Agents of socialization. Fundamentals of Sociology

The process of socialization is revealed through the study of the so-called agents of socialization, i.e. those social structures (family, small group, team, school, political organizations, church, etc.) that make up the social environment of the individual.

It should be noted that the role of socialization agents is different at different stages of the process of formation of social qualities and in different societies (traditional and modern, agricultural and industrial, Eastern and Western, Muslim and Catholic, etc.). The family is recognized by many as the primary socializing group. However, the role of the family in traditional society is more significant than in modern society. Socialization processes are influenced by political regimes. The degree of democracy of a society is also determined by the extent to which the process of socialization of individuals is subject to the control and influence of political ruling structures.

Since socialization is divided into two types - primary and secondary, the agents and institutions of socialization are divided into primary and secondary.

The process of socialization includes not only those who learn and acquire new knowledge, values, customs, and norms. An important component of this process are those who influence the learning process and shape it to a decisive extent. They are called agents of socialization. These include people and social institutions. Individual agents of socialization can be parents, relatives, babysitters, family friends, teachers, coaches, teenagers, leaders of youth organizations, doctors, etc. Social institutions act as collective agents.

Agents of Socialization- specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and mastering social roles.

Socialization institutions are institutions that influence the process of socialization and guide it: school and university, army and police, production, etc.

Agents of primary socialization are parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents, close and distant relatives, babysitters, family friends, peers, teachers, coaches, doctors, leaders of youth groups.

The term “primary” refers in sociology to everything that constitutes the immediate or immediate environment of a person. It is in this sense that sociologists speak of a small group as primary. The primary environment is not only the closest to a person, but also the most important for his formation, that is, it ranks first in terms of importance.

Agents of secondary socialization are representatives of the administration of a school, university, enterprise, army, police, church, state, employees of television, radio, press, parties, courts, etc.

The term “secondary” describes those who are in the second echelon of influence and have a less important influence on a person. Contacts with such agents are less frequent, shorter in duration, and their effects are generally less profound than those of primary agents. Secondary groups, and this will be discussed further, in sociology are called formal organizations and official institutions. These are the institutions of socialization.

When people talk about the family in general, it is called an institution of socialization, but a primary one (like school). And when they specifically mean family members and relatives, they use the concept “agents.”

Primary socialization occurs most intensively in the first half of life, although it continues to decrease in the second half.

On the contrary, secondary socialization covers the second half of a person’s life, when, having matured, he encounters formal organizations and institutions called institutions of secondary socialization: production, state, media, army, court, church, etc. It is at a conscious age that they influence a person especially strongly.

Primary socialization – sphere interpersonal relationships, the secondary sphere of social relations. The same person can be an agent of both primary and secondary socialization.

The teacher, if there is a trusting relationship between him and the student, will be among the agents of primary socialization. But if he is only fulfilling his formal role, then the teacher will be an agent of secondary socialization.

Agents of primary socialization each perform many functions (father - guardian, administrator, educator, teacher, friend), and secondary ones - one or two.

Among the agents of primary socialization, not everyone plays the same role and has equal status. In relation to the child undergoing socialization, parents are in a superior position. On the contrary, his peers are equal to him. They forgive him much of what his parents do not forgive: wrong decisions, violation of moral principles and social norms, indiscretion, etc.

Each social group can give an individual in the process of socialization only what it has been trained or socialized for. In other words, a child learns from adults how to be an adult, and from peers - how to be a child: to be able to fight, to be cunning, how to relate to the opposite sex, to be friends and to be fair.

A small group of peers performs the most important social function– facilitates the transition from a state of dependence to independence, from childhood to adulthood. Parents are unlikely to teach how to be a leader or achieve dominance over others.

The functions of agents of primary socialization are interchangeable, but the functions of secondary socialization are not. This is explained by the fact that the former are universal, and the latter are specialized. For example, the functions of parents and peers are interchangeable. The latter often replace the former, performing their socialization functions. And vice versa. The functions of parents and relatives are also interchangeable; the latter can replace the former.

But this cannot be said about agents of secondary socialization, since they are highly specialized: a judge cannot replace a foreman or teacher. Agents of primary socialization, on the contrary, are universal. Unlike parents, who lay down basic values ​​and long-term goals, peers have more influence on momentary behavior, appearance, choice of sexual partner and places of leisure.

The difference between the two types of socialization agents is also that secondary socialization agents receive money for fulfilling their role, while primary socialization agents do not.

Agents of primary and secondary socialization sometimes have a coinciding, unidirectional impact on a person’s personality, and sometimes a contradictory, multidirectional impact. Moreover, the contradiction characterizes the disharmony between:

agents of primary socialization,

agents of secondary socialization,

agents of primary and secondary socialization. If, for example, a family teaches a teenager one values, and a group of peers teaches them completely different values, then not only competition, but also a contradiction is formed between the agents of primary socialization.

Another example is the difference between religious values ​​and business values. Religion teaches us such moral standards as helping loved ones, teaching us not to deceive, to be modest in our desires and needs, and to devote most of our time to solving spiritual issues. Business requires the exact opposite: it is often built on deception, the pursuit of material values, the desire to stand out and make a career. It forces a professional businessman to devote all his time to solving only material issues, while the church encourages a person to think about the eternal, intangible.

In a sense, peers and parents influence the child in opposite directions and the former nullify the efforts of the latter. Parents often look at their peers as their competitors in the struggle for influence over their child.

Two other institutions of socialization – education and the army – also come into deep contradiction with each other. Conscription of young men into the army for two years immediately after finishing school often becomes a barrier to education. After two years of military service, the knowledge gained in school disappears. A reassessment of values ​​occurs, and motivation to study may also disappear. The greater the gap between two stable periods (school and university), the deeper the crisis and the more irreversible the process.

As already indicated, personality is a biosocial phenomenon. And if biological features are inherited, then social qualities are acquired by the individual in the process of socialization.

Socialization can be defined as the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and the values ​​necessary for its successful functioning in a given society.

Thus, in the process of socialization, a person acquires the qualities necessary to fulfill social roles.

The process of socialization is two-way: on the one hand, it is society transferring its experience to the individual, and on the other hand, it is the process of assimilation by the individual of social experience.

In sociological science, it is customary to distinguish two main types of socialization:

1) primary – the child’s assimilation of norms and values;

2) secondary – the assimilation of new norms and values ​​by an adult.

Socialization is a set of agents and institutions that form, guide, stimulate or limit the formation of a person’s personality.

Agents of Socialization are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and social values. Socialization institutions are institutions that influence the process of socialization and guide it.

Depending on the type of socialization, primary and secondary agents and institutions of socialization are considered.

Agents of primary socialization– parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents, other relatives, friends, teachers, leaders of youth groups. The term “primary” refers to everything that constitutes a person’s immediate and immediate environment.

Agents of secondary socialization– representatives of the administration of a school, university, enterprise, army, police, church, employees of funds mass media. The term “secondary” describes those who stand in the second echelon of influence, having a less important impact on a person.

Primary institutions of socialization– this is family, school, peer group, etc. Secondary institutions– this is the state, its bodies, universities, church, media, etc.

The socialization process consists of several stages and stages.

1. Stage of adaptation (birth - adolescence). At this stage, uncritical assimilation of social experience occurs; the main mechanism of socialization is imitation.

2. The emergence of a desire to distinguish oneself from others – the identification stage.

3. The stage of integration, which can proceed either successfully or unfavorably.

4. Labor stage. At this stage, social experience is reproduced and the impact on the environment occurs.

5. Post-labor stage ( old age). This stage is characterized by the transfer of social experience to new generations.

At each stage of socialization, a person is influenced by certain factors, the ratio of which influences different stages various.

In general, five factors can be identified that influence the socialization process:

1) biological heredity;

2) physical environment;

3) culture;

4) group experience;

5) individual experience.

Each person's biological heritage provides "raw materials" which are then transformed into personal characteristics. Thanks to biological factor there is a huge variety of personalities.

The physical environment plays an important role in the formation of personality, since climate, natural resources and other natural indicators.

The culture of each society also has a huge influence on the socialization process.

Every society develops one or more personality types that correspond to its culture.

Duboys called a personality, which has characteristics characteristic of a given society, modal. Modal personality is understood as the most common type of personality, which has some features inherent in the culture of society as a whole.

Group and personal experience are also included in the socialization process.

Each person, according to C. Cooley, builds his “I” on the basis of the reactions he perceives of other people with whom he comes into contact.

Cooley identifies three stages in the formation of the mirror self: our perception of how we look at others; our perception of their opinion; our feelings about this opinion. Each personal experience is unique because it cannot be repeated exactly.

The picture of individual experience is complicated by the fact that the personality does not simply summarize it, but integrates it.

Thus, we can say that the process of socialization is influenced by two of the most important environments around a person: natural and social.

Due to the fact that the social environment is an objective condition of socialization, its constituent elements also have a certain influence on this process. Such elements of society are called agents of socialization; as already mentioned, agents of socialization are people and institutions associated with it and responsible for its results.

The main agents of socialization are the family, various types communities (collectives, ethnic groups, nationalities, classes, social strata), society as a whole - everything that includes and surrounds a person.

Each sphere social life(material and spiritual) participates in the process of socialization - targeted and undirected education.

So, the most intensive process of socialization occurs in childhood and adolescence.

By the time a person reaches his professional and official status, the socialization process, as a rule, reaches a certain completion.

The socialization of adults is different in that it is mainly a change in external behavior (the socialization of children is the formation of value orientations); adults are able to evaluate norms (and children only assimilate them). Adult socialization aims to help a person master certain skills. For example, mastering a new social role after retirement, changing profession or social status.

Another point of view on the socialization of adults is that adults gradually abandon naive children's ideas (for example, about the unshakability of authorities, about absolute justice, etc.), from the idea that there is only white and black.

An important process of socialization is the process of identification.

Identification- this is the process of assimilation by an individual of the norms, values ​​and qualities of the social group to which he belongs or would like to belong.

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Socialization concept

This article is devoted to the issue of socialization and its agents, so first of all we will understand what lies under the concept of socialization.

Definition 1

Socialization is defined as the assimilation and mastery by a person of social values, social norms, existing attitudes, rules of behavior, etc.

The essence of the socialization process lies in the transformation of the biological principle of a person into the social, and its result is the formation of personality.

Stages of socialization

Socialization lasts throughout a person’s life, and therefore it is customary to distinguish several of its stages, which, as a rule, are associated with age periods human development:

• childhood
• adolescence or youth
• maturity
• old age

During these periods there are primary and secondary socialization.

Primary socialization is characteristic of childhood and adolescence, when the formation of a person’s own “I” and personality occurs; this period begins from the birth of a person and ends in adulthood.

Secondary socialization is characterized by a person’s self-realization, a person’s conscious choice of a life partner, profession, environment, etc. This stage involves the accumulation and transfer of accumulated experience.

Agents of Socialization

As we can observe, both primary and secondary socialization takes place in close interaction with society and through social mechanisms - agents of socialization.

Primary and secondary socialization correspond to agents that are also primary and secondary.

Definition 3

The primary agents of socialization are the person’s immediate environment, which directly influences him.

Here we can include:

• family,
• school,
• Internet,
• coaches and classmates,
• teachers and circle leaders.

Let us consider the main agents of primary socialization in more detail.

Family is one of the first agents of socialization that a person encounters. In the family, a person acquires a name and basic skills for interacting with society, forms his ideas about the family and his role in this family and society as a whole, so the family can both help to socialize and vice versa.

If the family is harmonious, the family's social status and cultural level are sufficient for successful socialization. Family dysfunction leads to difficulties in the process of socialization, the formation of misconceptions about the rules of behavior in society, rejection of social norms, etc.

Another powerful agent of socialization is school.

At school, the process of acquiring knowledge, rules of behavior and norms is purposeful. Teachers lay down knowledge about society and ways of interacting with it, and here a person learns to build social relationships with the teacher and classmates.

At school, a person is under the influence of several agents of socialization at once - the teacher and peers. A child at school learns to unite in groups and interact there, find solutions, and play various social roles.

The next primary agent of socialization is peers and friends. This agent of socialization differs from the school in the informality of relations, and, therefore, in the possibility of changing the rules of behavior in friendly company. In the company of peers and friends, the child finds understanding regardless of how he has learned and complies with social norms. During adolescence, friends have a significant influence on a person, competing in terms of influence with family, so it is extremely important that during this period of socialization a person is in a favorable friendly company, which will contribute to the assimilation and consolidation of acquired social norms and values.

Currently, the influence has increased Internet networks and media as primary agents of socialization.

The Internet gives a person additional freedom of expression, and also, through virtual games, allows the child to try on certain social roles. Unfortunately, there are a large number of games with elements of cruelty and violence, which negatively affects the mental health of a teenager’s developing personality.

Definition 4

Agents of secondary socialization are people and institutions that are connected by formal business relationships that influence a person.

Agents of secondary socialization include:

• representatives of educational institutions,
• army and state
• media,
• government representatives,
• parties, etc.

If agents of primary socialization exert influence at the level of interpersonal relationships, then the prerogative of agents of secondary socialization are social relationships, therefore interactions with secondary agents of socialization are shorter in time than with primary ones, and also occur less frequently.

Note 1

It should also be noted that agents of secondary socialization strictly certain functions socialization, which is caused by their formalization.

Let us consider in more detail some agents of secondary socialization.

The greatest importance in our lives at present can be attributed to the media; it is not for nothing that they are called the “fourth branch of government.” Media in short terms capable of forming certain social values, undermining previous foundations. IN modern world The media has the power to create a revolution. Movies, radio and television programs shape our images of family and patterns of behavior in certain social groups.

Since a significant period of secondary socialization occurs during the period professional activities person, then the employer and colleagues should be noted as agents during this period. The employer, as an agent of socialization, has a powerful tool of influence - power. Colleagues during their professional activities also provide significant influence, since a person enters into frequent interactions with them, realizing himself as a professional.

Name any three characteristics of a political party as a public organization and specify each of them with an example.

Explanation.

The correct answer can name and illustrate the following features of a political party as a public organization:

1) the presence of a certain ideology, a system of common values: (At the II Congress of Party Z, a party program was adopted, reflecting commitment to traditional values).

2) the desire to come to power through legal means. (Party R nominated its candidates in the elections of deputies to municipal assemblies).

3) focus on expressing the interests of certain social groups. (Party Y advocates reducing the tax on small and medium-sized entrepreneurs).

Explanation.

The following types of spiritual values ​​can be named and illustrated:

1) Works of art (painting by I.E. Repin “They Didn’t Expect”, poem by A.S. Pushkin “Ruslan and Lyudmila”).

2) Moral standards (the commandment “thou shalt not kill”).

3) Scientific discovery ( periodic law DI. Mendeleev).

Other examples may be given.

Explanation.

1. Participation in solving global problems.

To solve the environmental problem, a number of states came to an agreement by signing the Kyoto Protocol, obliging them to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

2. Provision national security, the use of military forces to solve problems.

In 2003, the United States and its allies developed Operation Shock and Awe, during which the Saddam Hussein regime was overthrown with the help of armed forces.

3. Protection and support of the country's economic interests.

To protect their economic interests and create a single economic and customs space between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, the Customs Union was created.

4. Upholding interests in international organizations.

Russia, as a permanent member of the UN Security Council, blocked the Council's decision, which was contrary to its interests.

Other examples may be given.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 05/05/2014. Early wave. Option 2.

The author argues that there are as many agents of socialization as there are social groups. Using facts of social life and personal social experience, name any three social groups not listed in the text, and illustrate with examples the socializing impact on the individual of each of them.

By agents of socialization we will understand groups and social contexts within which socialization processes take place. In all cultures, the family is the main socializing agent for the child. However, in later stages of life, many other agents of socialization come into play.

A huge amount of research has been devoted to analyzing the impact certain types television programs on the social attitudes of children and adults, but definitive answers have not been received. There is no consensus, for example, on the extent to which the display of violence causes aggressive behavior in children. But there is no doubt that the media have a profound impact on people's attitudes and worldviews. They convey all the variety of information that cannot be obtained in any other way...

In our time, only a small part of societies, including among traditional cultures, has remained outside the scope of the media. Electronic communication tools are accessible even to the completely illiterate; in the most remote regions of the third world it is not uncommon to find people who have radios or televisions.

There are as many agents of socialization as there are groups and social contexts in which individuals spend any significant part of their lives. Work in all cultures is the most important environment in which the process of socialization takes place, although only in industrial societies huge number people “go to work”, i.e. Every day they spend several hours in a workplace separated from home. IN traditional societies many cultivate the land near where they live or work in workshops at home. “Work” in such societies is not as distinguished from other activities as is typical for most labor force in the West. In industrialized countries, the beginning of “going to work” implies much greater changes in a person’s life than the beginning labor activity in traditional societies. The circumstances of work put forward unusual demands, forcing a person to fundamentally change his worldview and behavior.

Although the local community tends to influence socialization in modern societies to a much lesser extent than with other types of social structure, its influence cannot be completely excluded. Even in major cities There are highly developed resident groups and organizations (voluntary societies, clubs, churches) which have a huge impact on the thoughts and actions of those who take part in their activities.

E. Giddens

Explanation.

The correct answer should name social groups and give relevant examples:

1) classmates (for example, students demand from their classmate that he maintain discipline in class and not interfere with their studies);

2) ethnic group (for example, the child is taught the national language, national traditions and dances);

3) friends (for example, a person learns to build relationships according to the rules of mutual assistance).

Other groups may be named and other examples given.

Source: Unified State Examination in Social Studies 05/08/2014. Early wave, reserve day. Option 201.

Explanation.

The following signs of a democratic state can be named:

Election of governing bodies. Example: The population of the country V. participates in presidential elections

The population has democratic rights and freedoms. People demonstrated in defense of their interests.

Division of power into branches. The legislative power in the Russian Federation is represented by the Federal Assembly.

Source: I WILL SOLVE the Unified State Exam - Pre-exam paper 2014 in social studies.

Explanation.

Certificate of honor, state awards;

Promotion;

Bonuses;

Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are similar in meaning.

Source: Unified State Exam in Social Studies 03/30/2016. Early wave

What institutions (organizations, groups), besides the family, are involved in the socialization of the individual? Name any three institutions (organizations, groups) and give an example of the influence of each of them on the socialization of the individual.

Explanation.

The correct answer should name institutions (organizations, groups) and provide relevant examples, for example:

1) school (a first grader learns to maintain discipline in the classroom and do homework);

2) a company of friends (from friends a person learns about important events, new music and cinema, receives everyday information);

3) Media (by disseminating information about various events in the country and the world, public figures, the media influence the formation of public and individual consciousness).

Other institutions (organizations, groups) may be named and other examples given.

Explanation.

The answer may name and illustrate the following types social norms:

1) customs and traditions (for example, the tradition of decorating a Christmas tree for the New Year);

2) legal norms (for example, cross the street at a pedestrian crossing);

3) moral standards (for example: “Do unto others as you would like them to do unto you,” etc.).

Other types of norms may be named and other examples given.

Explanation.

The correct answer should name the sources of law and provide relevant examples, for example:

1) legal custom (for example, judicial duels among the barbarian peoples of Europe or the custom of blood feud);

2) legal act(for example, constitution, decree of the head of state, government resolution);

3) regulatory agreement(for example, a gift agreement, an international treaty of friendship and cooperation).

Other sources of law may be named and other examples given.

Explanation.

The correct answer should be named and illustrated with examples competitive advantages companies:

1) high quality manufactured products (for example, a greenhouse farm supplies vegetables to city supermarkets and wins over competitors due to the freshness of its products, the familiar taste of vegetables to consumers, and the lack of processing of vegetables with preservatives);

2) attractiveness appearance products (for example, women in country Z prefer mobile phones bright colors with various decorations for phones of “standard” colors, so manufacturers of bright phones outperform their competitors);

3) excellent service (for example, a metal door manufacturing company, unlike its competitors, offers customers maintenance services for the entire period of operation of the door);

4) convenience of office location (for example, entrepreneurs in city Z seek to rent premises in shopping centers located near metro stations).

Other competitive advantages may be named and other examples given.

The basis of the economy in country Z is microelectronics, telecommunications, robotics, production of materials with predetermined properties, biotechnology, etc. More and more of the working population is finding work in the service sector. What type of society is developing in country Z? Name any three characteristics corresponding to this type of society that are not mentioned in the text of the task.

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) type – information (post-industrial) society;

2) signs, for example:

– information (knowledge) becomes the leading factor of production;

– growing specific gravity"middle class";

– created necessary conditions for continuing education.

(Other signs may be named.)

Repetition of characteristics specified in the text of the assignment is not counted towards the assessment.

Source: Unified State Exam 2016 in social studies. (Part C, option 419)

The Constitution proclaims State Z to be a democratic federal parliamentary republic.

Name any three features of the form of government of state Z.

Explanation.

The correct answer may include following signs:

1) the highest bodies of the state are elected by citizens of the state for a certain period of time;

2) the government is formed on a parliamentary basis (usually by a parliamentary majority);

3) the government is responsible to parliament;

4) the government is competent to govern the state only when it enjoys the confidence of parliament;

5) the powers of parliament, in addition to legislation, include control over the government;

6) the prime minister is formally appointed by the president, but this can only be the head of a faction or coalition that has a parliamentary majority.

Signs may be worded differently

Source: Unified State Exam 2016 in social studies. (Part C, option 513)

Explanation.

The correct answer must name the species economic activity and corresponding examples are given, for example:

1) production (for example, a confectionery shop produces 30 types of cakes and pastries);

2) distribution (for example, the products of an automaker are delivered to hundreds of car dealerships around the world / production companies household appliances workers receive income in the form of wages, and the owners receive dividends);

3) exchange (for example, a citizen bought milk at a dairy factory store);

4) consumption (for example, guests ate a cake bought in a store). Other relevant examples may be given

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

Ordinary knowledge can be defined as the entire body of knowledge acquired by an individual thanks to his life and practical experience, which does not have a strict structure and does not require for its assimilation special training, and is also the common property of all members of society and is passed on from generation to generation. Ordinary, or everyday, knowledge is based on everyday experience, is well consistent with common sense and largely coincides with it...

If we talk about the connection between ordinary knowledge and science, it should be noted that ordinary knowledge should not be considered only as the antithesis of scientific-theoretical knowledge (thinking), although in a certain sense they, of course, oppose each other. Firstly, ordinary knowledge is unspecialized, everyday knowledge, while scientific knowledge is a specialized product, professional uniform human activity. Secondly, ordinary knowledge, as a rule, is limited to statements of facts, phenomena, and scientific knowledge strives to explore the pattern, focuses on finding something new.

Despite the fact that ordinary knowledge is limited to stating facts and does not explain them like science, nevertheless it presupposes belonging to the subject, characterizing the uniqueness of his world of needs and interests, reflecting objective reality to the extent that this is significant or possible for the subject. These types of knowledge are closely related to each other. This is explained by the fact that at present, in the formation of everyday knowledge, the popularization of scientific knowledge, which fills ordinary knowledge with new meanings, is of fundamental importance. Thanks to the popularization of scientific knowledge, there is an increase in general awareness, the intellectualization of everyday knowledge... Products scientific activity, in turn, can become common knowledge only if they are assimilated by ordinary consciousness.

Of course, on modern stage In its development, science has gone far from ordinary knowledge, but at the same time we must not forget that historically science arose from pre-scientific, that is, ordinary knowledge. Science is associated with this knowledge at the initial empirical stage scientific research and at the level of general worldviews.

((K.S. Turbina))

Explanation.

The correct answer should identify the differences and provide relevant examples:

1) everyday knowledge does not require special training for its assimilation, and to assimilate scientific knowledge it is necessary to master the language of science, understand its foundations, methods, etc. (for example, even a child has an idea of ​​how to use various household appliances, but for a scientist to work with laboratory equipment it is necessary to have special knowledge);

2) ordinary knowledge is based on life experience, and scientific knowledge is acquired as a result of a specially organized, targeted research process (for example, to combat moles, many garden owners put fragrant plants (garlic, onions, etc.) in mole passages); scientists identified the sounds made by moles in case of danger, and made special devices that generate such sounds);

3) everyday knowledge is unspecialized, and scientific knowledge is presented in various branches and groups of sciences (for example, it is popularly believed that before the rain, birds fly low; the behavior of birds is specially studied by ornithologists (one of the specialties within the biological sciences));

4) everyday knowledge, as a rule, is limited to the statement of facts and phenomena, and scientific knowledge seeks to explore the pattern (for example, housewives know that peeled potatoes quickly darken; scientists have found that the darkening of peeled potatoes is associated with the oxidation of the organic substances they contain).

Differences can be presented in other formulations that are similar in meaning, including in the form of quotations of the relevant provisions of the text. Other distinctions may be formulated based on the text.

Other examples may be given