100 main cathedral of 1551. Stoglav

The process of strengthening state power inevitably again raised the question of the position of the church in the state. The royal power, whose sources of income were few and whose expenses were high, looked with envy at the wealth of churches and monasteries.

At a meeting of the young tsar with Metropolitan Macarius in September 1550, an agreement was reached: monasteries were forbidden to found new settlements in the city, and to establish new courtyards in old settlements. Posad people who fled from the tax to the monastery settlements, in addition, were “brought back” back. This was dictated by the needs of the state treasury.

However, such compromise measures did not satisfy the government. In January-February 1551, a church council was held, at which the royal questions drawn up were read Sylvester and imbued with a non-acquisitive spirit. The answers to them amounted to one hundred chapters of the verdict of the council, which received the name Stoglavogo, or Stoglav. The Tsar and his entourage were concerned “whether it was worthy for monasteries to acquire land and receive various preferential charters. By decision of the council, royal assistance to monasteries that had villages and other possessions ceased. Stoglav forbade giving money from the monastery treasury for “growth” and bread for “nasp”, i.e. at interest, which deprived the monasteries of permanent income.

A number of participants Stoglavy Cathedral(the Josephites) met the program set out in the king's questions with fierce resistance.

The program of tsarist reforms outlined by the Elected Rada was rejected in the most significant points by the Stoglavy Council. The wrath of Ivan IV fell on the most prominent representatives of the Josephites. On May 11, 1551 (i.e., a few days after the end of the council), the purchase of patrimonial lands by monasteries “without reporting” to the tsar was prohibited. All the lands of the boyars, which they had transferred there during Ivan’s childhood (from 1533), were taken away from the monasteries. This established control royal power over the movement of church land funds, although the properties themselves remained in the hands of the church. The church retained its possessions even after 1551.

At the same time, transformations were carried out in the internal life of the church. The previously created pantheon of all-Russian saints was established, and a number of church rituals were unified. Measures were also taken to eradicate the immorality of the clergy.

The fate of the reforms of the 50s of the 16th century.

It is generally accepted that the reforms of the Elected Rada were carried out in order to strengthen the social position of the noble class as opposed to the conservative boyars, which was slowing down this process. V.B. Kobrin managed to prove that almost all layers of society were interested in strengthening the state. Therefore, the reforms were carried out not to please any one class and not against any class. The reforms meant the formation of a Russian estate-representative state. At the same time, a reasonable balance in the distribution of power between a number of classes (Zemsky Sobors), the government (the Elected Rada) and the tsar was implied and put into practice. It took time for this system to be approved. Due to a number of circumstances, equilibrium power structures became unstable already in the first half of the 50s. Reform activities were nullified in the 60s by external (Livonian War) and internal (oprichnina) reasons. The personality of Tsar Ivan, a man of statesmanlike mind, but with an exaggeratedly developed lust for power, and, perhaps on this basis, with some mental deviations, also meant a lot here. Subsequently, as if justifying his actions, Ivan IV wrote that Adashev And Sylvester“They governed themselves as they wanted, but they took the state away from me: in word I was a sovereign, but in deed I had no control over anything.” However, modern historians assign him government affairs somewhat different place. “The participation of Ivan IV in government activities in the 60s does not contradict the fact that many reforms (perhaps even most of them) were conceived by the leaders of the Elected Rada. The main merit of Ivan IV in these years was that he called for the rule of such politicians, like Adashev and Sylvester, and, apparently, really submitted to their influence,” writes V.B. Kobrin.

The break with those close to him did not come immediately. Their hesitation during Ivan’s illness in 1553, tense relations with the queen’s relatives, the Zakharyins, and, perhaps, with herself lead to psychological incompatibility. The desire to pursue an independent policy - foreign and domestic - leads to political incompatibility. By the autumn of 1559, reform activities ceased. In 1560 there was a denouement. Sylvester was sent into exile: first to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery, then to the Solovetsky Monastery. A.Adashev was sent to the army operating in Livonia, but was soon arrested together with his brother Danil. Only death (1561) saved the former head of the Elected Rada from further persecution.

Many clergy were convened at the Kremlin Palace for a council: the metropolitan, nine archbishops, archimandrites, abbots, etc.; The highest worldly dignitaries were also present.

The king addressed them with the following speech:

“The Most Reverend Macarius, Metropolitan of All Rus', and the archbishops and bishops and the entire consecrated cathedral... Having asked God for help with us, help me, judge and confirm according to the rules of the holy fathers and according to the previous laws of our ancestors, so that every matter and every custom in our kingdom were created according to God's command. About the old customs that have been shaken since my father, about the traditions and laws that have been broken, about the neglected commandments of God about the earthly structure, about the error of our souls - think about all this, talk and let us know...”

Collection of resolutions of Stoglav. Front page

Then Ivan IV indicated a number of issues that, in his opinion, the council should think about. These instructions from the tsar to the council are very curious, since from them one can clearly imagine the situation of the Russian church and popular morality in the half of the 16th century.

Here are some of these guidelines.

“They ring in churches, sing and perform services not according to the rules. The priests “make a great sale” with sacred things (antimensions). Scribes write divine books from incorrect translations and do not correct them. Pupils learn to read and write in a careless manner. In monasteries, some take monastic vows not for spiritual salvation, but for the sake of bodily peace; they indulge in drinking and do not live like monks. Mallows are spoken of (magic) over the prosphora. In churches, people often stand indecently: in tafyas and hats, with sticks, they talk loudly, sometimes say obscene speeches in church, quarrel, and the priests and deacons sing disorderly, the clergy are often drunk. It happens that priests and deacons serve in the church in drunk. Christians bring Easter, cheeses, eggs, baked fish on the big day, and on other days rolls, pies, pancakes, loaves and all sorts of vegetables - all this is brought in Moscow not only to the church, but even to the altar. The weakness and negligence of some Orthodox Christians has reached the point that people thirty years of age and older shave their heads and beards, wear clothes and clothes from other faiths, so that it is difficult to recognize a Christian. Others sign of the cross they do not put it on themselves, they swear falsely in the name of God, they bark without shame (without shame) with all sorts of inappropriate speeches; Even among people of other faiths such outrages do not occur. How does God tolerate our fearlessness?”

From these royal instructions to the council it is clear that the ancient piety, in which the Russians were strong, began to waver from the rudeness of morals; that even clergy did not always observe church piety and rude pagan superstitions(magic on prosphora) began to creep into church life. Finally, from the words of Ivan IV it is clear that in the very public life there was a lot of rudeness and disorderliness, contrary to the Christian spirit.

The council, having discussed the issues proposed by the tsar, decided to take measures against the indicated evils and shortcomings and compiled a collection of rules of church order and deanery. His goal was to renew and improve church and public life and eliminate abuses in church administration and economy. This collection contained 100 chapters and was therefore called “Stoglav”. Based on the title of the collection, the church council itself of 1551 began to be called the Stoglavy Cathedral or Stoglav.

Stoglav ordered priests to elect archpriests from among themselves as church elders - shepherds “skillful, kind and immaculate in their lives.” The elders with their assistants, the tens, had, according to the decision of the council, to ensure that everything in the churches (bell ringing, divine services and all kinds of services) was performed in an orderly manner and that all the priests did their work decently, as it should be according to the charter. Selected elders, according to Stoglav, must appear to the metropolitan for testing and instruction. Cathedral churches must keep divine rules, which they must constantly comply with.

If the holy books in any church are found faulty with errors, then the Council of the Hundred Heads of 1551 commanded the archpriests and senior priests to correct them conciliarly (together), guided by a good translation, and let the scribes copying books be ordered to copy from good translations and verify them. The cathedral ordered the icon painters to paint icons only from ancient images, as Greek painters wrote, and not to change anything “from their intentions.”

The Cathedral of the Hundred Heads entrusted teaching children to read and write to the responsibility of priests. In Moscow and other cities, in the homes of pious and skilled priests, deacons and clerks, it was decided to establish schools where all Orthodox Christians could send their children to learn literacy, church reading and writing. Mentors were supposed to instill in their students the fear of God and monitor their morality.

Regarding the life of priests, Stoglav decreed that they should set an example of all virtues, piety, and sobriety. At feasts and in all worldly gatherings, priests should talk spiritually and teach all kinds of virtues using divine scripture; but they themselves would not do idle words, blasphemy and ridicule, and they would forbid their spiritual children... In order to restrain the people from disorderly conduct, the council of 1551 ordered the auction to be called, so that Orthodox Christians, young and old, would not swear falsely in the name of God , they did not use obscene words, they did not shave their beards, they did not trim their mustaches, since the custom of doing this is not Christian, but Latin and heretical.

Stoglav also ordered the abbots and abbots to strictly observe that “church order (order) and the monastery structure” were not violated in any way. Everything must be in accordance with the Divine Charter, with the rules of St. fathers and apostles. Monks, according to the inspiration of Stoglav, should beware of all sin and reprehensible deeds, beware of intoxicating things, should not keep any vodka, beer, or honey in their cells, but drink kvass and other non-intoxicating drinks; Fryazhian (foreign) wines are not prohibited, since nowhere is it written that you cannot drink them. Where there are these wines in the monastery, the monks “let them drink for the glory of God, and not for the sake of drunkenness.” The abbots must have food in common with the brethren.

In addition to these issues, the Stoglavy Council of 1551 drew attention to other excesses and superstitions. It was stated that buffoons play at weddings, and when they go to the church to get married, the priest rides with a cross, and in front of him the buffoons prowl with demonic games. These buffoons, gathered in large groups, walk through the villages, commit all sorts of violence, rob the property of peasants, and even engage in robbery on the roads. Stoglav mentions that boyar children and boyar people and all sorts of hawkmoths (revelers) play with grain, get drunk, do not serve in services, do not hunt, and do a lot of evil, sometimes even rob and commit robbery. False prophets and prophetesses, men and women, walk through villages and villages; sometimes naked people, with their hair down, shake and are killed and say that St. appears to them. Friday and St. Anastasia, they are commanded not to do manual work on Wednesday and Friday, for women not to spin, not to wash, etc. The Stoglavy Cathedral arms itself against pagan fortune-telling and superstitions, lists superstitious fortune-telling books (Rafli, Six-winged, Voronogray, etc.), attacks pagan games the day before Midsummer, Christmas, Epiphany, etc.

But despite all the good wishes of the clergy who gathered at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551, they were unable to eliminate these excesses and superstitions. And what could Stoglav do? He decided, for example, to establish schools in the houses of priests, and yet at the council it was immediately explained why it was necessary to appoint as priests and deacons persons who “have little knowledge of literacy”: if they are not installed, the holy churches will be without worship, the Orthodox will die without repentance; and when the saints of these proteges ask why they know little how to read and write, they answer: “We learn from our fathers or from our masters, but we have nowhere else to learn.” Who could teach, when in the time of Stoglav there were very few not only learned priests, but even those who knew a fair amount of literacy? Who was supposed to edit faulty church books, find “good” translations from which to make lists? Illiterate priests, with all their good intentions, could spoil books rather than correct them. Where was it possible in the era of Stoglav to choose such church elders who could really guard Christ’s teaching and Orthodoxy in all its purity, and instruct other priests, when, according to the fair expression of Maxim the Greek, the Russian literati of that time “only wandered through ink, but did not understand the power of the written word” ? The strong decline in enlightenment - even among the clergy - was the main reason for the troubles that occupied the clergy at the Council of the Stoglavy in 1551. But they saw main reason, like the king, only in that “the old customs have been shaken and the old laws have been destroyed,” and he thought to help the trouble with strict instructions and prohibitions. They didn’t understand then best people that the spirit of faith and piety was suppressed by ignorance and dead ritualism. The participants of Stoglav themselves attached too much importance to the ritual and appearance. great value: along with grave sins they put foreign clothing and shaving the beard!.. Yes, even if it had been recognized at the Council of the Stoglavy that the main evil that must be fought is general and extreme ignorance, then even then they would not have been able to help the trouble soon: ignorance is a disease from which society takes centuries to heal.

In February 1551, at a church council in Moscow, Ivan IV made a speech in which he outlined 69 questions to the church and asked for answers to them “according to the rules of the Holy Fathers.” The answers of church leaders compiled a book of 100 chapters (Stoglav), dedicated to issues of canonical life. The source material, in addition to canonical sources, was the Helmsman's Book, the Charter of St. Vladimir, the decrees of the Council of 1503, and the epistles of metropolitans. Royal questions can be divided into three groups:

1) pursuing the interests of the state treasury (questions: 10, 12, 14, 15, 19, 30, 31);

2) exposing disorder in the clergy and monastic administration, in monastic life (questions: 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 16, 17, 20, 37);

3) concerning disorders in worship, denouncing prejudices and the non-Christian life of the laity (questions: 1, 3, 5, 6, 11, 18, 21-29, 32-36).

The last two groups of questions are aimed at strengthening the moral side of life of the clergy and the population. Among the features of the structure of “Stoglava”, special mention should be made of the presence of the 101st chapter - the verdict on estates. It was apparently compiled after the end of the Stoglavy Council and added to the main list as an addition.

Stoglav 1551: main provisions.

Financial issues. Stoglav allowed the collection of stub duties. At the same time, all duties had to be collected by the priest’s elders and the ten’s elders.

Issues of morality and control over the lives of the clergy and laity. The cathedral introduces the institutions of priestly elders. These were elected by priests. The number of priestly elders in each city was determined by bishops by royal command. Priestly elders were supposed to serve in cathedrals. To help them, tens were elected from among the priests. In villages and volosts, only ten priests were elected. Their responsibilities included monitoring the correct conduct of services in subordinate churches, etc. The Council of 1551 passed a resolution condemning godless and heretical books, for example, a collection of medieval wisdom called “Aristotle and others.” A ban was also imposed on communication with foreigners.

Questions of worship. Stoglav officially legalized the double-fingered addition when making the sign of the cross and the special alleluia in the Moscow Church. The Council took up the issue of correcting the holy books and decided to open a printing house in Moscow. But this printing house did not last long.

Church court. Stoglav abolished the “non-judgmental” charters, thereby making all monasteries and parish clergy under the jurisdiction of their bishops. He forbade secular courts from judging clergy. Priests were given the right to participate in courts through their elected elders and sots. However, the legislation did not define the role of these representatives.

Church land ownership. As a result of the tsar’s desire to limit the growth of church land holdings, Chapter 101, “The Verdict on Patrimonies,” was issued, which enshrines the following basic decisions: Archbishops, bishops and monasteries are prohibited from buying estates from anyone without the permission of the tsar; Land contributions for the funeral of the soul are allowed, subject to the agreed conditions and procedure for their redemption by the relatives of the testator; The votchinniki of the regions were forbidden to sell their votchinas to people from other cities and to give them to monasteries without reporting to the tsar; The sentence did not have retroactive effect and did not apply to transactions before its effect; For violations of the sentence, a sanction was established in the form of confiscation of the estate in favor of the sovereign and non-return of money to the seller.

Cathedral Code: history of creation, sources, structure.

The Cathedral Code of 1649 was compiled based on the results of the work of the Zemsky Sobor of 1648-1649, which was convened in the context of the Salt Riot in Moscow of 1648. The Cathedral Code of 1649 is a set of legal norms; it consists of 25 chapters, divided into 967 articles. The Council Code for the first time defines the status of the head of state - the autocratic and hereditary king. Sources of the Council Code of 1649: Sudebnik 1497 and Sudebnik 1550, Tsar's decrees, decree books of orders, Duma sentences, Decisions Zemsky Sobor, Stoglav 1551, sacred books, Lithuanian and Byzantine (Greek) legislation.

The Code develops issues of state, administrative, civil and criminal law, as well as the procedure for legal proceedings. Particularly highlighted were crimes against Orthodox Church, as well as against the personality of the sovereign and royal power in general. In a special chapter, “The Court of Peasants,” measures for the further enslavement of peasants were determined: abolished “ summer lessons"to find runaway peasants, a high fine was established for harboring runaway peasants. The chapter "On Posad People" abolished privately owned settlements in cities, prescribed the mandatory return of residents of "white settlements" to taxation, attached the townspeople to the settlement. The Code prohibited the sale of estate lands in fiefdom.

In 1551, the so-called Hundred-Glavy Council was convened, which was of great importance both for the Russian church and for state affairs.

We have not reached the transcripts of his meetings. The book “Stoglav” (one hundred chapters), which contains an account of the actions of the council, gives an incomplete description of them. It was apparently compiled by a cleric whose main goal consisted of familiarizing the clergy with the program of reforms in the life of the church, especially with the norms of behavior and responsibilities of a clergyman.

Stoglav was recognized as a textbook of Russian church legislation. This is important historical document. He showed what the role of the tsar was in setting the agenda for the meetings and revealed the difference of opinion between the tsar (guided by Sylvester and Adashev), who wanted to limit the growth of monastic and church land, and Metropolitan Macarius, who considered it his duty towards the majority of bishops and abbots protect the church's right to own land during this period.

In preparation for the council, Ivan IV wrote an appeal, which he read at the opening. This was the earliest example of his writings, in which some characteristic features his literary style. In terms of content, it would appear that the speech was, at least in part, inspired and edited by Sylvester. In it, Ivan IV regretted his early orphanhood, complained about the poor treatment of the boyars in childhood, confessed his sins, explained all his own and state failures as punishment for his own and others’ sins, and called for repentance.

At the end of his address, the tsar promised to implement Christian precepts together with the members of the council. “If you, through your own inattention, have failed to correct deviations from God’s truth in our Christian laws, you will have to answer for this on the day of judgment. If I do not agree with you (in your righteous decisions), you must hang me; if I do not I can obey you, you must fearlessly excommunicate me in order to keep my soul and the souls of my subjects alive, and truly Orthodox faith stood unshakable."

Then the tsar presented a new code of law for approval by the Council. The council approved it. The similarity of church and state legislation of this period in form is characteristic: both the Code of Law and the Stoglav were divided into the same number of articles (chapters) - one hundred.

The Tsar also asked the Council (and the latter did so) to approve a model of statutory charters for the provincial administration. This was due to Adashev’s plan to abolish the feeding system (feeding provincial officials by the population) and replace it with local self-government (Chapter 4 of Stoglav).

Then the king presented to the members of the council a long list of issues for discussion. The first thirty-seven questions related to various areas of church life and ritual, correction of church books and religious education. The council received the king's advice to take appropriate measures to avoid debauchery and abuse among the monks (“Stoglav.” Chapter 5). These questions were supposedly proposed to the king by Macarius and Sylvester.

In addition to these thirty-seven questions, the king presented for consideration a list of problems relating mainly to state affairs. In some questions of this group, the tsar pointed out the need to transfer at least some church and monastic lands for the use of the nobility (as estates for military service) and townspeople (as estates in cities). These additional questions were not included in Stoglav. There is no doubt that the same Adashev and Sylvester helped the tsar in formulating these questions.

Having received an answer to these questions, the king presented thirty-two more, which were supposed to come from Macarius and Sylvester. These questions mainly concerned certain details of church ritual, as well as popular superstitions and remnants of paganism, folk music and drama, which were also designated as paganism.

Metropolitan Macarius, following in this case Joseph Sanin, together with the majority of bishops and abbots, opposed any attempt to secularize church and monastic lands, as well as against the subordination of church courts to the courts of the laity. Under the influence of Macarius, the Council confirmed the inalienability of church and monastic land holdings (chapters 61-63), as well as the exemption of the clergy and church people from the jurisdiction of state courts (chapters 54-60 and 64-66).

Nevertheless, Macarius and the Josephites had to make concessions to the king and Adashev; I agreed to some measures that would restrain the further expansion of church and monastic land holdings both in rural areas and in cities. On May 11, 1551, monasteries were prohibited from purchasing land holdings without the approval of the transaction by the king in each case. The same rule was applied to the donation or inheritance of land by monasteries at the will of the landowners. The king was thus given the right to limit the further growth of monastic landholdings.

At the same time, the Council approved rules according to which church and monastic authorities were prohibited from founding new settlements in cities. Those that were founded illegally were subject to confiscation (“Stoglav”, Chapter 94).

Historically, these measures meant the continuation of a long rivalry between the Russian state and the church for control over the fund of church lands and judicial power over the “church people”.

The Council proclaimed the Byzantine principle of the “symphony” of church and state, including in “Stoglav” a description of its acts, the essence of the sixth short story of Emperor Justinian, one of the main provisions of the “symphony” (“Stoglav”, chapter 62). In the Church Slavonic version of “Stoglav” we read : “Humanity has two great gifts of God, given to him through his love for people - the priesthood / Sacerdotium / and the kingdom / Imperium /. The first directs spiritual needs; the second manages and takes care of human affairs. Both flow from the same source

"Stoglav" contained honest criticism of the shortcomings of the Russian clergy and the practice of the church and at the same time recommended remedies. They consisted partly of strengthening the control of senior church leaders over the behavior of priests and monks, partly of more constructive measures. To train the clergy, it was recommended to found schools in Moscow, Novgorod and other cities (Chapter 26).

Since there were errors in handwritten copies of religious books and church textbooks due to the negligence of copyists, a special committee of learned priests was ordered to check all copies before they went on sale and used (1 handwritten form, because at that time there was no printing house in Moscow (chapters 27 and 28) .

A special chapter of “Stoglava” concerns icon painting and icon painters (Chapter 43). The religious nature of art is emphasized. It was recommended that the icons conform to the sacred tradition. Artists had to approach their work with reverence and be religious people themselves.

As Georgy Ostrogorsky showed, “Stoglav essentially does not introduce anything new (into the principles of icon painting), but reflects and confirms the most ancient ideas about icon painting... “Stoglav follows the principles of Byzantine iconography with perfect accuracy... Both artistic and and from a religious point of view, his decisions are interconnected with the essence of the beliefs and ideas of Orthodoxy.”

It should be noted that both Macarius and Sylvester were familiar with icon painting and its traditions. The chapter “Stoglava” on icon painting was probably written, or at least edited, by one of them or jointly by both.

Some other provisions of Stoglav were not as adequately formulated as the provision on icon painting and later turned out to be open to criticism. Their revaluation in the middle of the 17th century - almost a hundred years after the Council of the Hundred Heads - served as the motivating reason for the conflict between Patriarch Nikon and the Old Believers.

One of these precedents, which ultimately led to confusion and disagreement, was the decision of the Council on the method of joining the fingers during the sign of the cross. Like Metropolitan Daniel in the reign of Basil III, the council approved double-fingering (joining the index and adjacent fingers and raising them) in order to symbolize the dual nature of Christ (chapter 31). And as in the case of Metropolitan Daniel, some of the ancient Greek works (used by the fathers Stoglavy Cathedral in the Slavic translation to confirm their own decisions) were not written by the authorities to whom the priests referred, but were only attributed to them. However, it should be emphasized that in the early Christian church there were indeed different ways of joining the fingers for the sign of the cross, and double-fingering was one of them.

Another decision of the Stoglavy Council, which later turned out to be a subject of controversy, affected the details of church ritual. It was noted that Hallelujah was sung three times in many churches and monasteries in Pskov and Novgorod instead of twice, as was customary in Moscow churches. The Council believed that Hallelujah would be repeated three times in the Latin (i.e., Roman Catholic) version and approved the Hallelujah (halelujah) repeated twice (Chapter 42).

The third controversial decision of the Stoglavy Council unknowingly led to the addition of a word in the eighth paragraph of the creed. The paragraph in the Orthodox reading reads like this: /We believe/ “in the Holy Spirit, God, the Giver of Life, Who came from the Father...”. In some Slavic manuscripts, “God” (in Church Slavonic and in Russian – Lord) was replaced by “True”. Some copyists, perhaps linking different manuscripts, inserted "True" between the words "God" and "Giver of Life." The Council of the Hundred Heads decided that one should say either “God” or “True” without pronouncing both words together (Chapter 9).

This rule was actually ignored. Gradually in Muscovy it became an established practice to read the eighth paragraph of the symbol “Holy Spirit, True, Giver of Life.” This reading was fixed in later copies of Stoglav itself.

Metropolitan Macarius and most of the prelates - members of the council of 1551 - were conservatives. They sought to rid the Russian Church of its shortcomings, but did not intend to introduce anything new into its practice, and especially into dogma.

And yet the cathedral gave impetus to the gradual rise of new trends in Russian religious and intellectual life. The Council's open and bold criticism of shortcomings in the life of the church served as the ferment for a more conscious attitude towards church problems among priests and laity.

The Council proclaimed the principle of a “symphony” of church and state, which implied a certain limitation of the tsarist autocracy. The Council emphasized the importance of supporting education and the founding of schools. The council's decisions to check the accuracy of manuscripts of religious works and church textbooks and correct them led to a more critical attitude towards ancient texts and a better understanding of the value of learning.

The art of printing was not mentioned in the acts of the cathedral, but there is no doubt that Metropolitan Macarius (and possibly Sylvester) were already thinking during the Council of the Stoglavy about opening a printing house in Moscow. This was done in 1553.

In connection with the far-reaching reforms launched by the government of Tsar Ivan IV, especially in view of the need to provide members of the noble army with land plots and the proposed restrictions on church land holdings in monasteries, as well as the introduction of new taxes in order to increase state revenues, it was necessary first of all, determine the scope of national resources, especially the size of the land fund for maintaining agriculture, which was at that time the main source of Russia's wealth.

Already in 1549, Ermolai-Erasmus discussed the problem of revaluation of real estate in Muscovy in his treatise “The Ruler and Land Surveying by the Benevolent Tsar.” The obvious first step in this direction was a new land registry. This was done in 7059 Anno Mundi (1 September 1550 to 31 August 1551). On the basis of this cadastre, a new taxation unit was introduced - "big plow".

Size big plow how tax rates varied relative to various types cultivated lands. To determine the landholdings of boyars and nobles, as well as those that belonged to the royal courtiers (domestic), a new plow amounted to 800 quarters of good land on one field (with a three-field system then used in Muscovy); for church and monastic lands, the size of the plow was set at 600 quarters; for the land of state peasants (black) - 500 quarters. In total, the norm for the three fields was 2400, 1800 and 1500 quarters, respectively, i.e. 1200, 900 and 750 dessiatines. For lands of poorer quality the norm was different.

The smaller the size of the plow as a unit of taxation, the higher the tax that had to be paid. This meant that church and monastic landholdings were valued at more high level, rather than palace and boyar lands, and proportionately more taxes were paid from them.

At first glance it may seem that the state peasants were in the worst position, but this is not so. In introducing a scale of taxation levels, the government took into account the fact that peasants in the first two categories of land, in addition to paying state taxes, had to pay taxes (in monetary terms) to their land owners and perform certain work for them. The general duties of the state peasant were therefore easier, or at least equal to those that fell to the lot of peasants of other categories.

The Stoglavy Cathedral is the most important event not only in the history of Russia, but also of the Russian Orthodox Church. It took place in 1551. It is called one hundred chapters, since it includes 100 parts from resolutions (acts or codes) - separate chapters. Stoglav is a kind of legislative act that affected many areas of life. And the Church had to strictly follow this document. However, some introductions remained only on paper; no one followed them in practice.

Venue and participants

The Council of the Hundred Heads was held from February 23 to May 11, 1551 in Moscow. Everything happened in the Kremlin, in the Assumption Cathedral. It was attended by Tsar Ivan the Terrible, the highest clergy, princes and representatives of the Boyar Duma. Among the clergy present, it should be noted:

Metropolitan Macarius - chairman;
Archbishop Akakiy from the Tver diocese;
Archbishop Gury from the Smolensk diocese;
Archbishop Kasyan from the Ryazan diocese;
Archbishop Cyprian from the Perm diocese;
Archbishop Nikandr from the Rostov diocese;
Archbishop Savva from the Krutitsa diocese;
Archbishop Tryphon from the Suzdal diocese;
Archbishop Theodosius from the Novgorod diocese;
Archbishop Theodosius from the Kolomna diocese.

History of creation

At the beginning of 1551, Ivan the Terrible began to convene the Council of the Stoglavy. He took on this mission because he was convinced that he was the successor of the Byzantine emperors. In the second chapter of Stoglav there is a mention that the hierarchs experienced great joy at the royal invitation. This is primarily explained by the need to resolve many issues that were especially significant in the middle of the 16th century. These included strengthening church discipline among the clergy and questions about the powers of the church court. It was necessary to fight against the vicious behavior of clergy and other representatives of the church. There were also many problems with the usury of the monasteries. The struggle against the remnants of paganism continued. In addition, there was a need to unify church rituals and services. The procedure for copying church books, building churches and painting icons must be strictly regulated. Therefore, the Hundred-Glavy Council of the Russian Orthodox Church was necessary.

The cathedral began with a solemn prayer service on the occasion of the opening. This happened in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral. Next, Ivan the Terrible read out his address to the participants, who can be regarded as his early composition. One could already notice in it artistic style king He talked about his early orphanhood, the mistreatment of the boyars, repented of his sins and asked for repentance. After this, the king presented a new code of law, which the council quickly approved.

To date, researchers cannot name exact date when the cathedral began its work. The first chapter states February 23rd. There are two versions of what happened on this day:

The council meeting began.
The Council Code was drawn up.

All work took place in two stages: a meeting (and discussion of issues) and processing of the material.

The first chapter also contains a sample program: the council gives answers to the king's questions. He put forward various problems for conciliar discussion. Participants could only express their opinions on the proposed topics. In total, the king proposed 69 questions. The compiler of Stoglav clearly did not set himself the task of fully revealing the corrections with which he worked. Instead of answers, the compiler offers documents in accordance with which decisions were made. Canonical literature did not allow decisions to be made that were not in accordance with it. Some literature is reflected in the first chapter:

the rules of the holy apostles, church fathers;
rules that were established at councils of the clergy;
teachings of canonized saints.

Structure of Stoglav:

Chapters 1-4 - information about the opening of the cathedral, participants, reasons and goals;
the royal questions were in two parts, the first 37 are reflected in the 5th chapter, the second 32 - in the 41st chapter;
the answers are in chapters 6-40 and 42-98;
Chapter 99 talks about the embassy to the Trinity Monastery;
Chapter 100 contains Joseph's response. He offered a number of comments and additions to Stoglav.

Getting to know Stoglav, one can appreciate how strong the role of the tsar was. But most of all, it is clear how different the opinions are between the king and Macarius. Each of them pursued their own goals and tried to move them forward.

Goals of the Stoglavy Cathedral

The Council of the Hundred Heads of 1551 considered the main goal to overcome “disorders” in the life of the Russian Church. It was necessary to improve and streamline all aspects of spiritual life. During the work, a huge list of questions and messages was listened to. All of them described the shortcomings and difficulties of church-folk life. The council discussed the problems of church governance and compliance with church regulations in worship. To carry out the last task, it was necessary to elect priestly elders - deans. In addition, much attention was paid to the problems of electing competent and worthy altar servers. Questions arose about the creation of religious schools where clergy would be trained. This would also help improve literacy among the population.

Decisions of the Stoglavy Council

The Stoglavy Council collected and systematized all the norms of the current law of the Church. Stoglav's decrees talk about bishop's duties, church court, discipline of the clergy, monks and laity, divine services, monastic estates, public education, and so on.

Morality and life control

The unrest that discredited the church and threatened its future was nevertheless recognized by the council. That is why the institution of priestly elders was introduced everywhere. In each city, the number of elders was determined individually. Thus, 7 priestly elders were appointed for Moscow. This number corresponded to the number of cathedrals that were central in their district. The priest's elders also had assistants - tens. The latter were chosen from among the priests. In villages and volosts, only ten priests were elected. In Stoglav, responsibilities were recorded: control over the correct conduct of services in subordinate churches and deaneries of priests.

It was also ruled important decision about "double" monasteries. Both men and women lived in them.

The 100-Glavy Council of the Russian Church condemned popular outrages and remnants of paganism: judicial duels, drunkenness, buffoon performances, and gambling.

The resolutions of the Stoglavy Council also concerned heretical and godless books. These included Secreta secretorum, Aristotle - a collection of medieval wisdom, and astronomical maps of Emmanuel Ben Jacob. It was also forbidden to communicate with foreigners.

Divine service

Most of the council's decisions relate to divine services.

The double-fingered addition (with the sign of the cross) was legalized precisely in 1551. A special hallelujah was also legalized. Over time, these decisions were the main arguments of the Old Believers.

There is an opinion that it was Maxim the Greek who had a hand in ensuring that the sacred books began to be corrected. It was also decided to open a Moscow printing house. But it didn't last long. Corrected books were published there.

Icon "Holy Trinity"

During the council, the very important issue of the iconography of the Holy Trinity was also considered. It consisted of discussing the traditional Orthodox image of the Trinity as three angels.

Some researchers believe that the council participants did not give a definite answer, or the question remained unresolved. We know one thing for sure: only the inscription “Holy Trinity” remains without inscriptions or crosshairs. However, the fathers were unable to provide a theological justification for this instruction, citing Andrei Rublev and ancient examples. It turned out weak point Stoglavy Cathedral, which led to sad consequences. Most surviving icons of the Holy Trinity do not have cross-shaped halos and a distinctive inscription.

Another important issue inextricably linked with the writing of the Trinity was the question of the “imageability of the Divinity” (Chapter 43). The text of the decree refers, in its direct meaning, to the Divinity of Christ. But the problem is that the Deity is not depictable. Most likely, this refers to an unknown image. Indeed, under Stoglav there were three manners of depiction: traditional, Fatherland and New Testament.

The New Testament Trinity has the most famous image in the Annunciation Cathedral on a four-part icon. It was painted by masters commissioned by Archpriest Sylvester. It was impossible not to notice this image then. In addition, the king referred to this icon when the issue of depicting non-holy people on icons was discussed.

The Council had reasons to suppress the iconography of the Holy Trinity. Firstly, no one had a clear idea of how to depict the Divine on icons. Secondly, some researchers argue that the cathedral and the metropolitan were not of one mind.

Church court

The relationship between spiritual power and civil power was determined. This happened on the principle of the independence of the church in church affairs. The Council of the Stoglavy decided to cancel the “non-conviction” certificates. As a result, all parish clergy and monasteries became subordinate to their bishops. Secular courts could not put clergy on trial. But since they couldn’t immediately abolish existing system, they decided to give priests the right to participate in courts through their own elected elders and sotskie. They forgot to define their roles in court.

Church land ownership

Apparently, the issue of land ownership was raised at the council, but it was not included in the Council Code. But after some time, Chapter 101 appeared - “The Verdict on the Estates.” In this document, the tsar and the metropolitan reflected their desire to reduce the growth of church land holdings. In the last chapter, five main decisions were fixed:

Archbishops, bishops and monasteries do not have the right to buy estates from anyone without royal permission.
Land contributions are allowed for the funeral of a soul, but it is necessary to stipulate the condition and procedure for their redemption by relatives.
The votchinniki of some regions do not have the right to sell their votchina to people in other cities. It is also forbidden to give estates to monasteries without reporting to the king.
The verdict does not have retroactive force; it does not apply to transactions completed before the Stoglavy Council.
A sanction has been established for violation of the contract: the estate is confiscated in favor of the sovereign, and the money is not returned to the seller.

The meaning of the cathedral

The reforms of Ivan the Terrible were of great importance:

Conclusions

The Council of the Hundred Heads, in short, fixed the legal norms of the internal life of the Church. A kind of code of relations between the clergy, society and the state was also developed. The Russian Church acquired independence.

At the council it was confirmed that the sign of two fingers and the special hallelujah are correct and saving. But the controversy is around correct spelling did not subside for a long time.

The Church Council of the Hundred Heads demanded that all icons be painted according to the old model, without making any changes. At the same time, it was necessary to improve the quality of icon painting, as well as the moral level of icon painters. The entire 43rd chapter was devoted to this problem. Sometimes she delved into a variety of details of relationships and life situations. This question remains the most extensive and unclear.

The Zemsky and Stoglavy Sobors became equal.

For Ivan the Terrible, it was necessary to limit church and monastic land ownership. The state needed free land to provide estates for the growing military class. At the same time, the hierarchy was going to firmly defend the property integrity of the Church. It was also necessary to legitimize the many church-wide transformations that arose.

The Stoglavy Council cannot be called successful, since many of the issues discussed became the cause of discord between the Old Believers and the Orthodox. And over time, this dispute only flared up.

100 years later

The ancient Orthodox tradition was now protected from distortions and changes that manifested themselves abroad. Discussing the need to introduce the two-fingered sign, the council repeated the Greek formula of the 12th-13th centuries, that if someone makes the sign of the cross with fingers other than two, like our Christ, he will be cursed. Those gathered believed that such correction of spiritual disorders would help bring all spheres of church life to grace-filled fullness and perfection. For the next decades, the cathedral represented an unquestioned authority.

Therefore, the activities of the Stoglavy Cathedral were greatly disliked by the followers of Patriarch Nikon, reformers and persecutors of the church. 100 years later - in 1666-1667 - at the Moscow Council, the New Believers not only abolished the oath that had been placed on those who were not baptized with two fingers, but also completely rejected the entire Hundred-Glavy Cathedral, condemning some dogmas.

The Moscow Council argued that Stoglav's provisions were written unreasonably, simply and ignorantly. It is not surprising that many soon doubted the authenticity of this collection. For a long time a heated dispute did not subside between schismatics - Old Believers and representatives official Church. The first elevated the cathedral to the rank of an unshakable law. The latter condemned the resolution as the fruit of error. All participants in the Stoglavy Council were accused of ignorance. Wanting to wash away the shame, opponents of the resolutions put forward a version that the cathedral of 1551 had nothing to do with Stoglav.