II. Celts Celts are tribes of Indo-European origin: Helvetians, Belgians, Sequani, Lingons, Aedui, Bituringi, Arverni, Allobroges, Senones, Treveri, Bellovaci. The Celts reached their greatest power in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. The priests enjoyed great influence among the Celts -

Celts The ancient Celts believed that war was a very feminine matter. A medieval Irish text recalling distant pagan times reads: “The work which the best of women had to do was to go to battle and the battlefields, to take part in

What is known about the Celts

By the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Celtic tribes inhabited the basins of the Rhine, Seine, Loire and the upper Danube. The Romans would later call this territory Gaul. Over the course of the 6th–3rd centuries, the Celts occupied the lands of modern Spain, Britain, Northern Italy, Southern Germany, the Czech Republic, partly Hungary and Transylvania.

There were separate Celtic settlements to the south and east of these territories in the Illyrian and Thracian regions. In the 3rd century BC. e. The Celts undertook an unsuccessful campaign in Macedonia and Greece, as well as in Asia Minor, where some of the Celts settled and eventually began to be called Galatians.

In some countries, the Celts mixed with the local population and created a new, mixed culture, for example the Celtiberian culture in Spain. In other areas the local population was rapidly Celticized, such as the Ligurians of southern France, and minor traces of their language and culture survive only in a few place names and vestiges of religious beliefs.

Written references to the Celts

Written sources about early period The history of the Celts has almost never reached our time. They were first mentioned by Hecataeus of Miletus, then by Herodotus, who reported on Celtic settlements in Spain and on the Danube. Titus Livy testifies to the Celts' campaign against Italy during the reign of the Roman king Tarquinius Priscus in the 6th century BC. e.

390 - one of the Celtic tribes raided Rome. At the beginning of the 4th century, the Celts offered the tyrant of Sicily Dionysius I an alliance against Locris and Croton, with whom he was then at war. Later they appeared in his army as mercenaries. 335 - Celtic tribes living along the shores of the Adriatic Sea sent their representatives to.

Archaeological finds

This scant written evidence is supplemented by archaeological finds. The spread of the so-called La Tène culture created by them is associated with the Celts. The name comes from the Bay of La Tène on Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a fortification and a large number of Celtic weapons characteristic of this culture were found.

Monuments of the La Tène culture make it possible to trace the gradual development of the Celtic tribes and the history of their penetration into different regions of Europe.

During the first stage of its development, in the middle of the 6th - end of the 5th century, La Tène culture was spread from France to the Czech Republic. A large number of swords, daggers, helmets, bronze and gold jewelry may indicate that even then Celtic craftsmanship had reached a high level.

Art was also at a high level, as evidenced, for example, by artistically decorated dishes. At the same time, Greek things began to appear in burials, penetrating to the Celts through Massalia along the Rhone and Saone rivers. Greek art noticeably influenced Celtic art, although local craftsmen did not blindly follow Greek models, but reworked them, adapting them to their tastes and traditions.

Culture

In the 5th–3rd centuries, due to the settlement of the Celts, the La Tène culture spread over time to other European regions. The products of Celtic artisans are beginning to improve more and more. The Greek influence is felt less and less. In the west, enamel decorations typical of the Celts appear. Ceramics made on a potter's wheel became widespread.

Agriculture

Celtic farming comes to the fore high level. It was the Celts who invented the heavy plow with a cutter. This plow was capable of plowing the ground to a much greater depth than the light plow that the Italics and Greeks used in those days. In agriculture, the Celts used a three-field system that ensured good harvests. Flour from the Celtic regions was readily purchased in Italy.

Moving into new areas, the Celts distributed lands to pagas - tribes or clans. In Britain, which was little connected to the outside world, ancestral tribal ownership of land persisted for a long time.

On the continent, where the Celts entered into trade relations with Greek and Italian merchants, private ownership of land eventually appeared. Tribal community was replaced by rural ones, while the nobility stood out from among the community members and managed to seize more land.

From this nobility the Celtic cavalry was formed, which constituted the main force of the army. The cavalry replaced the war chariots, which had previously been common among the Celts, and survived only in Britain.

Construction

The high skill of the Celts in fortification can be evidenced by the remains of their fortifications - huge walls of stone blocks held together by oak beams. These so-called Gallic walls were later borrowed by other peoples.

Trade

By the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century, trade among the continental Celts had reached such a level that they began to mint their own gold and silver coin according to the type of coins of Massalia, Rhodes and Rome, as well as Macedonian ones. Initially, the coin appears among tribes that were closely associated with the poleis of the Greek and Roman world, but by the 1st century more distant tribes, including the tribes of Britain, began to mint it.

The development of trade led to the decomposition of primitive communal relations, which occurred especially quickly among tribes in direct contact with the ancient world.

End of Celtic expansion

In the 2nd century, the expansion of the Celts ceased. One of the reasons is a meeting with such a strong enemy as the Germans, who were advancing towards the Rhine, and the Romans, who in 121 captured southern, so-called Narbonne, Gaul and increasingly asserted their influence and dominance in the Danube regions.

The last major movement of the Celtic tribes was the arrival from the Rhine regions of the Belgian tribe, which established itself in the north of Gaul and in some Rhine regions of Germany. By the end of the 2nd century BC. e. the Celts have already reached last stage disintegration of the primitive communal system. The tribal nobility owned vast lands and slaves who were used as servants.

The end of the primitive communal system

Many tribal community members found themselves dependent on the nobility and were forced to cultivate their lands, paying a certain fee, as well as join squads and fight for their leaders. By this time, individual pagi had already united into more or less large tribal communities. The most significant of them were the communities of the Aedui and Erverni.

Communities subjugated less powerful tribes, which became dependent on them. Cities began to appear, which were centers of craft and trade, and in some cases, political centers. Cities were usually well fortified.

Most Celtic tribes developed a semblance of an aristocratic republic, somewhat similar to the early Roman Republic. The former tribal leaders, whom ancient authors called kings, were expelled. They were replaced by a council of the aristocracy and magistrates chosen from among them - the so-called vergobrets. The main task of the Vergobrets was the introduction of the court.

Often, individual representatives of the nobility made attempts to seize sole power. They were supported by the squad and the people, who hoped that they would limit the power of the landowners who oppressed them. But such attempts were usually quickly suppressed.

Druids

Along with the nobility, whom the Romans called horsemen, the priesthood, the Druids, also played a major role. They were organized into a corporation headed by the Archdruid, they were freed from military service and payment of taxes and were revered as the guardians of divine wisdom and some, however, rather meager knowledge. Representatives of the aristocracy who mastered their teachings were accepted among the Druids.

The Druids gathered every year and held court. The decisions of this court were strictly binding on all Gauls. The Druids forbade the disobedient to participate in religious ceremonies, which separated them from society.

The teachings of the Druids were secret and taught orally. It took up to 20 years to master it. Little is known about its contents. As you can see, the basis of the Druid teachings was the idea of ​​the immortality of the soul or the transmigration of souls and the idea of ​​the end of the world, which will be destroyed by fire and water. It is difficult to determine to what extent this teaching could have influenced the religion of the Celts, about which very little is also known. Along with the cult of the spirits of the forest, mountains, rivers, streams, etc., the cult of the gods of the sun, thunder of war, life and death, crafts, eloquence, etc. also developed. Human sacrifices were made to some of these gods.

Stages of development

Not all Celtic tribes were at the same stage of development. The northern tribes more distant from Italy, in particular the Belgians, still lived in a primitive communal system, just like the British Celts. Attempts at Roman penetration were met with sharp rebuff here. On the contrary, the tribes of Southern Gaul, especially the Aedui, were already on the verge of transition to a class society and state. The local nobility, in the fight against their fellow tribesmen and other tribes, sought the help of Rome, which subsequently facilitated the conquest of Gaul and its transformation into a Roman province.

Despite the fact that both secular academic science and church historians show great interest in Celticology and the phenomenon of the Celtic church, the question: “Who were the Celts and where did they live?” There is still no clear and precise answer.

IN ancient literature you can find several varieties of names for the Celts - these are “Gallatians”, and “Gauls”, and “Celts”. It is known that the historical formation of Northern and Central Europe took place precisely under the influence of this people. Celtic tribes of Indo-European origin came to Western Europe much earlier than other Aryans.

History of the Celts

The pages of history present the Celts as a barbarian people who were born in the Northern Alps around the 7th century BC. The history of the Celts begins with their conquest of European territories.

• In the 6th century BC, the fiery red Celts descended on Europe and swept their war chariots through the territories where France, Spain, and Britain are located today. The territory of modern France began to be called by their name - Gaul. Here the Celts created the core of their lands and the base of a new expansion towards the east.
• After some time, they managed to conquer Bohemia (modern Czech Republic), the Middle Danube basin, and then Greece.
• Famous history the assault on Rome (in 390 BC) was unsuccessful.
• Later, the Celts crossed to Asia Minor, forming their own state in its center. Around the same time, Ireland was settled by them.
• In the 3rd century BC. e. the Celts began to be plagued by misfortune. The countries they conquered recovered from their defeats and began to fight back against the enslavers.
• As a result, the Celts decided to begin developing the conquered territories. They connected their cities with the world's first network of roads and developed river navigation.
• However, in 60-50 BC, the Celts lost their dominance on the mainland, they were expelled from Central Europe, and subsequently Gaul was conquered by Caesar.
• Gaul came under the influence of Roman civilization, its population began to be called Gallo-Romans. During this period, the Gauls became one of the most developed and populous provinces of the empire, despite the fact that they were subjected to strong Romanization.
• The rest of the mainland Celts were subjected to a similar fate. The Celtic culture survived only in the territories of modern England and Ireland.

Video about the Celtic civilization

Celtic lifestyle

The Celtic way of life is one of peaceful creative work. They were well developed Agriculture. Since ancient times, Celtic tribes have been engaged in growing flax, hemp, breeding pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, poultry, as well as hunting and fishing.

Material culture, agricultural economic structure, social organization and the languages ​​of the Celts developed through the mixing of foreign cultures.

Among other things, the Celts were also engaged in blacksmithing. Thanks to developed metallurgy, they made high-quality tools and weapons.

What did the Celts look like?

Thanks to military exercises and labor, the Celts had good health and endurance. If you want to know what the Celts looked like, then look at the current northern Europeans with golden hair - their appearance has quite a lot in common with the ancient Celts.

In the Ancient and Middle Ages, Celts wore red or auburn hair, shaved beards and long mustaches. Due to the constant physical exertion associated with military or peasant work, the physique of both men and women was distinguished by incredible strength and power.

Men wore wide checkered or striped colored tunics, trousers and woolen cloaks. Women's clothing consists of dresses decorated with bright patterns or fringes. An indispensable attribute of Celtic attire is a waist chain, which acts as an ordinary belt.

The Celts had an appearance that was unusual for the Mediterranean: blue eyes, fair skin and hair. At the same time, it was customary to lubricate the hair with a solution of lime, which gave it extraordinary rigidity and similarity to a horse’s mane.

Where did the Celts live?

It is known that the Celts settled Ireland in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e. However, different historians have different opinions about where the Celts lived before. According to the most common one, their homeland is the Northern Alps.

The Celts lived in rather primitive dwellings: as a rule, they were stone or wooden houses with a floor sunk into the ground. They covered the roofs of their houses with straw. Since such buildings could not protect villagers from enemy attacks, the Celts built shelters in the form of stone towers. Castles served as homes for the tribal nobility.

It is believed that the descendants of the Celts currently inhabit primarily the British Isles and in most cases they are Irish.

Celtic art

Celtic art was borrowed from the Illyrians, Iberians, Thracians, as well as from some other tribes with which they came into contact. The art of the Celts was distinguished by characteristic ornaments made on metal. Their first ornaments were made using the engraving technique, and later Celtic craftsmen learned to make relief images. A fairly developed direction among the Celts was the manufacture jewelry with characteristic ornaments.

Around the 1st century BC. e. Ceramics, glass, and bronze are used as materials for the manufacture of various objects.

Music of the Celts

Celtic music left its mark on culture modern descendants living in the following areas:

• Ireland.
• Scotland.
• Cornwall.
• Wales.
• Brittany.
• Galicia.
• Cantabria.
• Asturias.

Celtic traditional music was synthesized with popular music genres, resulting in the formation of a whole movement - Celtic fusion.

Today, Celtic music has the following varieties:

• Irish.
• Scottish.
• Isle of Man.
• Breton.
• Welsh et al.

The Celtic civilization was very powerful. This can be judged by the names of European cities and regions: French Gaul and Spanish Galicia. Belgium, Bohemia and Aquitaine were named after individual Celtic tribes.

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World history has left humanity many mysteries in the form of unusual architectural structures that scientists find from time to time. The ancient Celts left the most questions about their existence to their descendants. Until now, information about this civilization reaches us in the form of fragmentary and not always reliable legends and myths.

Who are the Celts?

Europe has become a home for many tribes and nationalities. In the process of their development and spread across European territory, they often mixed and became a single whole. In this case, it was difficult to separate the traditions and culture of one people from another.

The history of the Celts looks completely different. They appeared in Europe unexpectedly and quickly filled almost all territories. The barbarian tribes were not afraid to attack the Greeks and Romans. More often than not, their raids were successful and brought large amounts of booty to the tribes.

The name of the nationality was given by the Greeks; it was they who first introduced the word “Celts” into use. It is still unknown where this name came from. Historians come to the conclusion that this could be the name of only one of the many tribes. But in the end, the name was assigned to the entire nation that settled on the territory of modern Britain and had similar language. Subsequently, the tribes united, which affected the expansion vocabulary and common cultural traditions.

History of the Celts: several centuries of mystery

Traces of the Celts are found throughout Europe; archaeologists attribute this to the fact that they preferred a nomadic lifestyle and often moved long distances. It is still unknown how the Celtic tribes lived before the fifth century; there is no information about them.

Only from the period of their appearance in Europe they began to be talked about and mentioned in written sources. It’s amazing that somewhere for many centuries there lived a people that no one knew about. After all, neither the Greeks nor the Romans had any idea who a Celt was. This seems incredible and is the reason for the myths about the mystical origin of the people.

Scientists know for sure that the Celts had a clear hierarchy, based not on military power, but on mythology and religious beliefs, which significantly distinguishes this people from other nomadic tribes.

At the moment, almost all data on cultural heritage Celts are counterfeit. All unusual finds of past centuries in Europe had one single explanation - the Celt. This has led to the fact that it is now incredibly difficult to separate fact from fiction.

Archaeologists and historians of our time are collecting material, bit by bit, that has a scientific basis. But studying the history of the Celts is complicated by the fact that they did not have a written language. This is another mystery of the Celtic civilization, because it had a fairly high level of development. Why did the Celts not recognize written sources? This secret died with them.

The Celts' hierarchy was represented by three classes:

• Druids;
• warriors;
• peasants.

Each class was extremely separate and never intersected. Marriages between members of different classes were suppressed.

The decline of Celtic civilization is associated with the conquests of the Roman Empire. She managed to capture all the territories where the Celts lived. They were forced to hide in forests and caves. In Ireland, they built entire underground cities, as local residents believed, through ancient magic and sorcery.

Back then, the Irish were still in awe of the word “Celt”. This was due to the enormous power of the priests, who possessed extraordinary knowledge, transmitted only by word of mouth. With the spread of Christianity throughout Europe, the Celts began to disappear, and over time they became a civilization lost to the world.

Druids - bearers of ancient sacred knowledge

The Celts' priest was part of a special caste of Druids. They lived separately, but willingly shared their knowledge. Training at the Druid school took twenty years; boys were selected from childhood and knowledge was passed on to them orally.

Until now, no one knows what was available to the priests. But throughout Europe there are legends about the abilities of the Druids, who could talk to trees and animals, move huge stones and build structures from them, as well as heal the most terrible wounds and move through the air.

The Druids performed sacrifices in a sacred oak grove and, based on the results of communication with the gods, made decisions on important matters in the tribe. The priests led moon calendar, according to which the whole tribe lived.

Religious beliefs and gods of the Celts: a set of paradoxes

The Druid religion is difficult to understand modern man. She combined high knowledge about existence and the spiritual with cruel rituals. Analyzing this fact, it is difficult to imagine that such actions were done by the same Celt. I can't wrap my head around this. After all, it is impossible to advocate for balance and protect all living things from one’s interference, and commit demonstrative killings of enemies that last several nights.

It is difficult to say how the beliefs in a single god, represented in three forms (which surprisingly resonates with Christianity), coexisted in the Celtic tribes with nightly orgies of priestesses, accompanied by torchlight processions.

Some scientists put forward the version that the Druids and Celts are absolutely different races. But so far this theory has found neither confirmation nor refutation.

The influence of the Celts on the culture of Europe

Despite the fact that in the minds of many Europeans the words “barbarian” and “Celt” are synonymous, this is fundamentally incorrect. The Germanic peoples, for example, borrowed Celtic technologies and motifs to make jewelry and ceramics. The Roman conquerors took advantage of established trade ties, and the Irish adopted from the Celts a unity with nature and the ability to find inspiration in it.

It is unknown how much the modern peoples of Europe learned from the Celts. Perhaps all our achievements and cultural values are but a faint reflection of the once majestic and magical civilization of the Celts.

Celts are the name given to tribes of Indo-European origin in ancient times and at the turn of the era, who occupied vast areas in Western and Central Europe. It was very warlike people, who in 390 BC. even captured and sacked Rome. But internecine wars weakened the warlike people. As a result, the Germans and Romans drove the Celts out of their lands. These tribes remained surrounded by numerous secrets, intrigues, and therefore myths. Let's try to understand who they really were.

The Celts lived in what is now Britain and Ireland. It is difficult to say anything definitive about the origins of the Celts. Some historians believe that they inhabited Britain as early as 3,200 years ago, while others believe that they inhabited Britain long before that. But one thing is clear - the migration of the Celts began around 400 BC. from Central Europe. The tribes began to spread in all directions, but to the south they had to face the strong Romans. It turned out that the warlike but disparate Celts were opposed by a single unified empire. The tribes constantly fought with each other, without thinking about uniting against common enemy. As a result, some of the tribes were completely destroyed, others submitted to the Romans, adopting their culture, and others generally went to the remote corners of that world - to Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are still communities of modern Celts there who even strive to preserve their culture. And in their travels, the Celts even reached Greece and Egypt.

The Celts fought naked. When mentioning the Celts, there is always someone who will mention their tradition of fighting naked with a gold band around their necks, a neck mane. This myth about the Celts is one of the most popular. But once you think about such a statement, its absurdity immediately becomes clear. And this false statement appeared thanks to the Romans. Today, almost all the information we have about these ancient tribes comes from the records of Roman historians. There is no doubt that they exaggerated their exploits, and described the enemy as absolutely primitive savages. In this case, history was made by the victors; was it worth expecting honesty from it towards the vanquished? But there is another side to this story. The Celts lived during a period of history called the Iron Age. Then, instead of bronze, they just started using iron. It was used to make armor, weapons and tools. The Celts had the opportunity to arm themselves with swords, axes, hammers, create metal armor, chain mail, and rivet leather. Given the existence of armor, it would be foolish to assume that warriors abandoned them and fought naked.

Druids were ancient wizards. For that time, the Celtic Druids were truly powerful characters. They didn't just wear white robes and perform human sacrifices, but they did truly incredible things. Druids acted as advisers to tribal leaders and even kings. With their help, laws were born, just like today English parliament“invites” the queen to sign the acts. Druids often acted as judges, ensuring compliance with the rules they themselves introduced. For the Celts, the Druids were the personification of wisdom. No wonder you had to study for 20 years to earn such a title. The Druids had knowledge of astronomy, they kept folk legends and cultivated natural philosophy. Celtic wise men told villagers when they should start sowing. The Druids even believed that they could predict the future.

Celtic traditions died with them. Thanks to the Celtic Druids, one appeared and was preserved interesting tradition which we still know today. The fact is that in those days the oak was considered a sacred tree. The Druids believed that the gods lived in everything that surrounds us, including rocks, water, and plants. No less sacred a thing than the oak tree was the mistletoe, which grew on it. Beliefs in the powers of these plants continue to this day. It is no coincidence that in the English-speaking world there is a Christmas tradition of kissing under the mistletoe.

Celtic women were sullen. Based on the assumption that the Celts were savages (thanks to the Romans!), it is logical to consider their women gloomy and downtrodden. But this is a myth. In fact, Celtic women could be quite powerful and influential, owning their own land and even divorcing at will. For those times, such freedoms seemed incredible. Roman women were essentially limited in their rights, but among the Celts, women could make a career by climbing the social ladder. High status could be both inherited and acquired through merit. Among the Celts, landowners followed their leader into battle. If it turned out to be a woman, then she too went into battle. In fact, among the Celts, female warriors even taught boys and girls the art of war. Women could even become druids, creating the laws of society. These norms protected everyone in the Celtic tribe, including the elderly, the sick and infirm, and children. It was believed that the latter were still innocent, and therefore they should be protected. But in Roman society, children were often abandoned, left to die hungry in garbage dumps. So the Celts were not savages at all, as the Romans would have us believe.

The Celts didn't build roads. It is difficult to argue with the fact that it was thanks to Roman engineers that a network of roads appeared that enveloped the whole of Europe. In fact, we cannot agree with this. After all, long before the Romans, the Celts built a whole network of wooden roads that connected neighboring tribes. These lines of communication allowed the Celts to trade with each other. It’s just that wooden roads turned out to be short-lived, there was practically nothing left of this material - it rotted. But today, in the marshes of France, England and Ireland, some wooden planks, parts of the road, are still found. Based on the fact that the Romans were never able to conquer Ireland, we can safely assume that the old planks were created by the Celts as part of the road surface. In the same Ireland there is the Corlea Trail, on which there are many parts of the old road. In some places it was even reconstructed so that you could see which way the Celtic tribes moved at one time.

The Celts had strange, but uniform helmets. Based on the fact that the Celts had metal armor, it is logical to assume the existence of helmets corresponding to it. They were often unusual - the Celts were not shy about experimenting with design. One such piece of equipment was found in the Romanian village of Cumesti, where these tribes also went. Here archaeologists found an old cemetery dating back to iron age. Among the 34 graves there was one that belonged to a Celtic leader. He was buried along with numerous items, including bronze axes and rich armor. It was believed that they were supposed to help the deceased in the afterlife. But an unusual helmet stood out among all the vestments. On it an unknown master forged a large bird of prey, spreading her bronze wings. The design of this decoration looks unusual - the bird’s wings were suspended on hinges, so when the owner of the helmet walked, the creature seemed to be flying. Historians believe that the fluttering helmet was still rather impractical in battle and the leader wore it only on special occasions. But the helmet became one of the most famous and copied masterpieces of Celtic art. Even Asterisk and Obelix have something similar.

The Celts thought only about who to fight with. This people became famous not only for their travels, but also for their love of battles. However, the Celts fought on anyone’s side, but not for free. Even King Ptolemy II, a representative of the glorious Egyptian dynasty, took these warriors as mercenaries. And the European tribes turned out to be such good soldiers that the king was afraid that they might take over his country. Ptolemy therefore ordered the Celts to land on desert island in the Nile. The Greeks also met with the Celts. At that time, the tribes were just expanding their territories. Those events are known in history as the Gallic invasion of the Balkans. Its culmination was the Battle of Delphi, which ended in the defeat of the uninvited guests. The fact is that once again the scattered Celts were opposed by trained united armies. So in 270 BC. The Celts were expelled from Delphi.

The Celts cut off the heads of their enemies. This fact is almost the most famous about the Celts, but it is still true. Indeed, the tribes were engaged in a real headhunt. It was this part of the body of a defeated enemy that was considered the most coveted trophy for the Celts. The reason for this is religion, which asserts the existence of spirits in all things. Likewise, the human head was imagined as a place where the souls of defeated enemies live. The warrior who had such a collection was surrounded by honor. And the heads of enemies around gave the Celts self-confidence and a sense of importance. It was customary to decorate saddles and house doors with the severed heads of enemies. It was something of owning a collection of luxury luxury cars in modern world. Today people boast about a new stylish car, but back then they boasted about the head of a powerful, hostile leader appearing in their collection.

The Celts were a poor people. To debunk this myth, it’s worth diving into history a little. For the time being, the Celts and Romans coexisted peacefully next to each other. But then Julius Caesar appeared on the scene. His political career did not work out, and he was burdened with burdensome debts. It seemed obvious that a small, victorious war against the primitive barbarians, the Celts, could improve the situation. The Gallic Wars are often considered the most important military manifestation of the genius of Julius Caesar. Thanks to that campaign, the border of the empire began to expand rapidly. At the same time, Caesar defeated the Celtic tribes one after another and captured their territories. This victory changed the fate of that region known in the ancient world as Gaul, with its Celtic tribes living there. Caesar himself gained fame and influence. But why exactly did he attack Gaul? The Roman himself wrote that he tried to push back the barbarian tribes that threatened Rome. But historians see the reasons somewhat differently. One of these invading tribes were the Helvetii, who lived near the Alps. Caesar promised them protection when moving to Gaul. But then Rome changed its mind, and the barbarians decided to act on their own. Caesar stated that it was necessary to protect the Celts living in Gaul. As a result, the Romans exterminated more than a quarter of a million “invaders,” and in the process of defending their territories, almost all the Celts were destroyed. Gaul itself became part of a powerful empire. And this has a lot to do with wealth. Caesar needed money to pay off his debts and gain influence for his career. Not only did Gaul bring him fame as a commander, this territory was very rich in gold deposits. The Celts were known to have gold coins and jewelry, but these were thought to have been obtained through trade. But Caesar did not believe it. It turned out that there were more than four hundred gold mines on the territory of Gaul. This testified to the incredible wealth of the Celts, which was the reason for Caesar’s interest in them. Interestingly, Rome began minting its gold coins just after the conquest of Gaul.

The Celts were poorly educated. Once again, it is worth understanding that the Romans did their best to show their rivals in the worst possible light. In fact, these people were not at all as simple-minded as they are imagined. Moreover, the Celts owned something that even the Romans did not have - an accurate calendar. Yes, it existed Julian calendar, but the Celts had their own calendar from Coligny. It was found in this French city back in 1897, which gave its name to the discovery. Not only does he have unusual look, so the calendar turned out to be made of mysterious metal plates with numerous marks: holes, numbers, lines, a set of Greek and Roman letters. For a hundred years, scientists could only understand that they were dealing with a calendar, but the principle of its operation remained a mystery. Only in 1989 was the invention of the Celts able to be deciphered. It turned out that the find was a solar-lunar calendar, which calculated the time of year based on the cycles of the appearance of celestial bodies. For that state of civilization, the calendar was very accurate, being an advanced invention. With its help, the Celts could predict where the sun would be in the sky in future months. This find clearly proved that the Celts had developed scientific and mathematical thinking. It would be interesting to compare the invention of the “barbarians” with the calendar used by the Romans. It was also considered quite accurate for its time, having an error with the actual solar calendar of only 11.5 minutes per year. But over centuries, this error quickly accumulates. As a result, in our time the Romans would celebrate the beginning of spring when it would be August in our yard. But the Celtic calendar, even today, would be able to correctly predict the seasons. So the Romans had a lot to learn from the “uneducated” barbarians.