And for any state employees, administrative and managerial work in the state, party and other apparatus and organizationally and politically providing the corresponding authorities, i.e. , bureaucrats, apparatchiks, clerks in the broad sense of the word; 2) the apparatus of officials-bureaucrats. The characteristic features of B. are, and, hierarchy, gradation, and the meaning of management activity and its forms. In the history of political thought, much attention was paid to the problem of B. by M. Weber, T. Parsons, R. Merton, ATouldner, and others.

3) Bureaucracy- (French bureau - bureau, office; Greek kratos -; - dominance of the office) - a complex, contradictory socio-political phenomenon, a specific form of the universal organizational structure of society and the state. The emergence of bureaucracy is associated with the genesis of the state and the separation from the social strata of the population of a special group of people who exercise the function of managing society as a whole (officials). The place of bureaucracy in the system of managerial relations can be defined as average, intermediate between political elite and the population, social communities of people. Through its activities, it connects the elite and the masses, being the main collective subject that contributes to the implementation of the guiding principles of the elite to the masses. This is its necessary, progressive significance and role in society and the state. But the nature of bureaucracy is dual. In addition to the noted side, it also has a negative side, which manifests itself in a unique way depending on the method of power, that is, the political regime. Thus, the development of bureaucracy under a totalitarian regime leads to the emergence of an alienated management system, divorced from the interests of the people. In such conditions, bureaucracy is characterized by the following main features: 1) it presents its own, professional interests as universal, expressing, in its opinion, the needs and interests of all members of society; 2) by absolutizing her own narrow professional interests, she creates the illusion (objective delusion) of her independence both from society as a whole and from the politically dominant force ruling in society and the state; 3) due to the fact that the activities of the bureaucracy are connected with the mechanism for implementing executive power in society and the state, it can practically exert significant influence for development political process in the country, as is noted in Russia. References to the culture of bureaucratic power in our country are useless because some of its cultural manifestations cannot fundamentally change the relationship of domination and subordination, in which “direct action is replaced by organizational action, and although calls for solidarity are heard, in reality there is subordination "the law of oligarchy" (N. Luhmann).

4) Bureaucracy- - a management system carried out by a special layer of people who are called upon to ensure the effective government and other social institutions, have specific responsibilities and work according to a hierarchy of authority.

5) Bureaucracy- - 1) a specific form of political, economic and other social organizations, for which characteristic features are arbitrariness, subordination of the rules and tasks of activity primarily to the goals of its preservation and strengthening. 2) a system of management carried out with the help of an apparatus of power that has specific functions and privileges.

6) Bureaucracy- (French bureau - bureau, office and...cracy), initially -, the influence of leaders and officials of the government apparatus; hereinafter - designation of the layer of employees in large organizations that arose in various fields society. As an element of management, administration, bureaucracy turns into a special social one, which is characterized by: hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility in the implementation of formalized functions that require special education. The bureaucracy is characterized by a tendency to become a privileged layer, independent of the majority of members of the organization, which is accompanied by an increase in formalism and arbitrariness, authoritarianism and the subordination of the rules and tasks of the organization’s activities mainly to the goals of its strengthening and preservation.

7) Bureaucracy- - 1) a system of management of society carried out by a privileged caste of officials united by a common corporate interest; 2) type of organization, which is characterized by a clear management hierarchy, strict rules and standards of activity, and specialized distribution of labor.

8) Bureaucracy- (from French вurean) - green cloth that was used to cover tables officials state offices, hence the term “bureaucrat”, i.e. mid-level government employee, official.

9) Bureaucracy- (French bureaucratie French bureau bureau, office + gr. kratos, dominance) - about people professionally involved in management issues and implementing the decisions of the highest authorities. Their activities are based on the division of roles and functions through clear rules and procedures. B., according to M. Weber, is technically the purest type of legal domination. He also formulated the basic requirements for officials: they are personally free and subordinate only to business official duty; have a stable service hierarchy; have clearly defined competencies; work by virtue of a contract (based on free choice); work in accordance with special qualifications; are rewarded with constant cash salaries; consider their service as the only one or main profession; envision their career; work in complete isolation from controls and without assigning official positions; are subject to strict, uniform official discipline and control. Under conditions of legal domination, there is always the danger of B. transforming from a servant of society into a closed caste standing above it. Methods of limiting capital include: regular rotation (proportional replacement after a certain period) of qualified personnel in the administrative apparatus and control over them by political institutions.

10) Bureaucracy- - a type of organization that has a clear hierarchy of power, regulations and instructions that determine behavior; a staff of officials working full time for pay.

Bureaucracy

1) a layer of employees, necessary and inevitable for any state, engaged in administrative and managerial work in the state, party and other apparatus and organizationally and politically ensuring the construction and functioning of the corresponding government, i.e. bureaucrats, bureaucrats, apparatchiks, office workers in the broad sense of the word; 2) the power of the apparatus of officials-bureaucrats. The most characteristic features of B. are privilege, power, authoritarianism, isolation and casteism, hierarchy, many steps, conformism, depersonalization, exaggeration of the role and importance of management activities and its forms. In history socio-political M. Weber, T. Parsons, R. Merton, ATouldner and others paid especially much attention to the problem of B.

(French bureau - bureau, office; Greek kratos - power; - domination of the office) - a complex, contradictory socio-political phenomenon, a specific form of the universal organizational structure of society and the state. The emergence of bureaucracy is associated with the genesis of the state and the separation from the social strata of the population of a special group of people who exercise the function of managing society as a whole (officials). The place of bureaucracy in the system of managerial relations can be defined as average, intermediate between the political elite and the population, social communities of people. Through its activities, it connects the elite and the masses, being the main collective subject that contributes to the implementation of the guiding principles of the elite to the masses. This is its necessary, progressive significance and role in society and the state. But the nature of bureaucracy is dual. In addition to the noted side, it also has a negative side, which manifests itself in a unique way depending on the method of power, that is, the political regime. Thus, the development of bureaucracy under a totalitarian regime leads to the emergence of an alienated management system, divorced from the interests of the people. In such conditions, bureaucracy is characterized by the following main features: 1) it presents its own, professional interests as universal, expressing, in its opinion, the needs and interests of all members of society; 2) by absolutizing her own narrow professional interests, she creates the illusion (objective delusion) of her independence both from society as a whole and from the politically dominant force ruling in society and the state; 3) due to the fact that the activities of the bureaucracy are connected with the mechanism for the implementation of executive power in society and the state, it can practically have a significant influence on the development of the political process in the country, which is noted in Russia. References to the culture of bureaucratic power in our country are useless because some of its cultural manifestations cannot fundamentally change the relationship of domination and subordination, in which “direct action is replaced by organizational action, and although calls for solidarity are heard, in reality there is subordination "the law of oligarchy" (N. Luhmann).

A system of management carried out by a special layer of people who are called upon to ensure the effective functioning of state and other social institutions, have specific responsibilities and work in accordance with a hierarchy of authority.

1) a specific form of political, economic and other social organizations, for which the characteristic features are arbitrariness, subordination of the rules and tasks of activity, primarily for the purposes of its preservation and strengthening. 2) a system of management carried out with the help of an apparatus of power that has specific functions and privileges.

(French bureau - bureau, office and...cracy), initially - power, influence of leaders and officials of the government apparatus; in the future - the designation of a layer of employees in large organizations that have arisen in various spheres of society. As a necessary element of administration, bureaucracy turns into a special social layer, which is characterized by: hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility in the implementation of formalized functions that require special education. Bureaucracy is characterized by a tendency to become a privileged layer, independent of the majority of members of the organization, which is accompanied by an increase in formalism and arbitrariness, authoritarianism and conformism, and the subordination of the rules and tasks of the organization’s activities mainly to the goals of its strengthening and preservation.

1) a system of management of society carried out by a privileged caste of officials united by a common corporate interest; 2) type of organization, which is characterized by a clear management hierarchy, strict rules and standards of activity, and specialized distribution of labor.

(from French вurean) - green cloth that was used to cover the tables of officials of state offices, hence the term “bureaucrat”, i.e. mid-level government employee, official.

(French bureaucratie French bureau bureau, office + gr. kratos power, domination) - about the layer of people professionally involved in management issues and implementing the decisions of the highest authorities. Their activities are based on the division of roles and functions through clear rules and procedures. B., according to M. Weber, is technically the purest type of legal domination. He also formulated the basic requirements for officials: they are personally free and subordinate only to business official duty; have a stable service hierarchy; have clearly defined competencies; work by virtue of a contract (based on free choice); work in accordance with special qualifications; are rewarded with constant cash salaries; consider their service as their only or main profession; envision their career; work in complete isolation from controls and without assigning official positions; are subject to strict, uniform official discipline and control. Under conditions of legal domination, there is always the danger of B. transforming from a servant of society into a closed caste standing above it. Methods of limiting capital include: regular rotation (proportional replacement after a certain period) of qualified personnel in the administrative apparatus and control over them by political institutions.

A type of organization that has a clear hierarchy of power, regulations and instructions that determine behavior; a staff of officials working full time for pay.

Bureaucracy (bureaucracy) (from the French bureau - office and the Greek kratos - power) is a management system based on a vertical hierarchy and designed to carry out the tasks assigned to it in the most effective way.

“Bureaucracy” is often called not only the management system carried out by special government apparatuses, but also this apparatus itself. The terms "bureaucracy" and "bureaucracy" can also be used in a negative sense to refer to an ineffective, overly formalized system of government.

The concept of “bureaucracy” first appeared in 1745. The term was coined by the French economist Vincent de Gournay; at the time of its formation, the word had a pejorative meaning - it meant that bureaucratic officials take away real power from the monarch (in a monarchy) or from the people (in a democracy).

The first to demonstrate the merits of bureaucracy as a system of government was the German sociologist Max Weber. He proposed to understand it as the rational work of institutions, in which each element works as efficiently as possible. After this, in situations bad work officials (red tape, requiring the preparation of many unnecessary documents and a long wait for a decision) began to talk not about bureaucracy, but about bureaucracy, separating these two concepts. If initially the concept of “bureaucracy” was used only in connection with government agencies, now it is used to define any large organization, which has a large and extensive staff of managers (“corporate bureaucracy”, “trade union bureaucracy”, etc.).

2. Ideal types and legitimate domination

In order to consider M. Weber’s concepts of bureaucracy, it is necessary to mention two main categories of his teaching. These are ideal types and legitimate domination.

Ideal types according to M. Weber are not reality, supported by empirical adequacy, but theoretical constructs that allow a deeper understanding of this or that problem. Weber called sociological ideal types pure social types.

M. Weber divided legitimate domination into three groups, distinguished in accordance with three main motives of obedience:

1. Traditional - this type of domination is based on the sacredness of tradition, established norms and rules;

2. Charismatic - it is based on exceptional qualities attributed to the leader;

3. Legal - domination, which can be found in developed bourgeois states - England, France, the USA, etc. In them, not individuals (say, the president and other officials) are subordinate, but laws, and everyone is subordinate - the governed and the managers (officials) .

Bureaucracy was understood by M. Weber as an ideal type, that is, an idealized theoretical model used to analyze and compare real socio-historical phenomena.

3. Forms of bureaucracy

The main source in which Weber’s theory of bureaucracy is presented is the fundamental work of the German sociologist “Economy and Society.”

Max Weber distinguishes two types of bureaucracy:

Traditional “patrimonial”, which is characterized by an irrational principle;

Modern “rational”.

Weber views patrimonial bureaucracy and rational bureaucracy as two opposite types in many respects, but does not draw a sharp line between them. He writes: "The origins of genuine bureaucracy can be found everywhere in the rather uncomplicated forms of patrimonial administration - the transition from patrimonial to bureaucratic office is not clearly defined."

FINAL ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. General problems of studying the phenomenon of bureaucracy.

BUREAUCRACY is a management system based on a vertical hierarchy and designed to carry out the tasks assigned to it in the most efficient way. “Bureaucracy” is often called not only the management system carried out by special government apparatuses, but also this apparatus itself. The terms "bureaucracy" and "bureaucracy" can also be used in a negative sense to refer to an ineffective, overly formalized system of government.

There is a danger of degeneration of bureaucratic management systems when they do not increase, but hinder the efficiency of their activities.

Scientists identify three main problems generated by the bureaucratic organization of management.

1. Alienation from a person. Bureaucracy is designed to solve people's problems. An impersonal approach to clients helps to respect their equality, but at the same time deprives people of their uniqueness. Any problem is adjusted to a template that is common to everyone and is solved in a previously accepted manner. The result is dehumanization and the transformation of a person into a standard “case” on the official’s desk.

2. Ritualism. The standard decision-making procedure often takes so much time, going through all the necessary authorities and approvals, that the decision itself becomes outdated and unnecessary. To describe this situation, R. Merton introduced a special term - “bureaucratic ritualism”, denoting such absorption in rules and regulations that jeopardizes the achievement of the organization’s goals.

3. Inertia. Although bureaucracy is created to solve certain problems, this does not mean that when these problems are solved, the organization will cease to exist. Like any other organization, the bureaucracy strives for self-preservation, but unlike other structures, the bureaucratic one has more experience and greater opportunities to prevent its dissolution. As a result, a bureaucratic organization can function regardless of the goals previously set for it.

The widespread development of bureaucratic power leads to the fact that the bureaucrat becomes the “master” over those people whom he must lead. In these conditions, corruption flourishes.

To reduce the negative consequences of the bureaucratization of management, a system of external control over the activities of officials is necessary - on the part of citizens (clients of the bureaucracy) and/or managers. As a rule, both of these methods are combined: citizens are given the right to complain about bureaucrats to law enforcement agencies, although these bodies themselves may undergo bureaucratic degeneration. The difficulty of organizing control over the bureaucracy is a weighty argument for supporters of anarchy, who seek to abandon the division of society into managed and professional managers. However, at the present stage of development of society, it is not possible to abandon the professionalization of management. Therefore, some bureaucratization of management is perceived as a necessary evil.

2. Basic definitions of bureaucracy.

Bureaucracy is a system of management carried out with the help of an apparatus standing above society. The definition of bureaucracy as a system of management carried out with the help of an apparatus separated from the people and standing above them, endowed with specific functions and privileges, and as a layer of people associated with this system, can be used in the performance of pedagogical and propaganda functions.

Bureaucracy is a layer of people associated with a given system. (the social layer that governs)

Bureaucracy is the rationality of the public administration system.

Another definition of the term was proposed by Max Weber. Bureaucracy is one of the types of ideal rational organization, characterized by the efficiency of administrative actions, which is achieved

through the specialization of a qualified management apparatus and the formal division of responsibilities, a hierarchical system of control and subordination of officials, impersonal relationships based on fixed laws and rules that determine decision-making by separating administrative functions from management tools.

In modern sociology, according to M. Crozier, there are three main interpretations of bureaucracy. The first is traditionally identified with the state bureaucracy; the second refers to Weber's concept of rationalization of social activity; the third contributes to its popular understanding as the spread of routine procedures that inhibit development. It is the latter, dysfunctional meaning that Crozier emphasizes.

In the 19th century, the term “bureaucracy” was usually used to designate a special type of political system. It designated a system in which ministerial posts were held by professional officials, usually responsible to a hereditary monarch. Bureaucracy was contrasted with a system of representative government, that is, the rule of elected politicians accountable to the legislative assembly or parliament.

The second use of this concept relates to the sociology of organizations and has its origins in the work of Max Weber. For Weber, bureaucracy did not mean a form of government, but a system of administration carried out on a permanent basis by specially trained professionals in accordance with prescribed rules. Weber pointed out that this type of management, although it originated in bureaucratic states such as Prussia, became increasingly predominant in all political systems and, moreover, in all organizations in which management was carried out on a large scale: in industrial enterprises, in trade unions , V political parties etc. This very broad concept of bureaucracy as professional management contains a double contrast: first, between management and policy-making, which is the prerogative of the association that uses the bureaucracy and to which the latter is legally subordinate; secondly, between modern management methods and traditional ones, which were not specialized. This concept refers to the sociology of organizations, the task of which is to study the most general characteristics and types of organizations in modern society.

The third use of the term “bureaucracy” is characteristic of the theory of public administration. In this discipline, bureaucracy refers to the management of the public sector as opposed to management in private organizations. The purpose of such a contrast is to identify the differences between these two spheres and to emphasize the qualitatively different nature of the public administration system, including the binding nature of its decisions, its special treatment to the law, concern for public rather than private interests, accountability of its activities to public control, etc. From the point of view of this discipline, what distinguishes different types of professional management is more significant than what is common between them.

The concept of “bureaucracy” can be viewed from three perspectives:

a) as the concentration of real levers of power in the hands of workers of a specialized apparatus for selfish purposes;

b) as a bureaucratic system of apparatus power and control;

c) as a management style.

The first bureaucrat is an official of Ancient Egypt.

BUREAUCRACY - 1) a set of persons professionally involved in management (bureaucracy), responsible to government leadership and living off the income received wages(salary); 2) the system of government management through the apparatus of officials.

BUREAUCRACY (from French bureau - bureau, office and Greek kratos - power) - 1) the highest bureaucracy, administration; 2) a management system based on formalism, the predominance of the formal over the essential, and administrative red tape.

Raizberg B.A. Modern socioeconomic dictionary. M., 2012, p. 60.

Bureaucratic organizational structures

BUREAUCRATIC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES - management structures of an organization, a company, in which problems and tasks are divided into many small components according to individual directions. Each specialist solves his problem as something separate from the real tasks facing the organization as a whole. At the same time, a higher-level manager must decide to what extent these particular tasks correspond to the tasks of the entire organization. Technical methods and the means for solving problems, the rights and responsibilities of each functional element of the mechanistic system are predetermined and regulated.

Bureaucracy (Ilyichev, 1983)

BUREAUCRACY (French bureaucratic, literally - the dominance of the office, from the French bureau - bureau, office and the Greek κράτος - strength, power, domination), a specific form of social organizations in society (political, economic, ideological, etc.), the essence of which lies in the separation of the centers of executive power from the will and decisions of the majority of the members of this organization, the primacy of form over the content of activity, the subordination of the rules and tasks of the functioning of the organization to the goals of its preservation and strengthening; leads to the emergence of a privileged layer, divorced from the masses and standing above them (see V.I. Lenin, PSS, vol. 33, p. 115). Bureaucracy is inherent in a society built on social inequality and exploitation, when power is concentrated in the hands of one or another narrow ruling group...

Bureaucracy (Akmalova, 2011)

BUREAUCRACY. A complex, contradictory socio-political phenomenon, a specific form of the universal organizational structure of society and the state. The emergence of bureaucracy is associated with the genesis of the state and the separation from the social strata of the population of a special group of people who exercise the function of managing society as a whole (officials). The place of bureaucracy in the system of managerial relations can be defined as average, intermediate between the political elite and the population, social communities of people.

Bureaucracy (NFE, 2010)

BUREAUCRACY (French bureau - bureau, office and Greek kratos - power) - an organization of professional civil servants designed for the qualified effective execution of public policy. One of the first critics of bureaucracy was K. Marx, who drew attention to the fact that it is associated with the loss by an organization of the meaningful purpose of its activities, with its subordination to the task of self-preservation and strengthening, with the transformation of state goals into clerical ones, and clerical ones into state ones (see. : Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 1, pp. 270-271). Starting with M.

Bureaucracy (Golovin, 2001)

BUREAUCRATISM - in the psychological aspect - a phenomenon that arises in conditions of non-economic relations between the impersonal management apparatus and a social object, excluding the influence of the people on this apparatus. The administrative apparatus, turning into a cohesive elite, resists any social changes or seeks to adapt to them, maintaining the existing levers of power. It can manifest itself at any level of functioning of the social structure: at the level of organizations, primary units.

Bureaucracy (Chubaryan, 2014)

BUREAUCRACY [fr. bureaucratie< фр. bureau бюро, канцелярия + гр. kratos власть, букв, господство канцелярии] - 1) специфическая форма политических, экономических, идеологических и др. социальных организаций, для которых характерными чертами являются произвол, подчинение правил и задач деятельности организации прежде всего целям ее сохранения и укрепления; своеобразный социальный организм; 2) система управления, осуществляемого с помощью аппарата власти, обладающего специфическими функциями и привилегиями; 3) слой людей (чиновников), служащих в различных звеньях государственного аппарата и неразрывно связанных с системой public administration. Bureaucracy is characterized by hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility in the implementation of formalized functions, arbitrariness, authoritarianism and conformism. 4) a synonym for bureaucracy - the alienation of the state apparatus in relation to society, the transformation of the means of administrative activity into an end in itself; bureaucracy, soullessness, routine, official red tape...

Bureaucracy (Lopukhov, 2013)

BUREAUCRACY - a system of public administration, when, due to the underdevelopment of civil society, actual power in the state belongs to the highest bureaucrats and the nomenklatura serving them, a layer of people (officials) serving in various levels of the state apparatus and inextricably linked with the public administration system. The existence of state bureaucracy is inevitable and necessary condition functioning of organs state power, caused by the expansion and complexity of the content of their work, the obligation to possess information, prepare government decisions, exercise comprehensive control, etc. This makes a significant part of society and the highest authorities dependent on the apparatus. The less democratic the society, the greater this dependence. The apparatus of power itself, which has specific functions and privileges, acts as a fairly autonomous and autocratic organism...

Every person, without exception, at least once in his life encounters the concept of bureaucracy, and, most often, it is characterized in a negative way, associating it with the inaction of officials and a pile of paper documents. In this article we will try to reveal the true concept of bureaucracy, consider bureaucratic theories and its main types found in the modern world.

Basic concept

Bureaucracy is a classification of managers who are in organizational structure any enterprise. Their work, with an unshakable and clear hierarchy, is built on the basis of vertical information flows and formalized methods of solving professional problems.

This term also applies to organizational system management of government bodies, which pursue the goal of maximizing their own functions when working with departments and institutions located in the ramified structure of executive power.

When studying the concept of bureaucracy, the following objects of analysis are distinguished:

1. Emerging contradictions in the implementation of management.
2. The labor process itself as management.
3. Interests (personal and public) of various groups that are directly involved in the bureaucracy.

Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy

The author of the theory, economist, sociologist and historian M. Weber, devoted a lot of time to studying the phenomenon of bureaucratization. But the appearance of the term “bureaucracy” is the merit of the economic figure Vincent de Gournay. He introduced this concept at one time in order to designate executive power. And thanks to Weber, the theory of bureaucracy began its path of study.

Scientists have proposed the following principles of the concept of bureaucracy:

• hierarchy in building an enterprise or organization;
• hierarchical orientation of orders;
• subordination of a lower-level employee to a higher-level one, and the responsibility of the higher-level for the actions of his lower-level subordinates;
• division and specialization of labor by functionality;
• promotions based on experience and skills that are measurable by defined standards;
• communicative system of orientations.

Weber also identified such a concept as rational bureaucracy, which can be characterized as follows:

1. The emergence of highly professional workers, thanks to a clear division of labor.
2. A clear step-by-step (hierarchical) system of subordination.
3. General formal rules and standards that ensure the unambiguity of the tasks performed.
4. Fulfillment of assigned duties by persons, regardless of the quality and individual characteristics of the employee.
5. Hiring and dismissing employees based on qualification requirements and reasons.

Merton's theory of bureaucracy

But the sociologist Merton believed that the modern concept of bureaucracy is to shift the emphasis from the goals of an organization or enterprise to its means, which, as a result, slows down the process towards achieving certain goals.

As Merton noted, most often difficulties in bureaucratic structures arise from the exaggeration of the importance of norms, procedures and rules. The following negative social features of a bureaucratic form of management can be identified:

• ignoring human nature;
• alienation from other people;
• restriction on speech own views, especially those that contradict the general way of thinking;
• opportunism;
• subordination of personal goals of employees to the goals of the enterprise;
• lack of informal interpersonal relationships.

Types of bureaucracy: classical or apparatus bureaucratic system

There are three main types of bureaucracy: classical, professional and adhocracy.

Classic bureaucracy is a type of management workers who weakly or even do not use professional skills at all, since their duty is to perform limited managerial functions. This type is most often found in ministries and senior management institutions. Usually such institutions are not amenable to change from external environment.

Professional bureaucratic system

Professional bureaucracy is a type of managers who base their work on practical knowledge and theoretical aspects in narrow areas of their activity. Moreover, such managers are limited by role requirements in the institution.

Adhocracy

Adhocracy is a form of management consisting of employees of an organization who perform their duties in a highly professional manner. Usually, in an adhocracy, a group of specialists effectively and quickly solves the assigned tasks, in accordance with a specific situation.

The main difference between adhocracy and the ideal model of bureaucracy that Weber identified is that it lacks strict division labor activity and the formalization of relationships and activities is minimized.