their the main objective- occupy a huge territory and collect as large a harem as possible. Although such a male is protective of his females, he does not form a strong and long-lasting bond with any of them. It is not uncommon for orange-throated males to engage in skirmishes with blue-throated males.
Bluethroat males are smaller, have lower testosterone levels, and their territory is large enough for only one female, with whom he forms a permanent pair. Like the orange-throated male, it protects its female from other males.
And finally, there are males with yellow throats, whose color is similar to the color of females, but do not have their own territory. They live on the outskirts of a territory guarded by orange-throated males and secretly mate with local females. This is possible because orange-throated males are unable to keep track of all their females. Notably, a female who has formed a pair with a blue-throated male will reject the advances of a yellow-throated male.
So it turns out to be “rock-paper-scissors” - “orange” beats “blue”, “blue” beats “yellow”, “yellow” beats “orange”.

2. Spotted hyena – a triumph of feminism

Many animals turn our understanding of gender roles on their head, but spotted hyenas represent the most extreme case. Females are much larger and more aggressive than males, and the hierarchy is such that the alpha male comes only after the omega female. This hierarchy is so strong that adult males are afraid even of female puppies, and for good reason. As daughters grow up, they express their concern for their fathers by treating them only slightly less harshly than other males. And the matter doesn't end there. Female hyenas have pseudo-penises that are capable of erection and are larger and longer than the penises of males. All this complicates the mating process, and rape becomes simply impossible. Additionally, an erect penis is seen as a sign of weakness, so as a sign of submission, instead of exposing the throat, males display an erection.

3. Knitting Spider – A Spider That Loves Bondage

In most species of spiders, males are at risk during mating season, so it is not surprising that male hobbling spiders do not even attempt to initiate mating without first carefully mating the female. The male sneaks under the female's abdomen, carefully and carefully wraps her in a web, and only after that mates with her. But he still tries to complete the process as quickly as possible, because in fact the female voluntarily allows herself to be tied, and if she wishes, she can easily free herself from the bonds, and it is better for the male to stay away at this moment.

4. Turukhtan

Turukhtan – very unusual bird in many ways. This is one of the few bird species where males demonstrate their dominance to each other rather than to females, thus establishing a hierarchy. It is noteworthy that turukhtans have three types of males, which differ in both appearance and behavior.
The most common type is territorial males, which are stronger and more aggressive than others. Territorial males are mainly concerned with fighting other males and demonstrating their superiority.
Next come the subordinate males. They are about the same size as territorial birds, but have less muscle, are more mobile and have lighter plumage. The subordinate male does not have his own territory; he spends all his time in the territory of territorial males, secretly mating with local females. Territorial males turn a blind eye to this because, for some reason, having subordinate males attracts more females.
Finally, there is a type of male that looks similar to the female. They, like subordinate males, do not have their own territory and secretly mate with females, but they also happily allow other males to mate with them, taking the position of a female in such cases. Initially, it was believed that other males, when mating with them, mistakenly took them for females, but further research showed that males perfectly understand that they are males. Strong territorial males will allow them into their territory because the high percentage of homosexual activity attracts both males and females. Females usually spend the summer with females and the winter with males.
Females are extremely promiscuous and are ready to mate with any available male.

5. Tamarins

Monkey tamarins are known for having all possible family types in their society, from a female-male pair to a male and two females, but for most species of the tamarin genus, the most common family type is a female and two males.
This makes sense, since female tamarins usually give birth to twins. Carrying a baby with you everywhere is hard work, and mostly males take care of the offspring, handing over the children to the mother only for breastfeeding. Each dad cares for one cub, performing part of the overall family task. A male with two females risks finding himself in a situation where he will have to carry four cubs.

6. Discus fish

Both females and males of the discus fish species take good care of their offspring. It's hard to find more caring parents. The male and female form a monogamous pair and the female lays eggs. After which the female guards the eggs, and the male guards the female with the eggs. When the time comes, the parents help the offspring get out of the eggs by gently biting the shell of each of them. Both parents then feed the offspring with a special milky fluid that their skin secretes under the influence of hormones.

7. Pygmy chimpanzees bonobos

Chimpanzees and chimpanzees bonobos are the closest relatives of humans. They are similar to us and to each other in many ways, but there are some differences. A group of chimpanzees is led by a strong male - the alpha male, while in a troop of bonobos the leading roles belong to the females, who use sex to manipulate the males. In general, in a bonobo troop, everything is a reason for sex, especially various tense situations. For example, if two males want to mate with the same female, instead of fighting, they can mate with each other, thus relieving some of the tension. If the male is too aggressive, the female calms him down by having sex with him. Sex can be used to reconcile and maintain friendship between any members of the pack. For example, conflicts between females often end with them making peace by rubbing their clitoris. While chimpanzees have some restrictions regarding sex, bonobos do not. Sexual activity among bonobos is ubiquitous, making the bonobo community one of the most peaceful. they literally live by the motto “Make love, not war.”

8. Cuttlefish

During the breeding season, the largest and strongest male cuttlefish find the best rocks to lay their eggs. Females, which are much smaller than males, evaluate the male and his stones. If the female chooses a male, he protects her and does not allow other males to approach. But in fact, they prefer both large and small but cunning males. Females, in a sense, use large males to test small males. So what should a small male do? Of course, he disguises himself as a female and unnoticed swims right under the large male, behaves like an interested female, and caresses him a little. He then shows the female that he is in fact a male and she mates with him. Thus, the female receives both strong and cunning offspring.

9. Grouse

During mating season male grouse meet in display arenas of sorts to show off their plumage and song, and perform courtship dances for females. From time to time they arrange fights, but these fights, as a rule, are nothing more than a competition between two models on the catwalk - all just to show off in front of the females.

10. Bird of Paradise

In most bird species, the males are much more colorful and motley than the females. Birds of paradise are the best example of this. The forests where they live have few predators and all year round full of food, therefore the male birds of paradise have little worries and troubles, they have the opportunity to wear impressive, colorful plumage, and arrange pompous mating displays for the females. Craving for mating games in males it is so strong that they can perform their dances even when there are no females nearby. If a female appears nearby, the male begins to dance, as they say, with all his soul. The female evaluates both appearance and dance, and chooses only the best, so with each generation the males become more beautiful and dance more expressively. Young males sometimes learn to dance and watch experienced adult males. They may also briefly occupy a male's territory for practice.

11. Social insects

Social insects. Queens of ants, bees, wasps and some other social insects mate once with several males and store their sperm inside their bodies for a long time. The queen uses the sperm to produce soldiers and workers, all of which are immature females. Unfertilized eggs produce males. Thus, males cannot have a father.

12. Seahorses

Female seahorses have an ovipositor that acts as a penis. The female inserts the ovipositor into the male's pocket and deposits the eggs there, where they are fertilized by the male. After this, the male carries the eggs in his pocket. Probably, this division of responsibilities allows the female to save energy for the next clutch while the male takes care of the offspring. When offspring are born, the parents may soon mate again. Although Sea Horses They do not pair up for life, they are very faithful to each other during the mating season. So, when the male carries eggs, the female often visits him to support him.