Units of language and relationships between them. Units of language and their functions

We constantly use oral or written language and rarely think about the structure of the literary language. For us, it is a means, an instrument to achieve a certain goal. For linguists, language is an object of special scientific research, the results of which are summarized in the form of articles, monographs, and dictionaries. Linguistics, or linguistics (from Latin lingua - language), - is the science of language, which developed in connection with the need of people to understand such a phenomenon as language.

Linguists have found that language is not a jumble of words, sounds, rules, but an ordered system (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts).

When characterizing language as a system, it is necessary to determine what elements it consists of. In most languages of the world the following are distinguished: units: phoneme (sound), morpheme, word, phrase and sentence. Language units are heterogeneous in their structure. There are relatively simple units, for example, phonemes, and there are also complex ones - phrases, sentences. Moreover, more complex units always consist of simpler ones.

Since a system is not a random set of elements, but an ordered collection of them, in order to understand how the language system is “structured,” all units must be grouped according to the degree of complexity of their structure.

So, the simplest unit of language is phoneme, an indivisible and in itself insignificant sound unit of language, which serves to distinguish minimal significant units (morphemes and words). For example, words sweat - bot - mot - cat differ in the sounds [p], [b], [m], [k], which are different phonemes

Minimum Significant Unit – morpheme(root, suffix, prefix, ending). Morphemes already have some meaning, but cannot yet be used independently. For example, in the word Muscovite four morphemes: moskv-, -ich-, -k-, -a. The morpheme moskv- (root) contains, as it were, an indication of the area; -ich- (suffix) denotes a male person - a resident of Moscow; -k- (suffix) means a female person - a resident of Moscow; -a (ending) indicates that given word is a feminine singular nominative noun.

Has relative independence word- the next most complex and most important unit of language, which serves to name objects, processes, signs or indicates them. Words differ from morphemes in that they not only have some meaning, but are already capable of naming something, i.e. a word is the minimum nominative (nominal) unit of language. Structurally, it consists of morphemes and represents “building material” for phrases and sentences.

Collocation- a combination of two or more words between which there is a semantic and grammatical connection. It consists of a main and a dependent word: new book, stage a play, each of us (the main words are in italics).

The most complex and independent unit of language, with the help of which you can not only name an object, but also communicate something about it, is offer– a basic syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or an incentive. The most important formal feature of a sentence is its semantic design and completeness. Unlike a word – a nominative unit – a sentence is a communicative unit.

Modern ideas about the language system are associated primarily with the doctrine of its levels, their units and relationships. Language levels- these are subsystems (tiers) of the general language system, each of which has a set of its own units and rules for their functioning. Traditionally, the following main levels of language are distinguished: phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic.

Each of the language levels has its own, qualitatively different units that have different purpose, structure, compatibility and place in the language system: the phonemic level consists of phonemes, the morphemic level consists of morphemes, the lexical level consists of words, the syntactic level consists of phrases and sentences.

Units of language are interconnected paradigmatic, syntagmatic (combinable) and hierarchical relationships.

Paradigmatic are the relations between units of the same level, by virtue of which these units are distinguished and grouped. Units of language, being in paradigmatic relationships, are mutually opposed, interconnected and thereby interdependent.

The units of language are opposed due to their certain differences: for example, the Russian phonemes “t” and “d” are distinguished as voiceless and voiced; verb forms I’m writing – I’ve written – I’ll write distinguished as having present, past and future tenses. Units of language are interconnected because they are combined into groups according to similar characteristics: for example, the Russian phonemes “t” and “d” are combined into a pair due to the fact that both of them are consonants, front-lingual, plosive, hard; the previously mentioned three forms of the verb are combined into one category - the category of time, since they all have a temporary meaning. Syntagmatic (combinability) are the relations between units of the same level in the speech chain, by virtue of which these units are connected with each other - these are the relations between phonemes when they are connected in a syllable, between morphemes when they are connected into words, between words when they are connected into phrases. However, in this case, units of each level are built from units of a lower level: morphemes are built from phonemes and function as part of words (i.e., they serve to construct words), words are built from morphemes and function as part of sentences. Relations between units of different levels are recognized as hierarchical.

The structure of each level, the relationships of units among themselves are the subject of study of branches of linguistics - phonetics, morphology, syntax, lexicology.

Phonetics (from the Greek phone - sound) is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of a language, their acoustic and articulatory properties, the laws of their formation, the rules of functioning (for example, the rules for the compatibility of sounds, the distribution of vowels and consonants, etc.).

The morphemic and syntactic levels of language are studied by two linguistic disciplines - morphology and syntax, respectively.

Traditionally, morphology and syntax are combined, making up two relatively independent sections, into a more general linguistic science - grammar (from the Greek gramma - written sign) - a section of linguistics that contains the doctrine of forms of inflection, the structure of words, types of phrases and types of sentences.

Morphology (from the Greek morphe - form, logos - word, doctrine) is one of the sections of grammar that studies the morphemic composition of a language, types of morphemes, the nature of their interaction and functioning as part of units of higher levels.

Syntax (from the Greek syntaxis - composition, construction) is a section of grammar that studies the patterns of constructing sentences and combining words in a phrase. Syntax includes two main parts: the study of phrases and the study of sentences.

Lexicology (from the Greek lexikos - verbal, vocabulary, logos - teaching) is a branch of linguistics that studies the word and the vocabulary of the language as a whole. Lexicology includes the following sections:

onomasiology(from the Greek opota - “name”, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the process of naming. Onomasiology answers the question of how naming occurs, assigning names to objects and phenomena of the external world;

semasiology(from Greek semasia - designation, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the meanings of words and phrases. Semasiology studies the semantic side of a linguistic unit, comparing it with other units of the same level. It shows how extra-linguistic reality is reflected in language units (words);

phraseology(from Greek phrasis - expression, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the stable turns of speech of a language, the nature of phraseological units, their types, features of functioning in speech. Phraseology reveals the specifics of phraseological units, features of their meaning, and relationships with other units of language. She develops principles for identifying and describing phraseological units, explores the processes of their formation;

onomastics(from the Greek opota - name) - a science that studies proper names in the broad sense of the word: toponymy studies geographical names, names and surnames of people - anthroponymy;

etymology(from Greek etymon - truth, logos - teaching) - a science that studies the origin of words, the process of formation of the vocabulary of a language. Etymology explains when, in what language, according to what word-formation model the word arose, what its original meaning was, what historical changes it has undergone;

lexicography(from Greek lexikon - dictionary, grapho - write) - a science dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. She develops a general typology of dictionaries, principles for the selection of vocabulary, the arrangement of words and dictionary entries.

Language is a system of signs of any physical nature that performs cognitive and communicative functions in the process of human activity.. People can use various sign systems: telegraph code, transcriptions, shorthand, tables, numbers, gestures, road signs, etc. In the most general terms, languages are divided into natural and artificial.

Natural They call a language that arose with man and developed naturally, in the absence of conscious human influence on it.

Artificial e languages are sign systems created by man as auxiliary means for various communicative purposes in areas where the use of natural language is difficult, impossible or ineffective. Among artificial languages, one can distinguish planned languages, which are auxiliary means of international communication (Esperanto, Ido, Volapuk, Interlingua); symbolic languages of science, for example, the languages of mathematics, chemistry, physics, logic; languages of human-machine communication, for example programming languages, information retrieval languages.

Natural language is fundamentally different from the systems of symbolic notations created in the natural sciences, mathematics, and technology. Thus, under certain circumstances, we can replace the notation system in science, the system of telephone numbers, and road signs with a more convenient one. It must be remembered that these sign systems are created artificially and serve as a means of communication only in a narrow circle of specialists.

The study of sign systems is the subject of a special science - semiotics, which studies the emergence, structure and functioning of various sign systems that store and transmit information. Semiotics studies natural and artificial languages, as well as the general principles that form the basis of the structure of all signs.

The sign is material object(in the broad sense of the word), acting in the process of cognition and communication as a representative or substitute of some other object, phenomenon and used to transmit information.

In semiotics, two types of signs are distinguished: natural (signs-attributes) and artificial (conventional). Natural signs (signs-signs) contain some information about an object (phenomenon) due to a natural connection with them: smoke in the forest can inform about a fire, a frosty pattern on a window glass - about low air temperature outside, etc. Unlike signs , which exist separately from objects and phenomena, signs-signs are part of those objects or phenomena that people perceive and study (for example, we see snow and imagine winter). Artificial(conventional) signs are specifically designed for the formation, storage and transmission of information, for the representation and replacement of objects and phenomena, concepts and judgments.

A sign is not a part (or an essential part) of what it represents, stands for, conveys. In this sense, it is artificial and conventional. Conventional signs serve as a means of communication and transmission of information, therefore they are also called communicative or informative signs (informant signs). There are many informative signs and their systems, differing in purpose, structure and organization. The main types of informative signs are signal, symbol, linguistic sign.

Signs-signals carry information according to condition, agreement and do not have any natural connection with the objects (phenomena) about which they inform. A signal is an audio, visual or other conventional sign that conveys information. The signal itself does not contain information - the information is contained by the sign situation. For example, a green rocket could mean the start of an attack or the start of some kind of celebration; a school bell means the end or beginning of a lesson, and a bell in an apartment is a signal inviting you to open the door, etc. The content of the signal is like symbol Thus, it varies depending on the situation, on the number of signals (for example, three bells in a theater mean the start of the performance).

Signs-symbols carry information about an object (phenomenon) based on the abstraction of some properties and characteristics from it. A symbol differs from a signal in that its content is visual and in that it is free from situational conditions. For example, an image of hands joined in a mutual shake is a symbol of friendship, an image of a dove is a symbol of peace, a coat of arms is an image of an object as a sign of belonging to a certain state, city, etc.

Linguistic signs are signs of human language, basic informative signs.

The main features of a sign: two-sidedness (the presence of material form and content), opposition in the system, conventionality/motivation.

There are two sides to a sign: the signified (the concept, content, meaning of the sign, its internal side, what is perceived by our consciousness) and the signifier (the external expression of the sign, its formal side, what is perceived by the organs of hearing or vision).

As a rule, the signs in the system are opposed, which implies a difference in their content. For example, long and short beeps in a telephone handset mean, respectively, “the line is free” and “the line is busy.” The opposition of signs is clearly manifested in the case of a zero signifier. Let's consider the situation. In order for some object (or sound, gesture, etc.) to become a conventional sign, it must be opposed to some other object (or sound, gesture, etc.), in other words, it must enter the sign system.

For example, a vase placed on a windowsill can only signal danger if it is not usually there. If it always stands on the windowsill, it cannot mean anything, then it is just a vase. In order to acquire the ability to designate something, it must be contrasted with another sign, in this case, a zero sign (i.e., the significant absence of a materially expressed sign).

The conditional connection between the signifier and the signified is based on a (conscious) agreement (red light - “the path is closed”). A conditional connection, for example, is the fixation of the duration or shortness of the sound of a dial tone in a telephone receiver with the busy or unoccupied telephone line. A motivated (internally justified) connection is based on the similarity of the signifier with the signified. The sign of motivation is obvious when depicted on road sign turning, running children, etc.

A linguistic sign, like any two-sided linguistic unit, has a form (the signifier of the sign) and content (the signified of the sign). Like all other signs, they are always material and mean something besides themselves. Linguistic signs are always conventional, that is, the connection between the signified and the signifier is arbitrary (but, once established, it becomes mandatory for all speakers of a given language). Like all conventional signs, they are always members of a sign system, and therefore have not only meaning, but also significance.

In addition to the properties common to all signs, linguistic signs also have special features inherent only to them. These include linearity: linguistic signs always follow each other, never combining in space (in writing) or in time (in speech). One can imagine a non-linguistic sign (say, a signal) in the form of a chord of three sounds sounding at a certain moment, each of which has its own meaning. But there are no linguistic signs in which several units would be combined in space or time. They always follow each other, forming a linear chain.

Another feature of linguistic signs is associated with the diachronic aspect of their existence: a linguistic sign is characterized by variability and at the same time a desire for immutability. This contradiction is explained by the fact that language is used by a society that, on the one hand, needs a constantly changing language to express its changing knowledge about the world, and on the other hand, a constant, stable system of communication, since any changes in language initially cause difficulties in communication. Therefore, linguistic signs are constantly acted upon by two differently directed forces, one of which pushes them to change, and the other strives to keep them unchanged. Linguistic signs include significant units of language - morphemes, words, sentences.

However, the iconicity of morphemes is very limited, since morphemes are components of words and have meanings only as part of words. Words are the most significant signs in language. They represent concepts, are their symbols or signs; words can be part of a sentence and, if necessary, formulate a sentence. A full-fledged communicative sign is a sentence. In the sentence, as the highest sign unit, all the signs and signals of the language are put into action, and the sentences themselves form a connection with each other, with the context and situation of speech. A sentence provides language with the ability to convey any specific thought, any information.

Language as the most important sign system differs from all other auxiliary (specialized) sign systems.

The linguistic sign system is a comprehensive means of transmitting and storing information, as well as designing the thought itself, expressing emotions, evaluating and expressing will, while specialized sign systems serve to transmit limited information and recode what is already known.

The scope of language use is universal. It is used in all areas of human activity, while specialized sign systems have a limited scope of use. Language as a sign system is created gradually and develops in the process of its functioning, and specialized means of communication, transmission and storage of information are the result of a one-time agreement between people and are thoughtful and artificial in nature.

Language and speech.
In modern linguistics, it is customary to distinguish between the concepts of “language” and “speech”.
Language is defined as a system of signs.
A sign is a conventional designation of something, that is, something that we can perceive (for example, a red traffic light), and its meaning, which has been agreed upon, has been agreed upon. It is the agreement that transforms any object. Action, image as a sign.

But language is not just a sign, but a system of signs. The system consists of individual elements and connections between them. So, a traffic light is a regulation system traffic. It has three elements: red, yellow and green signals. Each element has its own meaning and connection with other elements. If only one element existed, the system would not exist: one element would not be able to function as traffic control. If only the red light was on all the time, there would be no movement.

Language is not just a collection of signs, it is a system that has a certain structure (structure). The elements that make up this structure do not exist on their own; they are connected to each other and form a single whole. A sign is a member of a specific sign system.

Language as a system has its own function - it is a means of communication.

Speech is language in action, it is the use of all elements of language and the connections between them. Speech exists in two forms - oral and written.

Oral speech is created at the moment of speaking, so its main feature is unpreparedness and improvisation.

Written speech is speech without a direct interlocutor. Therefore, the author has the opportunity to think about and prepare his statement.

The concept of “speech” includes both the process of speaking itself and the result of this process (story, writing). Speech serves as a means of expressing a person’s thoughts and feelings.

Speech depends on many parameters:

From the fact who do we communicate with? what are the relations between the interlocutors: friendly, neutral, official.
Time and place of communication. A person’s life is divided into weekdays and holidays, work and rest. Each of these time periods is closely associated with certain events and possible types of conversations. This means that each native speaker intuitively senses how the topic and nature of communication depend on the time and place in which it occurs.
The topic of communication. Serious conversation on important topic is unlikely to be conducted with humorous intonations.

That. The communication situation influences the way we speak. If even one of the parameters of the situation (partners, goal, form of communication) changes, speech means will be used differently.

Basic units of language.
Language is a system, and every system consists of individual elements interconnected. Language consists of “language units”.

Phoneme is the sound that we hear and pronounce. The sound itself has no lexical meaning, but in a language some words consist of one sound, in which case the sound ceases to be just a sound and acquires meaning.
Morpheme- this is the minimum semantic unit of language (prefix, root, suffix, ending). Morphemes consist of phonemes and already have meaning, but cannot be used independently.
Word- the basic unit of language. The word names objects, phenomena, signs or indicates them. The word consists of morphemes, it has a lexical meaning and is used independently.
Collocation- this is the smallest unit of language in which the laws of grammar begin to operate. It consists of two or more owls, between which there is a semantic and grammatical connection.
Offer is a unit of language that serves to express thoughts, emotions, and sensations.

The smallest units of language add up to larger ones, but language units differ from each other not only in size. Their main difference is not quantitative, but qualitative (the difference in their function, purpose).

Each unit of language takes its place in the system and performs a specific function.

The concept of literary language and language norms

The Russian language in the broadest sense of the word is the totality of all words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation features of all Russian people, that is, everyone who speaks Russian as their native language.

The Russian national language is heterogeneous in its composition. Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. This highest form national language, determined the whole system normal In linguistics, norms are the rules for the use of words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation rules in force during a given period of development of a literary language. The norms cover all its aspects: written and oral varieties, spelling, vocabulary, word formation, grammar. For example, in literary language you cannot use such forms as “you want”, “my last name”, “they ran away”; you have to say: “you want”, “my last name”, “they ran”; you should not pronounce e[g]o, skuk[h]no, but should pronounce e[v]o, skuk[sh]no, etc. The norms are described in textbooks, special reference books, as well as in dictionaries (spelling, explanatory, phraseological, synonyms, etc.).

The norm is approved and supported by the speech practice of cultural people, in particular, writers who draw treasures of speech from the language of the people.

Literary language, written and oral, is the language of radio and television, newspapers and magazines, government and cultural institutions.

The Russian literary language is divided into a number of styles depending on where and for what it is used.

So, in everyday life, when communicating with loved ones, we often use words and sentences that we would not use in official business papers, and vice versa. For example, in a statement, in an explanatory note, the following phrase is quite appropriate: Due to the lack of the required number of vehicles, the unloading of arriving wagons with construction materials was delayed for one day.

When addressing work colleagues, the same thought is expressed, for example, like this: There were few cars today. There was a day delay in unloading the wagons.

The speech of the cultural educated person must be correct, precise and beautiful. The more correct and precise the speech, the more accessible it is to understanding; the more beautiful and expressive it is, the stronger its impact on the listener or reader. To speak correctly and beautifully, you need to follow the norms of your native language.

Learning the Russian language begins with the basic elements. They form the foundation of the structure. The components of linguistic units are those components of the linguistic system for which division within their own level is unacceptable. Next, we will analyze the concepts in more detail and define the classification. The article will also provide characteristics of basic linguistic components.

"Decomposability"

What are the basics of the Russian language? The structure is divided into elements of lower rank. There is such a thing as a decomposability criterion. It determines whether a given linguistic unit is divisible. If decomposability is possible, all elements are divided into simple and complex. The first includes indivisible units such as phonemes and morphemes. The second group includes those components that are decomposed into elements located at the lowest level. Basic linguistic units are combined into different levels systems.

Classification

Various linguistic units are combined into two groups. The first determines the type of sound shells. For this category, there are material types that have a permanent sound shell. In particular, these include such units of language as phoneme, word, morpheme and even sentence. There is also a relatively material type. It is a model for constructing phrases and sentences, which has a generalized meaning. There is also such a thing as units of meaning. They cannot exist outside of material and relatively material species, since they are their semantic part. In addition, the material units of language are further divided into one-sided and two-sided. The first ones have no meaning, they only help create a sound shell. These include, for example, phonemes and syllables. But bilateral ones matter, which is why they are even considered to be the highest language units. These are words and sentences. Language levels are complex systems or are their components.

Russian language

By definition this system is a collection of iconic particles reproduced in audio form that express human thoughts and feelings. In addition, they are a means of communication and information transfer. Nina Davidovna Arutyunova, Soviet and Russian linguist, considered the language important point in the evolution of culture and society. At the lowest level of the system is phonetics, that is, sounds. Above are morphemes, which are composed of elements of the previous level. Words are made up of morphemes, which in turn form syntactic structures. A linguistic unit is characterized not only by its location in a complex system. It also performs a specific function and has characteristic features buildings.

Let's take a unit of language that is at the lowest level - the phoneme. The sound itself does not carry any meaning. However, by interacting with other elements that are at the same level with it, it helps to distinguish individual morphemes and words. Phonetic elements include syllables. However, due to the fact that their significance is not always sufficiently substantiated, some scientists are in no hurry to agree that a syllable is also a linguistic unit.

Morpheme

Morphemes are considered the smallest units of language that carry semantic meaning. The most important part of a word is the root. After all, it is he who determines the meaning of words. But various suffixes, prefixes and endings only complement the meaning given by the root. All morphemes are divided into those that form words (word-forming) and those that create (they are called grammatical). The Russian language is rich in such constructions. Thus, the word “reddish” is composed of three morphemes. The first is the root "red-", which determines the attribute of the object. The suffix “-ovat-” indicates that this symptom is manifested to a small extent. And finally, the ending “-й” determines the gender, number and case of the noun agreed with this adjective. With the development of history and language, some morphemes gradually change. Words such as "porch", "finger" and "capital" used to be divided into more parts. However, over time, these details merged into single roots. In addition, some morphemes used to have a meaning different from their current one.

Word

This independent linguistic unit is considered one of the most significant. It gives names to feelings, objects, actions and properties, and is a component of a sentence. The latter can also consist of one word. Words are formed by a sound shell, that is, a phonetic feature, morphemes (morphological feature) and their meanings (semantic feature). In all languages there are quite a few words that have several meanings. The Russian language is especially replete with such cases. Thus, the well-known word “table” denotes not only an interior item related to furniture, but also a multi-course menu, as well as a component of the furnishings of a medical office.

All words are divided into several groups according to different criteria. The distribution according to grammatical features forms groups of parts of speech. Word-formation connections create categories of words. According to their meaning, these elements are divided into synonyms, antonyms and thematic groups. History divides them into archaisms, neologisms and historicisms. From the point of view of the scope of use, words are divided into professionalisms, jargons, dialectisms and terms. Taking into account the function of elements in the linguistic structure, phraseological units and compound terms and names are distinguished. The first, for example, includes such expressions as and Examples for compound names are “White Sea” and “Ivan Vasilyevich”.

Phrases and sentences

A linguistic unit that is formed from words is called a phrase. This is a structure consisting of at least two elements connected in one of the following ways: coordination, control or adjacency. In addition, words and phrases formed by them are components of sentences. But the phrase is one step lower than the sentence. In this case, the syntactic level on the linguistic ladder is created by combining all the structural elements. Important characteristic sentences - intonation. It shows the completeness or incompleteness of the structure. She gives it the appearance of a question or order, and also adds emotional coloring with the help of an exclamation.

"Emic" and "ethical" units of language

Material units of language can exist in the form of several variants or in the form of an abstract set of variants called an invariant. The former are designated by ethical terms such as allophones, allomorphs, backgrounds and morphs. To characterize the latter, there are phonemes and morphemes. Units of speech are composed of language particles. These include phrases and sentences, compound words, morphemes and phonemes. These terms were introduced by Pike, an American linguist.

Characteristics of linguistic elements

There are many directions in science, each of which has a different perception and description linguistic units. However, no matter which option you turn to, you can always highlight general signs and features of language units. For example, a phoneme is considered a class of sounds that are similar in phonetic properties. However, some scientists believe that main feature of these elements is that without them it is impossible to define words and their forms. Morphemes refer to linguistic units that are not syntactically independent. Words, on the contrary, are independent. They are also components of sentences. All these characteristics are common not only to different points of view. They are suitable for absolutely all languages.

Relationships between structure elements

There are several types of relationships between units. The first type is called paradigmatic. This type denotes a contrast between units that are on the same level. In syntagmatic relations, particles of the same rank are combined with each other during the speech process, or to form elements of a higher level. Hierarchical relationships are determined by the degree of complexity of the unit, with lower levels included in higher ones.

When determining the basic units of language, most leading experts in the field of psycholinguistics rely on the theoretical concept of “analysis of the whole by units” developed by L.S. Vygotsky (42, 45). Under the unit of this or that system L.S. Vygotsky understood “a product of analysis that has all the basic properties inherent in the whole, and which are further indecomposable living parts of this unity” (45, p. 15).

To the main units of language distinguished in linguistics and psycholinguistics include: phoneme, morpheme, word, sentence And text.

Phoneme - is the sound of speech appearing in his meaningful function that allows you to distinguish one word (as a stable sound complex and, accordingly, material carrier of meaning) from other words. Semantic (phonemic) the function of speech sounds manifests itself only when the sound is found in a word, and only in a certain, so-called. "strong" (or "phonemic") position. For all vowel sounds this is the position in stressed syllable; for individual vowels (vowels a, ы) - also in the first pre-stressed syllable. For consonant sounds, a common "strong position" is the position before the vowel in straight syllables; position before a consonant of the same type (voiced before voiced, soft before soft, etc.); for sonorants and voiceless sounds, another "phonemic" position is the final position in the word.

The most vividly meaningful function of phonemes is manifested in monosyllabic paronymic words that differ in one sound (phoneme), for example: onion - bough - juice - sleep etc. However, in all cases, phonemes (no matter how many there are in a word and no matter what combinations they appear in) always perform their main function as part of a word. It consists of the following: correct pronunciation of sounds-phonemes in the external phase of implementation speech activity provides the possibility of its full perception by the listener and, accordingly, adequate transmission of mental content. Moreover, the phoneme itself is neither a semantic nor a meaning-forming unit. Once again I would like to draw the attention of practicing speech therapists to the fact that the main task of working on the formation of correct sound pronunciation is the development of skills correct production of phonemes native language as part of a word. The correct pronunciation of phonemes is condition for the full implementation of the communicative function of speech.

Morpheme is a combination of sounds (phonemes) that has a certain, so-called. "grammatical" meaning. This “meaning” of the morpheme also appears only in the composition of the word, and it received this name because it is inextricably linked with the basic grammatical functions of morphemes. In linguistics, morphemes are classified in different ways. Thus, according to their place in the “linear structure of words” they are distinguished prefixes(prefixes) and postfixes(as morphemes preceding and following root morpheme); from among the postfixes stand out suffixes And inflections (endings); the root morpheme itself was named for its meaning-forming (in this case, “lexical-forming”) function. Morphemes that form the stem of a word are called affixes;“grammatical opposition” to them is inflections.

Morphemes perform a number of important functions in language (when used in speech activity):

With the help of morphemes, processes of inflection (changing words according to grammatical forms) are carried out in a language. Basically, this function is performed by inflections, and also, in some cases, by suffixes and prefixes;

Word formation processes take place in language through morphemes. The morphemic method of word formation (suffixal, suffixal-prefixal, etc.) is in developed languages the world as the main way of forming new words, since the homonymous method of word formation has a rather limited scope of use in the language system;

With the help of morphemes, connections between words in phrases are formed (the grammatical function of inflections, as well as suffixes);

Finally, a certain combination of morphemes creates the main lexical meaning of a word, which is, as it were, a “summation” of the grammatical meaning of the morphemes included in a given word.

Based on these most important linguistic functions of morphemes, as well as from the fact that, in their diversity and quantitative composition, morphemes form a fairly extensive layer of language, we can draw the following methodological conclusion in relation to the theory and methodology of correctional “speech” work: complete language acquisition by students impossible without mastering its morphological structure. It is no coincidence that in the best methodological systems domestic specialists in the field of preschool and school speech therapy pay such great attention to the formation of students' linguistic knowledge, ideas and generalizations associated with the acquisition of the system of morphemes in their native language, as well as the formation of appropriate language operations with these language units (T.B. Filicheva and G.V. Chirkina, 1990, 1998; G.V. Babina, 2002, 2003; .

The basic and universal unit of language is word. This unit of language can be defined both as a stable sound complex with meaning, and as a “fixed”, “closed” combination of morphemes. The word as a unit of language appears in several of its qualities or manifestations. The main ones are the following.

A word as a unit of language is a lexical unit (lexeme) with a certain number of meanings. This can be represented as a "mathematical" expression:

Lex. units = 1 + n (values), for example for the Russian language this numerical formula looks like 1 + n (2–3).

The word includes at least two components: on the one hand, it denotes an object, replacing it, highlighting essential features in it, and on the other hand, it analyzes the object, introduces it into a system of connections, into the corresponding category of objects based on a generalization of its content. This word structure suggests the complexity of the process nominations(name of the object). For this, two main conditions are necessary: 1) the presence of a clear differentiated image of the object, 2) the presence of a lexical meaning for the word.

The word as a unit of language acts as grammatical unit. This is manifested in the fact that each lexeme word belongs to a specific grammatical category of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, etc.). Belonging to one or another grammatical class, a word has a set of certain grammatical features (or, as is usually defined in linguistics, - categories). For example, for nouns these are the categories of gender, number, case (declension), for verbs - the categories of aspect and tense, etc. These categories correspond to various grammatical forms of words (word forms). Word forms “formed” by morphemes provide the widest possibilities for various combinability of words when constructing speech utterances; they are also used to convey in speech (SD) various semantic (attributive, spatial, qualitative, etc.) connections and relationships.

Finally, the word as a linguistic unit acts as a “building” element of syntax, since syntactic units (phrase, sentence, text) are formed from words, based on one or another variant of their combined use. The “syntactically formative” function of a word manifests itself in the corresponding function of the word in the “context” of a sentence, when it appears in the function subject, predicate, object or circumstances.

The specified functions of the word as the basic and universal unit of language should be subject analysis for students correctional classes, and in general developmental classes.

Offer represents a combination of words that conveys (expresses) a thought in its complete form. Distinctive features offers are semantic and intonation completeness, as well as structure(presence of grammatical structure). In linguistics offer is one of the “strictly normative” linguistic units: any deviations from language norms constructions of a sentence associated with non-compliance with its basic properties indicated above are considered from the point of view of “practical grammar” as an error or (using the terminology of speech therapy) as “agrammatism” (140, 271, etc.). This is especially true for the written form of speech activity, although for oral speech agrammatism (especially “structural” or “syntactic”) is a negative phenomenon.

Offer just like the word, it is defined in psycholinguistics as the basic and universal unit of language (133, 150, 236, etc.). If the word is a universal means of displaying in the human mind the objects of the surrounding reality, their properties and qualities, then the sentence acts as the main means of displaying the subject of speech-mental activity - thoughts and at the same time as the main (along with text) means of communication.

The unit of implementation of speech activity (in speech psychology - a unit of speech) is a speech utterance. In typical (linguistic) In the RD implementation variant, the speech utterance is “embodied” in the form of a sentence. Based on this, it is completely legitimate and methodologically sound from a psycholinguistic point of view to distinguish academic work“above the word” and “above the sentence” into separate, independent sections of “speech work”.

Text defined in linguistics as macrounit of language. The text represents a combination of several sentences in a relatively expanded form revealing a particular topic1. Unlike a sentence, the subject of speech (a fragment of the surrounding reality) is displayed in the text not from any one aspect of it, not on the basis of any one of its properties or qualities, but “globally”, taking into account its main distinctive features. If the subject of speech is any phenomenon or event, then in a typical version it is displayed in the text, taking into account the main cause-and-effect (as well as temporal, spatial) connections and relationships (9, 69, 81, etc.).

Distinctive features text as units of language are: thematic unity, semantic and structural unity, compositional structure And grammatical coherence. The text (as a linguistic “form of expression” of a detailed statement) is “extended” by the basic distinctive features the latter: compliance with the semantic and grammatical connection between fragments of a speech message (paragraphs and semantic-syntactic units), the logical sequence of displaying the main properties of the subject of speech, the logical and semantic organization of the message. Various means play an important role in the syntactic organization of a detailed speech utterance. interphrase connection(lexical and synonymous repetition, pronouns, words with adverbial meaning, etc.).

Thus, text(in “semantic terms”) is a detailed speech message transmitted by means of language. With its help, the subject of speech (phenomenon, event) is displayed in speech activity in the most complete and complete form. In global speech communication in human society, text as macro unit language plays a decisive role; It is precisely this that serves as the main means of “recording” information (regardless of its volume and even the conditions of speech communication) and transmitting information from one subject of RD to another. Taking into account the above, it is quite reasonable to define text as well as the basic and universal unit of language.

According to another linguistic classification language units include all linguistic structures that have meaning: morphemes, words, phrases, sentences (phrases), texts as expanded coherent statements.

Structures that have no meaning, but only significance(i.e., a certain role in establishing the structure of linguistic units: sounds (phonemes), letters (graphemes), expressive movements (kinemas) in kinetic speech are defined as elements of language(166, 197, etc.).

The basic units of a language form the corresponding subsystems or levels in its general system, which form the so-called level or “vertical” structure of the language system (23, 58, 197, etc.). It is presented in the diagram below.

The above diagram of the level (“vertical”) structure of the language reflects its “hierarchical” structural organization, as well as the sequence, stages of “speech work” for the formation of linguistic concepts and generalizations in a child or teenager. (It should be noted that this sequence does not have a strictly “linear” character; in particular, the assimilation of a language system does not imply an option in which the assimilation of each subsequent (“superior”) subsystem of the language occurs only after the previous one has been completely assimilated) . The assimilation of different components of language can take place simultaneously during certain periods of “speech ontogenesis”, the formation of “higher” structures of the language can begin before the “basic” structures are fully formed, etc. At the same time, the general “order” of the formation of the main subsystems language, of course, is maintained in the ontogenesis of speech, and the same general sequence in work on the various components (subsystems) of language must be observed in the structure of “speech work” on the acquisition of the language system. This is due to the “structural “hierarchy” of linguistic units, the fact that each unit is more high level is created, formed on the basis of a certain combination of units of a lower level, just as the higher level itself is created by lower (or “basic”) levels.

Language “knowledge” and ideas formed during the study of linguistic units of the “basic” levels of language constitute the basis and prerequisite for the assimilation of linguistic ideas about other, more complex subsystems of language (in particular about categorically grammatical and syntactic sublevels). From the analysis above schemes a methodological conclusion follows: Full assimilation of a language is possible only on the basis of complete and lasting assimilation of “linguistic knowledge” in relation to all of its structural components, based on the formation of appropriate linguistic operations with the basic units of language. This is of fundamental importance in terms of continuity in the work of correctional teachers (primarily speech therapists) of preschool and school educational institutions.

§ 19. In modern linguistics, the concept of a linguistic sign is often confused with the concept of a linguistic unit, or unit of language; relevant terms in specialized literature quite often used as equivalent, as absolute synonyms. These concepts and the terms denoting them should be strictly distinguished. These concepts are in generic-specific relationships: a linguistic sign is a specific concept in relation to a linguistic unit, and vice versa, a linguistic unit is generic in relation to the sign. In other words, every sign of a language is a linguistic unit, but not every unit of a language is a linguistic sign. Thus, the concept of a linguistic unit is broader than the concept of a linguistic sign. If a sign is a sensually perceived material entity that expresses a certain meaning, i.e. possessing content, or a signified, then a unit of language is usually understood as any linguistic device that performs one or another linguistic function, regardless of the degree of participation in the expression of meaning.

According to some linguists, “the identification of language units is associated with the division of the flow of speech (and text).” In accordance with this, certain segments of sounding speech, speech flow, such as sound or phoneme (i.e. sound as a distinguisher of significant units of language) are most often considered as linguistic units; morph, or morpheme ("meaningful part of a word"); a word or lexeme (i.e. a word in all its grammatical forms and other formal and semantic modifications); a phrase sometimes called syntagma; offer . Some scientists refer to this type of unit of language (speech) as a statement, which can consist of one or more sentences. "Verbal communication takes place in the form statements(messages, questions and answers, requests, orders, etc.). An individual utterance constitutes the basic unit of communication, the basic unit of speech." Such units, primarily phonemes, morphemes, words and sentences, are sometimes called the basic units of language.

Units of language also include some other segments, or segments, of the speech stream. In a number of languages, along with individual, single sounds, or monophthongs, so-called polyphthongs (combinations of different vowels in one syllable) are used - diphthongs, triphthongs, tetraphthongs (for more information about them, see § 50). They perform the same functions as sounds, or phonemes, and are also units of language. Sometimes among linguistic units of this kind is called a syllable. Linguistic units can be considered such parts of words as connecting vowels, so-called interfixes (sound insertions between the base and the suffix) and some others.

In addition to the above-mentioned units, which represent certain segments of the speech flow, linguistic units are often called such phenomena that do not have a sound expression: stress, intonation, alternation of sounds, word order in a sentence, if they are associated with the expression of linguistic meaning.

Linguistic units are generally considered to be all kinds of patterns, diagrams, or models of the construction of certain material units of language, represented by certain segments of spoken speech, for example: grammatical categories, grammemes, inflectional types, models of phrases, sentences (see about them in the next chapter, in § 179, etc.), word-formation categories, word-formation models, types (see § 169), types and models of syllables (see § 53) and many others.

As a special type of linguistic units, the so-called units of meaning are considered, for example semes, which represent the semantic, ideal side of formal, materially expressed units, “elementary reflections in the language of the sections, aspects and properties of designated objects and phenomena of reality.”

Finally, a linguistic unit often refers to such a phenomenon as the absence of one or another material element of a language system in the composition of a materially expressed unit in the presence of a correlative element (elements) in the composition of other similar formations. In other words, zero units are recognized. In the Russian language, there are so-called zero sounds, bullet vowels (i.e., fluent vowels in word forms like day – day, sleep - sleep), zero morphemes (usually endings and suffixes), zero words, or more precisely, zero connectives. IN lately Some linguists recognize zero connecting vowels, or zero interfixes, for example in complex words like Leningrad, Tsar Cannon, Walk-Pole, organophosphorus .

Obviously, it is necessary to distinguish between linguistic units in the broad and narrow meaning of this term. In a broad sense, all of the above types of units can be considered as linguistic units, except for the so-called zero ones (calling its absence a unit seems illogical) and such phenomena as the alternation of sounds, the order of words in a sentence (they should be called by their proper names). Linguistic units in the narrow sense include those units that have one or another material, sound expression, for example, individual sounds of speech, or phonemes, diphthongs, syllables, morphemes, connecting vowels, interfixes, words, phrases, sentences. According to V. M. Solntsev, the term “unit of language” in a broad sense refers to “a wide range of heterogeneous phenomena that are the object of study of linguistics,” namely: units that have a constant sound shell (for example, phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences), models of the structure of units expressed by sounds (for example, words, phrases, sentences), units of meaning (for example, semes); units of language in the narrow sense are called collections of basic units that “form certain “levels” of the language system, for example, phonemes - phoneme level, morphemes - morpheme level, etc. " .

§ 20. Units of language differ and can be classified according to different criteria. The most striking differences between them are found in the way they are expressed. On this basis, among the units of language (in the broad sense) two main groups can be distinguished - material and ideal units. Material are all units perceived sensually, by ear (sounds, syllables, morphemes, words, sentences, stress, intonation, etc.). TO perfect units refer to units of meaning. A special, intermediate position between the material and ideal units of language is occupied by the so-called “relative-material” units, which include various samples, schemes, models of certain material units (grammatical categories, word-formation types, sentence models, etc.). Being ideal as abstract schemes, they at the same time represent the corresponding material units, their various aggregates, associations, or complexes and therefore are sometimes called complex units of language.

The material units of language differ, first of all, by the nature of their material shell. On this basis, linear and nonlinear units are quite clearly opposed to each other, or, in other terminology, segmental and nonsegmental (suprasegmental, suprasegmental, supersegmental, suprasegmental). Linear, or segmental, are called such linguistic units that represent certain segments (segments) of sounding speech, speech flow, i.e. sounds or combinations of sounds, as if lined up in certain rows or lines. “Linear units are understood as the sounds of a language or their combinations, located one after another.” Linear units usually include such units of language as sounds (phonemes), syllables, morphemes, phrases and others. Nonlinear, or non-segmental, language units “differ from linear units in that they cannot exist on their own, separately from speech sounds (segments)... They are, as it were, superimposed on linear segments: a linear segment can be isolated, pronounced separately, and a supersegmental segment - only together with him" . Nonlinear units include, first of all, such phenomena as stress and intonation. Both stress and intonation are inextricably linked with certain segmental units of language and are inseparable from them. Linguists who consider such phenomena as alternation of sounds and word order in a sentence as linguistic units also classify them as nonlinear units.

As noted above, language units perform certain functions. Depending on exactly what functions these units perform, they are divided into communicative, nominative and constructive, or combat units. Communicative are called units of language that are capable of independently transmitting a message, this or that information. The basic communicative unit of language is the sentence. Nominative are called units that denote individual objects, concepts, ideas, relationships, etc. Such units are words and phrases. Constructive These are the units that are used to construct and formalize nominative and communicative units. These include units such as phonemes, morphemes, and various grammatical forms of words.

In linguistics they differ different shapes existence of language, most often such as language itself (a system of linguistic signs, or, more broadly, linguistic units) and speech (a system of linguistic units in action, in communicative application). In this regard, many linguists distinguish between units of language and units of speech (see about this in § 241).

Units of language differ significantly in their relationship to signs. When explaining the concept of a linguistic unit, it was said that not all language units are signs. This means that among them there are only a few iconic, or bilateral, i.e. having a plan of expression (materially expressed) and a plan of content (expressing a certain meaning), and unfamiliar, or unilateral, i.e. without a content plan. In this regard, the question of which language units are symbolic, i.e., seems relevant. the question of distinguishing between signed and non-signed units of language. Linguists have differing opinions on this issue.

Typically, units of language that express certain linguistic meanings are considered iconic, and units that do not express such meanings are considered non-sign. However, in linguistics there is no generally accepted understanding of linguistic meaning, which makes it difficult to distinguish between these types of linguistic units. In linguistic literature, words and morphemes are most often cited as examples of sign units. Along with these units of language, more complex units - phrases and sentences - are often classified as symbolic. Sometimes morphemes, words and sentences are considered as symbolic units of language. Some linguists (for example, representatives of the Prague School of Linguistics) also consider such units as phonemes to be symbolic.

From listed types of linguistic units, the word is considered an indisputable linguistic sign; its iconic character is not disputed by anyone. The words clearly represent the plane of expression (in the form of sound complexes or individual sounds); Each word necessarily expresses a specific linguistic meaning or series of meanings.

Maslov Yu. WITH.
See for example: Stepanov Yu. S. Fundamentals of general linguistics. P. 226; Fedorenko L. P. Patterns of Russian speech acquisition. M., 1984. P. 6.
Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. 1975. P. 27.
See for example: Barannikova L. I. Basic information about the language. P. 59; Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. P. 149.