Worldview is your own view of the world. Philosophy in brief: Worldview

The most important thing in life

Do you know what is most important for us in our lives? Few people realize that this is our worldview. The whole world is in our heads, so our worldview is our everything. To deprive a person of his worldview means to take away the Universe from him. With the loss of our worldview, we lose all our values. Surprisingly, most people hardly think about the quality of their worldview.

Life is like an escalator that comes towards us, and if we don’t move forward, it throws us back. Without movement there is no development. A slacker becomes dull and fat, but one who participates in debates and battles acquires a quick mind and an agile body. All our achievements begin in the head, therefore the worldview, as a guide to action, determines our purposeful movement through life.

The world around us has placed many traps around us (you can easily verify this if, for example, you run down the street with your eyes closed - as they say, until the first streetlight). We can bypass the obstacles of the surrounding world only thanks to an adequate worldview. An inadequate worldview causes us to make mistakes - to stumble and break our foreheads. Mistakes happen and are useful (it is no coincidence that some trucking companies do not hire drivers who have never been in an accident) - “what doesn’t kill me makes me stronger.” That is, mistakes are necessary and useful not in themselves, but because they allow us to learn, that is, to expand our adequate worldview.

Worldview is faith

Worldview (worldview, worldview, attitude, outlook) is an idea of ​​the world in which we live. It is a belief system about the world. Simply put, a worldview is faith(not to be confused with the narrower sense of this word - religiosity). The belief that the world is as it seems to us.

Sometimes they say: “you cannot live without faith,” meaning religious faith. I think, however, that it is possible to live without religious faith, as atheists prove by their existence. But without faith, in the sense of a worldview, it is truly impossible to live, because... all our actions begin in our heads. In this sense, all people are believers, because everyone has a worldview. Unbelief is not emptiness, but also faith: atheists who do not believe in God believe that God does not exist. And doubt is also faith. The emptiness in the worldview is not unbelief, but ignorance.

Garbage in the head will not replace knowledge, although it is not boring

Our head is stuffed with beliefs about the world- information. True or false? This is a very important question, the answer to which is worth dedicating your life and writing a book. Our worldview is full of all sorts of beliefs and it is naive to believe that they are all true: in addition to knowledge, there is also plenty of garbage - everyone has their own cockroaches in their heads.

People are prejudiced about the correctness of their faith, otherwise they simply would not have it. Therefore, they are usually not inclined to stir up their worldview. Living with an established faith is calmer - there is no need to strain your brain once again. Besides, it is more pleasant to drown in the abyss of dreams and sweet lies than to swim in the cold ocean of harsh truth. A person who has abandoned his usual beliefs feels lost and unprotected, like a hermit crab that has lost its shell. Sometimes, to dissuade a person from his faith means to take away from him something sacred or the meaning of life.

People cling to their views, as a rule, not because they are true, but because they are their own. Even false beliefs are not easy to give up: “you are, of course, right, but I will still remain in my opinion,” stubborn people often say. By clinging to their untenable beliefs, they thereby drive themselves into the web of ignorance, and their trouble is that they themselves do not realize that they have reached a dead end.

If a person is able to easily and without delay renounce far-fetched beliefs, then he is worth something, because then he has a reason to improve. Get ready for revolutions in your brains. Taking inventory of your faith is as useful as cleaning your house from dust and dirt, for Garbage in your head is no substitute for knowledge, although it’s not boring.

"He whose brain is stuffed with garbage is in
state of insanity. And since there is garbage in that
or is otherwise present in everyone’s head,
then we are all in varying degrees crazy"
Skilef

Adequate worldview- the most valuable capital of a person. However, people, as a rule, do not care particularly carefully about the maintenance of their brains, so they do not live in the real world, but in the world of their illusions and phantasmagoria. Few people think about the structure of their worldview, although this is the most important question.

Each person's worldview reflects the evolution of humanity

Humanity is growing up. With each generation it grows, accumulating knowledge about the world - developing culture. As humanity matures, so does the worldview of every average person. Of course, in addition to world culture, people’s worldview is influenced by other factors: local characteristics (“mentality”), personal differences (temperament, upbringing) and others. Therefore, the worldviews of different people are somewhat similar, but there are also differences in them.

Absorbing knowledge about the world, it reaches out to the Truth, like a stem to the Sun. The worldview of people at all times corresponds to the mood of the era in which they live. Now people are no longer the same as they were before our era - they were children, and now they are teenagers. And even despite the fact that many modern people have a dense Middle Ages in their heads - full of superstitions - nevertheless, their idea of ​​the world is in many ways superior to the worldview of primitive savages or ancient Egyptians. And compared to medieval scientists, every modern idiot is a genius.

Pyramid of an adequate worldview

Each person has his own worldview. People differ from each other not only in physiognomy, but also in the content of their brains. But the structure of an adequate human worldview, its framework, has the same multi-story form for all sober people.

Our worldview- a belief system about the world in which we live - is a hierarchical structure of information, similar to a multi-level pyramid. At each level of the worldview pyramid there are beliefs that have different strengths of our trust - from obvious to dubious. Each subsequent rising level of beliefs is based on the previous levels - it grows out of them. In a simplified form, the worldview pyramid can be represented as three levels based on the foundation:

3

theories

2 - obvious

information from

other people's experiences

=================

1 -beliefs from our experience

=======================

FOUNDATION : Main Axiom of Life

Let's walk through the floors of the pyramid from bottom to top:

Foundation worldview pyramid serves Home Axiom of Life(GAZH) - belief in the existence of an objective world around us, expressed by the formula:

Universe = "I" + "not I".

Although it is impossible to prove or disprove the existence of the world around us, nevertheless, we take the GAZ on faith and base all the other beliefs of the worldview pyramid on it.

First level our worldview contains beliefs derived directly from our personal experiences. This is the main and most numerous level of our beliefs - it contains a huge amount of obvious and simple knowledge about the world. This level is the most ancient and largely coincides with the ideas about the world of people of ancient eras. It contains the most necessary knowledge for life and is as important for a person as the ability to walk and think.

Here lies the understanding of the three fundamental categories of existence: matter, space and time and their fourth derivative - movement. Also at this level lie approximately our indisputable beliefs: I am a man; there are other people, animals, plants, etc. around me; table - hard; glass - transparent; cucumbers are edible; nails rust; the icicles are melting; birds can fly; people can lie and make mistakes, but sometimes they tell the truth; traffic cops sometimes wave striped sticks and others.

The beliefs of the first level of the worldview pyramid were born in our heads from our practice from early childhood, when we began to explore the world, and many of them were confirmed by practice more than once. That's why they are the hardest. We almost never question them, because our senses are the most reliable sources of information in the world.

Thanks to the belief that other people are like us and can tell the truth, from the first level of worldview the second grows.

Second level contains obvious information, confirmed by the experience of other people. For example, some people, it seems to me, know from their experience that whales live in the world's oceans; I believe in this information.

If we want to have more knowledge about the world, we cannot rely only on our own experience, but we must also trust other people who have different experiences and who can tell us about them. This is how culture spreads in society. By exchanging experiences, people enrich each other's worldview. It is in trusting other people that the useful function of education lies, forming the second (as well as third) level of our worldview. In order to effectively understand the world, it is more useful to read a book by a researcher who has spent his life studying certain phenomena than to study these phenomena himself all his life.

The second level of worldview is younger than the first and began to actively develop in people with the advent of speech, when they learned to exchange information more accurately and subtly than with the help of gestures and inarticulate screams. It then repeatedly accelerated its growth rate due to the advent of writing, printing, mass media, and other advances.

At this level of our worldview there may be approximately the following beliefs: cobra is poisonous; penguins live in Antarctica; the North Pole is colder than Africa; Italy is shaped like a boot (the astronauts won’t let you lie); Germany was at war with the Soviet Union; archaeologists find objects called dinosaur bones in the ground; iron melts when heated, oil is extracted from the bowels of the Earth, gasoline is extracted from oil, etc..

Information found on this level, confirmed by numerous testimonies of other people, and for us is almost as obvious as the facts of the first level. Sometimes we ourselves become convinced of it in practice, and then it moves from the second level of our worldview to the first.

However, non-obvious information can also be included here: stories about Bigfoot, the Loch Ness dinosaur, about ghosts or aliens: “suddenly aliens grabbed me and dragged me into a UFO.” This evidence is questionable because it is supported by only a few "eyewitnesses", it contradicts fundamental scientific concepts, and it is also supported by the belief that other people can lie and make mistakes.

Third level - Theories. This highest level our worldview, because theories are more complex structures that include building blocks of information from previous levels. As a rule, it takes the mind of a genius to discover a worthwhile theory, and to develop it requires the observations, reflections and discussions of researchers of different generations. It is thanks to the mastery of reliable theories that a person can design rockets, transmit information to anywhere on the planet, and also systematically increase his average life expectancy.

Here are usually located: Theories: probability, Relativity, Evolution, Big Bang, global warming, separate nutrition; postulate of dietetics: the more you eat and the less you move, the thicker the layer of fatty tissue, as a rule; religious beliefs, astrology, conspiracy theories, belief in spirits, occult teachings, as well as hackneyed slogans: " nerve cells are not restored", "salt and sugar - white death", "AIDS - the plague of the 20th century" and others- all this is here, on the third level.

It should be noted that the third level is the most cluttered. In addition to correct concepts, there is a lot of garbage here - superstitions, prejudices, unprovable doctrines and erroneous hypotheses that are introduced into people's worldviews due to their gullibility and lack of knowledge. Many theories are far-fetched, untested and unproven. In addition, people often tend to invent unrealistic beliefs for themselves that they want to believe. And they forget that unreliable theories, even though they are very beautiful, do not elevate a person, but put him in a puddle. Cockroaches in the head mainly live on the upper floors of the worldview pyramid.

We looked at the so-called actual ideological beliefs, i.e., reflecting the objective world. Also in our worldview there are evaluative beliefs that permeate all levels of our pyramid from bottom to top and reflect our attitude to the facts of the world around us. "We live in a colorless world that we paint ourselves" ( Skilef). Ratings make the world colorful. Ratings are subjective.

We live in a colorless world
which we paint ourselves

Skilef

Ratings

Do you know why people love, hate, argue among themselves and what is the cause of all human wars? As it turns out, it's all about the grades.

All human joys, sorrows, disagreements and problems arise from assessments in people's heads. A person is happy or unhappy not because of life itself, but because of how he evaluates it. Our life does not consist of events, but of our attitude towards events. Assessments make a colorless world bright, push people to take action and force them to make choices. And because All our lives we do nothing but constantly make choices, then our assessments are the source of life movement.

Estimates are present in our worldview along with factual information. Assessments (opinions, points of view, tastes) are beliefs that reflect our attitude to facts. And if the actual beliefs of our worldview reflect the objective world (for example, the concept of “elephant”), then assessments exist only in the head (the elephant is bad).

Our assessments come from the depths of our personality - they are generated by instincts, polished by emotions and confirmed by reason. Evaluations are formed by human needs, therefore they are characterized by categories: beneficial-unprofitable, benefit-harm, like-dislike. In general, human evaluations tend to reflect people's interests.

Typically, ratings are measured on a good-bad scale. Let's say, if an employee demands a salary increase, it means he thinks it's good; the boss is usually against it, because For him, these extra expenses are bad.

Evaluations are characterized by the categories of “good” and “evil” (for example, hero, villain). Or they reflect relative values ​​(big, strong, a lot, fast, hot). In speech, evaluations are often expressed by adjectives: beautiful, wretched, wonderful, ordinary, pleasant, vulgar, wonderful, representative, etc. Concepts such as: righteous, sinner, well done, fool, feat, debauchery - express assessments. Factual information can also take on evaluative shades: stuck in (he finally came), dumped (finally left), strayed (thank God he died). Many slang terms (cool, dumb, cool, sucks), swear words (scoundrel, bastard, bastard, rubbish) are assessments. AND swear words, usually also express evaluations (no comment).

Criminal arbitrariness, fair retribution, enormous harm, worst fears, most favored - assessments. Concepts: good, evil, justice, generosity - evaluative concepts. Different life principles, moral principles, commandments and codes of honor are all evaluation systems that are subjective and may differ both among individuals and among entire nations. For example, in our society it is generally accepted that killing is bad, but some natives from the Andaman Islands believe that eating your enemy is healthy.

Evaluations are in a person’s head, not outside of it. Everyone has their own assessments, the same among like-minded people and different among oppositionists.

As they say, you can’t argue with facts, but people are ready to argue about assessments all their lives, which is what they love to do. When people contrast their personal assessments with each other, then conflicts begin - disputes, scandals, fights and wars. After all, what is beneficial to one may harm another.

Conventionally, all types of worldview are divided into two groups: socio-historical types and existential-personal types.

Already described earlier. You just have to refresh your memory: a worldview is a set of concepts, beliefs, values ​​about life, about the person himself, about his position in life.

Types of worldview and life goals

Depending on what worldview we use, we set the corresponding life (), and, accordingly, according to the type of our understanding of the world, we choose a way to realize such a goal.

Unhappy and unsuccessful people usually take the goal from one worldview context, and the path to it from another. For happy and successful people, the goal and the path to it are in the same coordinate system (in the same context of their worldview).

Types of worldview, historical and social

Formed in chronological order. It is very good to understand what the difference is - knowing the history of all mankind. From the Stone Age to the present day. Each period of time reflected the principles that lay in each of these types of worldview.

Another interesting fact: humanity developed - and its thinking developed, its worldview changed. And exactly the same thing happens with the development of a child. That is, in essence, every person, growing up, develops his own worldview by choosing appropriate goals.

Archaic type of worldview

This is humanity’s earliest understanding of the world, of man himself in it.

It is characterized by the fact that realism and fantasy are not separated from each other. These two concepts merged in the form of early beliefs: animism, fetishism, totheism. There is no clear division from your “I” and the world around you. As such an understanding, “Soul” does not exist at all. At the same time: all living things are endowed with life, like humans: from stone to the sun.

Life goals are not formed consciously: it is to please oneself and other animate beings (sacrifice, rituals, idols ....)

Mythological type of worldview

At this point in history, there is a clear separation of “oneself” from the world around us. And if there is an “I,” then there is a “He,” whose actions and thoughts may not coincide with mine. From such views, confrontation (confrontation) already occurs.

This is the era of cults and pantheons of gods. Just as life itself is full of confrontation and competition for a place in the sun, so myths are born about exactly the same confrontation between the gods.

Life goals are already acquiring a clearer structure and meaning: to be with the Powerful Ones of this world, to have power... to achieve the favor of a certain god or person...

Religious

Even more her division of the world. What is this world And that world. The concepts of soul, spirit and body appear. To God is God, to Caesar what is Caesar's.

The concept of faith appears - in the invisible, without critical analysis of the latter. Ideas common to all religions: about God’s creation of the world, about the concepts of good and evil, about the consequences of not following certain rules of behavior.

Life goals - according to the concept of faith that a person professes - are “correct” in its understanding of actions and thoughts.

Philosophical type of worldview

With an increase in knowledge about the person himself and the world around him, a collapse occurs (critical mass), when this knowledge needs to be rethought. This is how various schools of philosophy are formed.

If the knowledge is reinterpreted in the context of such a school, then they believe that the philosophy is the same, but is developing... If the contradictions with the old school are obvious, a new philosophical movement is formed.

Life goals in this context are personal growth, self-development, self-actualization, search for truth...

Exponential-personal types of worldview

It is formed according to the maturation of the person himself. From uncritical, not separating yourself from your mother to a teenage existential crisis... plus overlap external environment influence.

The basis of each person’s worldview is a collective image from many types of worldviews. This can be either a harmonious combination of philosophy, faith and traditions, or without much criticism, various worldview laws are perceived as axioms.

Take the previously described types - mix something from the bottom into a pile, and you will have a modern person like this.

The goals will be different depending on which worldview concept dominates... The most interesting thing happens: when the goals are on one plane, and the paths to them are on another...

Dogmatic

Dogma is not critical, but conscious adherence to rules and laws, according to some worldview.

Pursuing goals - according to dogmas and rules.

Reflex

Reflexes are the subconscious following of certain rules. If the mind still takes part in dogmas, in reflection it is following the principles and rules without the participation of consciousness, reflexively, impulsively.

In this situation, reflection plays an inconspicuous but, sometimes, very significant role.

Choosing the right goal, according to the type of worldview

Many concepts from the listed types are firmly woven into our consciousness.

Some examples - then and now.

Archaic type: before - open worship of idols (all living things), now - baubles, beads, talismans... bringing good luck, the concept of many new people is “the living universe”...

Mythological type of worldview: earlier - worship of the pantheon of gods: Zeus, Veles, Iris..., now - from challing (receiving sacred knowledge from unearthly forms of being) to the influence of stars, the concepts of fate and karma, implicit and subtle worlds.

If a person fails, he cannot achieve success, here is the answer why this happens:choosing a goal not from one’s own type of worldview.

The fact is that changing your vision of the world is quite difficult, but choosing the right one that corresponds to the type of worldview is quite simple. It will only bring its own goal! From other people's goals, not your own, you will only be unhappy...

Good luck to you and choosing the right goals!

Various processes that are currently taking place in the world play an important role in human life, are reflected in the consciousness and influence its forms. Types of worldview are not only a reflection of one side of reality, but also establish a focus on a certain area of ​​life. Throughout his life, a person faces a number of problems, makes mistakes and gains the necessary experience using new inventions. At the same time, he constantly improves himself and gets to know himself as a person. Each individual will always strive to learn something important, discover something new, previously unknown, and get answers to questions that interest him. Many questions are answered by a worldview that is formed in everyone’s culture.

• Islam.
• Christianity.
• Buddhism.
• Judaism.

Philosophy

Not all types of worldview can be classified as philosophical, however, philosophy is one of the forms of worldview consciousness. Anyone who is even slightly familiar with the myths and legends of Ancient Greece knows that the Greeks lived in a special world of fantasy, which later became the guardians of their historical memory. Most modern people perceive philosophy as something very far from reality. Like any other science based on theory, philosophy is constantly enriched with new knowledge, discoveries and content. However, philosophical consciousness is not the dominant aspect of the ideological content of this form of worldview. The spiritual-practical side as the main component of consciousness defines it as one of the ideological types of awareness.

The difference between philosophy and other types of worldview:

• Based on clear concepts and categories.
• It has its own system and internal unity.
• Knowledge based.
• Characterized by turning thoughts towards oneself.

Worldview structure

Conclusion

The result of society's diverse and rich experience of mastering reality laid the foundation for philosophical analysis. Rational-theoretical types of worldview in philosophy arose historically, through man’s awareness of the surrounding reality. Philosophy is designed to combine patterns and features that can reflect reality, and is a theoretically formulated worldview. In the process, an extremely generalized system of knowledge about man, the world and their relationship was developed. Types of worldview are designed to help society understand the rational meaning and patterns of development of human existence and the world as a whole. Laws, philosophical categories and principles are universal in nature and apply simultaneously to nature, man, his thinking and society.

People have always been very actively interested in the processes of arrangement of the world around them. Man sought to determine his place in it, to figure out who was his friend and who was his enemy. Thanks to this worldview, it was possible to determine the most important thing for oneself - a position in life, with a distinct line of behavior, as well as a general desire to take some kind of action.

About a person's worldview

A person is capable of thinking, reasoning and, as a result, forecasting. We certainly know what certain actions will lead to in the process of realizing our main goals. This is done by worldview; a number of natural instincts, in particular practical and scientific activities, allow us to form a system of assessments and views and subsequently carry out a figurative idea of ​​the world around us. The key functions of worldview can be called organization, comprehension and purposefulness of each individual person. This suggests that worldview is determined largely by the life position that a person has taken, beliefs and a number of moral and ethical values. Many people are concerned about the question of how a worldview is formed?

In fact, the overall picture is formed through upbringing, the learning process, as well as socialization in society as a whole. We can safely say that the formation of a worldview is a very slow process that includes many different steps. Young people lack experience and the necessary knowledge, and therefore their worldview is unstable. This is a very easy prey for representatives different religions, politicians, etc. As a person grows up, he gradually begins to become interested in different things, theories, and ultimately his system of values ​​is fixed, which also determines the behavior of the individual and pushes him to take active action.

Classification of forms and types

There are just a few key components that characterize worldview:

• knowledge. They are divided into two subcategories: practical and professional. This is the fundamental and first element of any worldview. They say that the wider the circle of knowledge, the stronger a person’s position in life;
• expression of feelings. The fact is that different types of worldviews manifest themselves in different ways and this depends largely on the so-called subjective reaction of the individual to stimuli. The reaction can be either positive, negative, or neutral. Here the psychological state of a person is of particular importance and we can safely highlight a special moral type called duty and responsibility;
• a number of values. Worldview is directly linked to other values. They can be both useful and harmful, but the process of perception itself occurs through the prism of a person’s interests;
• perfect actions. They can also be divided into two large categories, that is, bad and good. Usually, in practice, a person begins to actively express his own ideas and promote his views;
• character. It is expressed in faith, doubt and will, and on the basis of these three pillars, a person subsequently makes strategically important decisions, self-confidence is formed, and the level of self-criticism either increases or, conversely, decreases;
• a series of beliefs. They can be strong-willed and firm. Usually this concept includes both social and personal views, which act as the so-called engine of life, as well as its basis.

About the philosophical worldview

It is called system-theoretical and all because it originates from the mythological worldview. Myth is always based on feelings and emotions, and thanks to philosophy it is possible to use a number of evidence, as well as logic. This philosophy originated many centuries ago in Greece. Ancient India and China. At the same time, there is a special type of worldview that allows us to prove that something outside of philosophy can also exist, and this science itself forms a worldview. It is not for nothing that philosophical knowledge is usually considered and called elitist, and it is not accessible to everyone; only smart people who are capable of thinking can get carried away by it and understand it.

Religious worldview

It usually arises on the basis of the so-called mythological and is based on a person’s belief in the existence of supernatural forces. The fact is that as various religious movements developed and emerged, they gradually faded into oblivion and, thanks to their numerous mythological features, only the so-called cruel dogmas remained, as well as a system of moral commandments. This type involves dependence on higher powers and is based on fear of the unknown. Its integrity was formed solely due to the emergence of an indisputable system of commandments, which determines the holiness and sinfulness of various actions and intentions.

Mythological worldview

This type of worldview began to take shape during the primitive communal system, when the perception of the world was the basis. The fact is that mythology itself is very closely intertwined with pagan beliefs and various myths in which phenomena and material objects were spiritualized. Such a worldview is mixed with the profane and the sacred, and is based on nothing more than faith. According to traditions, it is possible for a follower of such an interesting worldview to rise to the level of god. And each of the existing myths was useful from a practical point of action, as it encouraged us to confidently move forward.

Scientific worldview

This type of worldview is the opposite of religious and mythological. Thanks to the scientific picture of the world, the idea was created that everything around has its own pattern and is determined by law. The main types of worldview are the so-called rational ones, and science is actively developing only through solving practical problems.

1. The concept of worldview. Types of worldview and its significance in public life.

Worldview– view of the world – the most general idea person about the world around us and man’s place in it.

Types of worldview:

1. Mythological - it is characterized by imagery, descriptiveness, illogicality, integrity of space, lack of differentiation of the individual “I”.

2. Religious - associated with the recognition of the supernatural principle, supports in people the hope that they will receive what they are deprived of in everyday life. Basis - religious movements (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam) Representation of the supernatural, individualism.

3.Philosophical-rationalism, explanatoryness, individualism.

Worldview meaning:

Each person has his own worldview, and it is formed in the process of socialization of a person, his communication with the outside world. In the process of our development, we assign to ourselves certain values, moral and moral characteristics, and we develop our own “picture of life.” With the help of norms and principles, we can interact in society - this is how different classes, groups, estates are formed.

2. The problem of the genesis of philosophy.

Philosophy arises as a resolution of the contradiction between the mythological picture of the world, built according to the laws of imagination, and new knowledge, elements of the original empirical knowledge of nature, built according to the laws of thinking. Philosophy is separated from mythology as concepts are formed.

3. Subject of philosophy. Main problems and sections of philosophy.

The subject of philosophy is a system of general theoretical views on the world, man, social structure, understanding different forms a person’s relationship to the world (way of seeing an object).

Sections of philosophy:

1. Ethics - the doctrine of morality, ethics.

2. Aesthetics - the study of beauty, beauty, the laws and principles of beauty.

3. Epistemology - the science of knowledge, methods of knowledge.

4.ontology - the study of being.

5. anthropology - the study of man.

6. logic - laws of thinking.

7.axiology - the doctrine of spiritual values.

Problems of philosophy:

1. The problem of being is the problem of searching for what “really exists” as independent of man and humanity, which itself does not need anything, but what the world and man need. Therefore, the category “being” is an ontological category. Ontology is a philosophical doctrine about existence as such, and not about the existence of certain things and phenomena.

4. The nature of philosophical problems.

Every person faces problems discussed in philosophy. How does the world work? Is the world developing? Who or what determines these laws of development? Which place is occupied by a pattern, and which by chance? The position of man in the world: mortal or immortal? How can a person understand his purpose? What are human cognitive capabilities? What is truth and how to distinguish it from lies? Moral problems: conscience, responsibility, justice, good and evil. These questions are posed by life itself. This or that question determines the direction of a person’s life. Philosophy is called upon to correctly resolve these issues, to help transform spontaneously formed views in the worldview, which is necessary in the formation of a person. These problems found a solution long before philosophy - in mythology and religion.

5. Philosophy Ancient China. Taoism.

Three great teachings originated in China: Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism.

The revival of philosophy began with the book of changes. The universe is threefold: heaven + man + earth.

By man is meant the emperor. The earth is a square with China in the center.

The energy of the universe is tsy. In which there are 2 principles, yin and yang.

Confucius commented on the book of changes, his treatise "ten wings". The main focus is on the past, attention is paid to practical problems - government. Characteristics of a noble man who must have a love of humanity and observe etiquette (standards of behavior). Knowledge is compared with knowledge of ancient texts. Loyalty is valued, everyone should know their place.

Confucius paid great attention to problems of ethics and politics.

Taoism – treatise “The Book of Tao and Te.” The founder of the movement is Lao Tzu, an archivist. The main category is Tao (path). Tao refers to the universal law of the world, which is the driving force of everything.

Philosophical principle of uvoy (non-action)

The principle of Tao De is a method of philosophizing.

The doctrine of immortality is the cult of immortality.

The foundations of Taoism and the philosophy of Lao Tzu are set out in the treatise “Tao Te Ching” (IV-III centuries BC). At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, universal Law and the Absolute. Tao has many meanings, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of existence, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and limitlessly. No one created it, but everything comes from it, and then, having completed a circuit, returns to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives origin, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao.

Every person, in order to become happy, must take this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, man as a microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe as a macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit is separated from man and dissolved in the macrocosm. A person’s task in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of Tao.

The path of Tao is characterized by the power of De. It is through the power of “Wu Wei” that Tao manifests itself in every person. This force cannot be interpreted as effort, but rather as the desire to avoid all effort. “Wu wei” means “inaction,” the denial of purposeful activity that goes against the natural order. In the process of life, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of non-action - the principle of wuwei. This is not inaction. This is human activity that is consistent with the natural course of the world order. Any action that contradicts Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and death. Thus, Taoism teaches a contemplative attitude towards life.

Bliss is achieved not by the one who strives to win the favor of the Tao through good deeds, but by the one who, in the process of meditation, immersion in his inner world, strives to listen to himself, and through himself to listen to and comprehend the rhythm of the universe. Thus, the purpose of life was conceptualized in Taoism as a return to the eternal, a return to one’s roots.

The moral ideal of Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires and immerse himself in communication with the divine Tao.

The Tao manifests itself through everyday life and is embodied in the actions of trained people, although few of them completely “follow the Path.” Moreover, the practice of Taoism itself is based on complex system symbolism of mutual correspondence and unity of the general, cosmic, and internal, human world. Everything, for example, is permeated with a single qi energy. A child is born from the mixing of the original qi (yuan qi) of the father and mother; a person lives only by continuing to nourish the body with some external qi (wai qi), transferring it to an internal state with the help of a system of breathing exercises and proper nutrition. Everything truly “great” is connected with the transcendental, the Tao, which at the same time manifests itself instantly in things, phenomena, and actions. The cosmic here is constantly projected onto the human and appears in a special vital “energeticism”, the energetic potency of both the Tao itself and the people who were able to fully comprehend it. The path of Tao itself is perceived as an energetic, spiritualizing beginning, for example, in “Zhuang Tzu” it is said: “He spiritualized deities and kings, gave birth to Heaven and Earth.”

6. Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism.

According to Confucius, noble men headed by the sovereign, the “son of heaven,” are called upon to govern the state. A noble husband is an example of moral perfection, a person who affirms moral standards with all his behavior.

It was according to these criteria that Confucius proposed nominating people for public service. The main task of noble men is to cultivate and spread philanthropy everywhere. Philanthropy included: parental care for children, filial piety towards elders in the family, as well as fair relations between those who are not related. Transferred to the political sphere, these principles were to serve as the foundation of the entire management system.

The education of subjects is the most important state matter, and it must be carried out through the power of personal example. “To govern is to do the right thing.” In turn, the people are obliged to show filial piety to the rulers and obey them unquestioningly. The prototype of the organization of state power for Confucius was management in family clans and clan communities (patronimies).

Confucius was a strong opponent of government based on laws. He condemned rulers who relied on frightening legal prohibitions and advocated the preservation of traditional religious and moral methods of influencing the behavior of the Chinese. “If you lead the people through laws and maintain order through punishments, the people will strive to evade [punishments] and will not feel shame. If you lead the people through virtue and maintain order through ritual, the people will know shame and they will correct themselves.”

7. Ancient Indian philosophy. Vedanta.

The Vedas (literally “knowledge”) are religious and philosophical treatises that were created by those who came to India after the 15th century. BC e. from Central Asia, Volga region and Iran by Aryan tribes.

The Vedas generally included:

"holy scripture", religious hymns ("samhitas");

Description of rituals ("brahmanas"), composed by brahmanas (priests) and used by them in the performance of religious cults;

Books of forest hermits ("aranyakas");

Philosophical commentaries on the Vedas ("Upanishads"). Only four Vedas have survived to this day:

Rig Veda;

Samaveda;

Yajurveda;

Atharva Veda.

8. Ancient Indian philosophy. Buddhism.

Buddhism arose in the 7th-6th centuries. BC The main meaning of Buddhism is expressed in the teachings of Buddha, the founder of the doctrine, about the “four noble truths", or in the "truths about suffering." The first truth: "life is suffering." The second: "suffering follows desire." The third: "the way to get rid of suffering is the way to get rid of desires." The fourth: "the way to get rid of desires is following the teachings of Buddhism."

Chinese Buddhism is a mix of concepts.

Buddhism began to penetrate into China at the turn of the century. e. There were legends about the appearance of Buddhist preachers there back in the 3rd century BC. e., however they cannot be considered reliable.

The first spreaders of Buddhism were merchants who came to China along the Great Silk Road from the Central Asian states. Missionary monks, first from Central Asia and later from India, appeared in China before the 2nd-3rd centuries.

Already by the middle of the 2nd century, the imperial court became acquainted with Buddhism, as evidenced by the sacrifices of Lao Tzu (the founder of Taoism) and Buddha, performed by Emperor Huang Di in 165. According to legend, the first Buddhist sutras were brought on a white horse to Luoyang, the capital of the Later Empire. Han, during the reign of Emperor Ming Di (58-76); Here, later, the first Buddhist monastery in China, Baimasy, appeared.

At the end of the 1st century, the activity of Buddhists was recorded in another city of the late Han empire - Pengcheng. In the beginning In the 2nd century, the “Sutra of 42 Articles” was compiled - the first attempt to present it in Chinese. language of the fundamentals of Buddhist teachings.

As far as one can judge from the first translated Buddhist ones. texts, initially in China a transitional type of Buddhism from Hinayana to Mahayana was preached, and special attention was paid to the practice of meditation. Later, Buddhism in the Mahayana form was established in China.

Initially, Buddhism was perceived in China as one of the forms of the national Chinese religion - Taoism. This led to the emergence of the legend about the “enlightenment of the barbarians,” the meaning of which is that the founder of Taoism, Lao Tzu, who went to the West, allegedly became the teacher of Buddha and the true founder of Buddhism in India. This legend was used by the Taoists in their polemics with Buddhists. A similar perception of Buddhism was reflected in the first translations into Chinese Buddhist sutras: in them, the Indian term was often transmitted through one or another concept of Taoist philosophy, which had a significant impact on the transformation of Buddhism in China. For example, bodhi (enlightenment) was conveyed by the term “Tao” - the path, and nirvana - by the Taoist concept “wuwei” - non-action.

9. The main stages of development and directions of ancient philosophy.

Ancient philosophy includes ancient Greek and Roman philosophy starting from the 6th century BC. to the 6th century AD

Characteristic:

1.democracy

2.competitiveness as a national character trait

3.highlighting individuality.

1. Natural philosophy - In the first, natural philosophical, period of development, ancient philosophers searched for the beginning. The main schools and representatives of this period are the Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Heraclitus), the Pythagorean Union (Pythagoras), the Eleatic school (Parmenides, Zeno), the school of atomism (Leucippus, Democritus). Natural philosophers considered the basis of all things to be water, air, fire, earth (everything comes from water into water, everything turns).

2. Sophistry - Reasoning based on deliberate violation of the laws and principles of formal logic, on the use of false arguments and arguments presented as correct.

10.Early Greek philosophy.

Greece was at the crossroads of trade routes: flows of trade and cultural exchanges. Greece is like a dead end, a Scythian corridor. It begins in the steppes of Manchuria, then - southern Siberia - Scandinavian peoples. The displacement of languages ​​is under pressure. Extreme diversity of geographical landscape - various crafts, development of horizons. Constantly under the threat of invasion, attack, the need for protection arises. The Greeks could not maintain a mercenary army. A polis arose in Greece, the Greek was relatively free. Transformation of the Greek community, but it did not suppress individuals. For free thinking there should be no problems in everyday life. The Greeks solved this problem by slavery. In Greece, slavery was not the basis of the productive forces, but at the household level, slaves saved them from everyday problems. The basis of the Greek economy, unlike Rome, is free workers. The development of European philosophy began in Ancient Greece in the 5th-4th centuries BC. It arose and developed in accordance with the rudiments of specific knowledge about nature. The first ancient Greek philosophers were also natural scientists. They made attempts to scientifically explain the origin of the Earth, stars, animals, plants and humans. The main question of ancient Greek philosophy was the question of the beginning of the world. And in this sense, philosophy resonates with mythology and inherits its ideological problems. But in myths the question is: who gave birth to existence, and among the philosophers of Greece: where did everything come from? Naive materialism - the Hellenic school - Parmenides, Zeno, Xenophanes - is a further stage on the path to the rationalization of knowledge. The Eleatics were the first to move from specific natural elements to being as such. Elemental dialectics - Heraclitus, Cratylus. Democritus - being - something simple, further indivisible, impenetrable - an atom. Natural philosophers saw the unified diversity of the world in its material basis. They failed to explain social and spiritual phenomena. The Socrates-Plato school developed a concept of ideas on the basis of which it was possible to explain not only nature, but also man and society. Aristotle developed the doctrine of form, which made it possible to better understand the essence of a separate thing. Cynics, Stoics, Epicureans, skeptics were busy searching for destiny, the meaning of human life. Their common call: be wise.

11.Life and teachings of Socrates.

Socrates - (lived 469-399 BC), ancient Greek philosopher from Athens, one of the founders of dialectics. He sought the truth by asking leading questions (Socratic method). He presented his teachings orally; main source information about his teaching - the writings of his students Xenophon and Plato. She used the method of dialectics to find the truth by asking leading questions - the so-called Socratic method (Maieutics - philosophizing in the form of a conversation). The goal of Socrates' philosophy is self-knowledge as the path to comprehension of the good; virtue is knowledge or wisdom. For subsequent eras, Socrates became the embodiment of the ideal of the sage. The main task of knowledge is to know oneself. Dialogue is the main method of finding truth.

12. Plato's philosophical system.

Plato was born in Athens in 428-427. BC His real name is Aristocles, Plato is a pseudonym meaning “broad-shouldered”, which was given to him in his youth for his strong build by the wrestling teacher Ariston from Argos. At the age of 20, Plato met Socrates and remained with him until the death of his teacher - only 8 years. At the age of 28, after the death of Socrates, Plato, along with other students of the great philosopher, left Athens and moved to Megara. In 360, Plato returned to Athens and remained with the Academy until his death in 347 BC.

The state, according to Plato, like the soul, has a three-part structure. In accordance with the main functions (management, protection and production of material goods), the population is divided into three classes: farmers-artisans, guards and rulers (sages-philosophers). A fair state structure must ensure their harmonious coexistence. The first estate is formed from people in whom the lustful principle predominates. If the virtue of moderation, a kind of love of order and discipline, prevails in them, then these are the most worthy people. The second estate is formed from people in whom the strong-willed principle predominates, the duty of the guard is vigilance in relation to both internal and external danger. According to Plato, only aristocrats are called upon to rule the state as the best and wisest citizens. Rulers should be those who know how to love their City more than others, who are able to fulfill their duty with the greatest zeal. And most importantly, if they know how to cognize and contemplate the Good, that is, the rational principle prevails in them and they can rightfully be called sages. So, a perfect state is one in which moderation predominates in the first estate, courage and strength in the second, and wisdom in the third.

The concept of justice is that everyone does what they ought to do; this applies to the citizens in the City and the soul parts within the soul. Justice in the external world manifests itself only when it exists in the soul. Therefore, in a perfect City, education and upbringing must be perfect, and for each class it has its own characteristics. Plato attaches great importance to the education of guards as an active part of the population from which rulers emerge. Education worthy of rulers had to combine practical skills with the development of philosophy. The purpose of education is, through the knowledge of the Good, to provide a model to which the ruler should become like in his desire to embody the Good in his state.

13. Formation and specificity of medieval philosophy.

The medieval period is the period of historical development of Western Europe and the Middle East from the fall of the Roman Empire to the XIV-XV centuries. The philosophy of this time:

Main 2 sources:

1.ancient Greek philosophy

2. sacred scriptures, which turned philosophy into the mainstream of Christianity.

A distinctive feature of the philosophy of the Middle Ages was its pronounced religious character. The religious worldview is theocentric.

Theocentrism is an understanding of the world in which God was the historicist and the cause of all things, he is the center of the universe, an asset. and creative start. At the heart of epistemology is the idea of ​​deities. revelations.

The worldview according to which God personally created living and inanimate nature, which is in constant change, is called creationism. A system of views according to which all world events are controlled. God is called providentialism.

From the 4th century religion extends its influence to everything, the formation of social life and, above all, spiritual life.

The philosophy of this time went down in history under the name scholasticism (the symbol is divorced from real life). Representatives of medieval scholasticism are Thomas Aquinas.

The philosophy of this time was characterized by the struggle between materialism and idealism; it was expressed in the dispute between realists and nominalists over what constitutes a social concept, i.e. universal.

Conclusion: the main feature of medieval philosophy is creationism, i.e. pronounced religious character.

14.Patristics. Philosophy of Aurelius Augustine.

PATRISTICS is a term denoting the totality of theological and religious-philosophical works of Christian writers of the 2nd-8th centuries. - Church Fathers.

Augustine (Aurelius) - one of the most famous and influential fathers christian church, born November 13, 354 in the African province of Numidia.

15.Scholasticism. Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas.

Scholasticism is a type of religious philosophy that seeks to provide a rational theoretical justification for a religious worldview through the use of logical methods of proof. Scholasticism is characterized by turning to the Bible as the main source of knowledge.

THOMISM is a philosophical movement based on the teachings of Thomas Aquinas.

Thomas Aquinas went down in history as a major theological philosopher of the Middle Ages, as well as as a systematizer of scholasticism and the founder of Thomism, an important direction of the Catholic Church. During his lifetime he was a Dominican monk. His ideas are also used in modern philosophical and theological teachings.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas provides insight into some complex theological issues. His most famous works- “Summa Theology”, as well as “Summa Philosophy”.

The Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas: Briefly

This philosopher considered the ontological existence of God insufficient. He compiled five proofs of the existence of a higher mind:

Movement. Everything that is movable is moved by someone, which means there is some kind of prime mover. This engine is called God;

Cause. Everything that exists around has its own reason. The First Cause is God;

Chance and necessity. These concepts are interrelated. The original cause is God;

Degree of quality. Everything that exists has varying degrees of quality. God is the highest perfection;

Target. Everything around has a purpose. A goal has a meaning that God gives it. Without God, goal setting would be completely impossible.

Aquinas's philosophy is concerned with the problems of existence, God, and all things. In particular, the philosopher:

Draws the line between essence and existence. This division is included in the key ideas of Catholicism;

As an essence, the philosopher represents the “pure idea” of a phenomenon or thing, a set of signs, traits existing in the divine mind;

He calls the very fact of the existence of a thing proof of the existence of a thing;

Everything that we see around exists only for the reason that this existence was approved by God;

God can give existence to an entity, or He can deprive it of this existence;

God is eternal and irreversible.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas contains the ideas that:

Everything consists of idea (form) as well as matter;

The unity of matter and form is the essence of any thing;

The idea is the defining principle, matter is the container;

Any idea is threefold - that is, it exists in the mind of God, in the thing itself, and also in the consciousness of man.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas contains the following ideas:

Reason and revelation are not the same thing;

Reason and faith are always involved in the process of knowledge;

Reason and faith give true knowledge;

Untrue knowledge can arise for the reason that reason contradicts faith;

Everything around is divided into what can be known and what cannot be known;

The mind is capable of cognizing only the very fact of the existence of God;

The existence of God, the creation of the world, the immortality of the soul, as well as other similar questions, can only be understood by man through divine revelation;

Theology and philosophy are not the same thing at all;

Philosophy explains only what is knowable by reason;

Theology understands the Divine.

Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas: Historical Significance

This may include:

Evidence for the existence of God;

Systematization of scholasticism;

Drawing boundaries between existence and essence;

Significant contribution to the development of the ideas of materialism;

The discovery of divine ideas preceding the beginning of the existence of a thing;

The idea that knowledge can only be obtained when reason is united with faith and ceases to contradict it;

Indication of spheres of existence that can only be comprehended through divine revelation;

The separation of theology and philosophy, as well as the presentation of philosophy as something subordinate to theology;

Logical proof of a number of provisions of scholasticism, as well as theology.

The teachings of this philosopher were recognized by the Pope (1878), and adopted as the official ideology of Catholicism. Today, such a doctrine as neo-Thomism is based on his ideas.

16.Philosophy of Italian humanism.

17. Philosophy of N. Machiavelli.

Nicolo Machiavelli (1469-1527), Italian thinker

The main work is “The Sovereign”

Political philosophy of Machiavelli

Key ideas:

1. The existence of a state is an objective law and necessity (destiny).

2. However, fate only half determines our actions. The rest depends on ourselves, on our personal qualities.

3. The state is constantly changing depending on the relationship between the contending forces: the aristocracy and the people.

4. Forms of state can be repeated cyclically under similar conditions (monarchy, republic).

5. The goal of politics is to have power. The state is an autonomous system, independent of morality, religion or philosophy. The sovereign must take care of the prosperity and power of the state by any means, without worrying about observing moral standards. Hence the permissibility of any methods in politics, including violence, the murder of political opponents (cf. Lenin, Stalin, Hitler).

6. The needs of power are more important than morality, the state (as a general one) more important than a person(singular) – by analogy with Plato’s ideal state.

18. Reformation and its influence on the formation of new philosophical thinking.

The Reformation was a social movement in Western and Central Europe in the 16th century. It was mainly anti-feudal in nature and took the form of a struggle against the Catholic Church. The beginning of the Reformation was the speech of M. Luther in Germany in 1517. The ideologists of the Reformation put forward theses that actually denied the need for the Catholic Church with its hierarchy and the clergy in general, rejected the Catholic Holy Tradition, denied the rights of the church to land wealth, etc. etc. The main directions of the Reformation: burgher (M. Luther, J. Calvin, W. Zwingli); popular, combining the demand for the abolition of the Catholic Church with the struggle for the establishment of equality (T. Münzer); royal-princely, reflecting the interests of secular authorities, which sought to strengthen power and seize the land holdings of the church. The Peasants' War of 1524-1526 took place under the ideological banner of the Reformation. in Germany, the Dutch and English revolutions. The Reformation marked the beginning of Protestantism (in the narrow sense, reformation is the implementation of religious transformations: in its spirit).

Movements directed against the inert medieval social environment, to eliminate the evils of the religious system, are rooted in needs corresponding to the external (hyun-san) and internal aspects (song-san) of the original nature of man. The Reformation grew out of man’s inner desire to return to God and devote his life to Him. Thus, it was directed towards God, reviving the traditions of spirituality characteristic of the biblical Israelites, here called Hebraism, in contrast to the Renaissance, which focused on the revival of the humanistic ideals of Hellenism, addressed to man.

Stages of the Reformation:

1517 - Luther's speech with 95 theses against the sale of indulgences. Beginning of the Reformation;

1518 - Luther refuses to renounce his views;

1520 - Luther publishes major reform works;

1521 - Pope Leo X anathematizes Luther, as announced at the Reichstag in Worms;

1522 - Out New Testament in German translated by Luther;

1523 - Speech by Ulrich Zwingli with 67 theses.

On the one hand, the Reformation had no direct relation to the development of science, however, in addition to personal connections and influence, for example, Luther on Copernicus, in addition to the influence of the positions of the leaders of the Reformation on certain scientific issues, it created a completely different intellectual climate, the influence of which on scientific thinking difficult to overestimate.

19. Formation of philosophy of the New Age.

17th century opens a special period in the development of philosophical thought, which is commonly called classical philosophy. In the development of European spiritual culture, this century is defined as the century of “reason”: they worship it, turn to it as the “supreme judge” in human affairs; the idea of ​​the “reasonableness” of the world is affirmed. A new, so-called enlightenment-modernist philosophical paradigm is being formed.

During this era, faith in limitless possibilities reason - unlimited rationalism. There is nothing that man cannot explore and understand. Science knows no boundaries. New times affirmed the role of science, which was different from ancient and medieval values. Science is not an end in itself; it should not be pursued for the sake of a fun pastime, not for the love of discussion, and not in order to glorify one’s name. It should benefit the human race and increase its power over nature.

One of the important features of this paradigm is the desire to establish a new idea of ​​reality and being. The development of manufacturing production and the bourgeois way of life focused on the knowledge of nature, natural existence as an actual reality. It is nature (“nature”), and not the divine spirit, that is the true “world substance”, “real being” from the point of view of the thinkers of this era. Accordingly, the “main” knowledge becomes knowledge about nature – natural science. At the same time, philosophy is “cleansed” from humanistic orientation, directed towards “pure” (without specifically human, social aspect), objective nature.

The desire of the philosophers of the 17th century. to improve philosophical knowledge, overcome the scholastic attitudes and prejudices of medieval philosophy, relied on the comprehension and generalization of the results and methods of the new science, a science aimed at understanding nature, and not the divine spirit. This created the preconditions for the establishment of philosophical materialism in the proper sense of the word.

A feature of modern science is, on the one hand, reliance on experimental knowledge as the main means of achieving new, practically effective truths, knowledge free from any orientation towards any authorities. On the other hand, the successes of mathematics played a significant role in the development of science at that time, leading to the emergence of algebra, analytical geometry, the creation of differential and integral calculus, etc.

The leader of natural science in modern times, thanks to the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, became mechanics - the science of the movement of bodies observed directly or with the help of instruments. This science, based on the experimental and mathematical study of nature, had a significant impact on the formation of a new picture of the world and a new paradigm of philosophizing. Under its influence, a mechanistic and metaphysical picture of the world is formed. All natural phenomena are treated as machines (machina mundi) or systems of machines created by an infinite creator. True, the creativity of God is reduced to a minimum in this picture - the creation of matter and the imparting to it of a certain initial impulse, as a result of which all of it comes into chaotic motion. The unraveling of this chaos and its transformation into space occurs spontaneously in accordance with the laws of mechanical motion and is subject to strict, unambiguous determination. God becomes an external “click” in relation to the world he created. This understanding of the world distinguishes the natural science of modern times not only from ancient and medieval science, but also from the natural philosophy of the 15th-16th centuries, which considered the concepts of “nature” and “life” as identical (this position can be called organicism).

The development of science, and above all the new natural science, the affirmation of its special role in the development of mankind, encourages philosophers to constantly coordinate their ideas and speculations with the data and methods accepted in exact natural science. Philosophical and methodological works are among the main works in which many principles of the new, anti-scholastic philosophy are formulated.

And if in the Middle Ages philosophy acted in alliance with theology, and in the Renaissance - with art and humanitarian knowledge, then in the 17th century. philosophy acts in alliance with the science of nature. It began to become like natural science, adopting its style of thinking, principles, methods, ideals, and values.

20. Philosophy of F. Bacon.

The philosophical direction - empiricism (from the Greek empiria experience) claims that all knowledge arises from experience and observations. At the same time, it remains unclear how scientific theories, laws and concepts arise that cannot be obtained directly from experience and observations.

The founder of empiricism was the English philosopher Bacon (1561-1626), who was convinced that philosophy could become a science and should become one. He considers science and knowledge as the highest value, having practical significance. "Knowledge is power." “We can do as much as we know.”

Bacon developed a classification of sciences. History is based on memory, poetry, literature and art in general are based on imagination. Reason lies at the basis of theoretical sciences or philosophy. The main difficulty in understanding nature is in the human mind. For Bacon, the correct method is the best guide on the path to discovery and invention, the shortest path to truth. There are 4 obstacles to objective knowledge of the world, idols (delusions of the mind, distorting knowledge):

1. “ghosts of the family.” It is a consequence of the imperfection of the senses, which deceive, but themselves point out their mistakes.

2. “ghosts of the cave.” It does not come from nature, but from upbringing and conversations with others.

3. “market ghosts”. From the peculiarities of a person’s social life, from false wisdom. The most severe of all.

4. "ghosts of the theater." Associated with blind faith in authorities, false theories, and philosophical teachings.

Having cleared the mind of ghosts, you need to choose a method of knowledge. Bacon figuratively characterizes the methods of cognition as the ways of the spider, ant and bee. The spider takes truths out of the mind, and this leads to a disregard for facts. The path of the ant is narrow empiricism, the ability to collect facts, but not the ability to generalize them. The bee's path consists of mental processing of experimental data. The path of true knowledge is induction, i.e. the movement of knowledge from the individual to the general. The peculiarity of the inductive method is analysis. Bacon's empirical philosophy had a strong influence on the development of experimental natural science.

21. Rationalistic philosophy of R. Descartes.

The founder of rationalism is considered to be Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), a prominent French philosopher and mathematician. Descartes' merit to philosophy is that he:

substantiated the leading role of reason in knowledge;

put forward the doctrine of substance, its attributes and modes;

put forward a theory about the scientific method of cognition and about “innate ideas.”

Descartes's proof of the primacy of reason in relation to being and knowledge - the main idea of ​​rationalism.

Descartes proved that reason lies at the basis of being and knowledge as follows:

in the world there are many things and phenomena that are incomprehensible to man (do they exist? what are their properties? For example: is there a God? is the universe finite?);

but absolutely any phenomenon, any thing can be doubted (does the world around us exist? does the sun shine? is the soul immortal? etc.);

therefore, doubt really exists, this fact is obvious and does not need proof;

doubt is a property of thought, which means that a person, doubting, thinks;

a really existing person can think;

therefore, thinking is the basis of both being and knowledge;

since thinking is the work of the mind, then only reason can lie at the basis of being and knowledge.

3. Descartes' doctrine of substance.

Studying the problem of being, Descartes tries to derive a basic, fundamental concept that would characterize the essence of being. As such, the philosopher derives the concept of substance.

Substance is everything that exists without needing anything other than itself for its existence. Only one substance has such a quality (the absence of a need for its existence in anything other than itself), and it can only be God, who is eternal, uncreated, indestructible, omnipotent, and is the source and cause of everything.

Being the Creator, God created the world, also consisting of substances. Substances created by God (individual things, ideas) also have the main quality of substance - they do not need anything other than themselves for their existence. Moreover, created substances are self-sufficient only in relation to each other. In relation to the highest substance - God, they are derivative, secondary and dependent on him (since they were created by him).

Descartes divides all created substances into two types:

material (things);

spiritual (ideas).

At the same time, he identifies the fundamental properties (attributes) of each type of substance:

extension – for material ones;

thinking is for the spiritual.

This means that all material substances have a common attribute for all - extension (in length, width, height, depth) and are divisible to infinity.

Still, spiritual substances have the property of thinking and, on the contrary, are indivisible.

The remaining properties, both material and spiritual, are derived from their fundamental properties (attributes) and were called modes by Descartes. (For example, modes of extension are form, movement, position in space, etc.; modes of thinking are feelings, desires, sensations.).

Man, according to Descartes, consists of two substances that are different from each other - material (bodily-extended) and spiritual (thinking).

Man is the only creature in which both (material and spiritual) substances combine and exist, and this allowed him to rise above nature.

Descartes' scientific method is deduction.

When studying the problem of knowledge, Descartes places special emphasis on the scientific method.

The essence of his idea is that the scientific method, which is used in physics, mathematics, and other sciences, has practically no application in the process of cognition; it is possible to significantly advance the cognitive process itself (according to Descartes: “transform cognition from handicraft into industrial production”) .

Deduction is proposed as this scientific method (but not in a strictly mathematical sense - from the general to the particular, but in a philosophical sense).

The meaning of Descartes' philosophical epistemological method is that in the process of cognition, rely only on absolutely reliable knowledge and with the help of reason, using completely reliable logical techniques, obtain deduction as a method; according to Descartes, reason can achieve reliable knowledge in all spheres of knowledge.

Also, Descartes, when using the rationalistic-deductive method, suggests using the following research techniques:

allow only true, absolutely reliable knowledge, proven by reason and logic, that does not raise any doubts, as starting points during research;

break down a complex problem into separate, simpler tasks;

consistently move from known and proven issues to unknown and unproven ones;

strictly observe the sequence, the logical chain of research, not skip a single link in the logical chain of research.

22. Subjective idealism of D. Berkeley.

The English philosopher George Berkeley (1685–1753) criticized the concepts of matter as the material basis (substance) of bodies, as well as I. Newton’s theory of space as the container of all natural bodies and the teachings of J. Locke on the origin of the concepts of matter and space.

Berkeley noted, not without subtlety: the concept of matter is based on the assumption that we can, abstracting from the particular properties of things, form an abstract idea of ​​a substance common to all of them as a kind of substrate. However, according to Berkeley, this is impossible: we do not and cannot have sensory perception of matter as such; our perception of each thing is resolved without any remainder into the perception of a certain sum of individual sensations or “ideas.” And in fact, in this case, nothing remains of matter: it seems to dissolve into some “foggy” uncertainty, which cannot influence anything at all. Hence Berkeley’s aphoristic postulate: “To be means to be in perception.” And if, say, a given birch tree is not perceived by anyone, then what – it ceases to exist!? Berkeley objected to this something like this: then it is perceived by other people or living beings in general. What if they all fell asleep and disconnected from perception? Berkeley objected to this: God, as an eternal subject, always perceives everything.

But reasoning from an atheistic position leads to the following conclusion. If there is no God, then what we consider material objects must have a spasmodic existence: suddenly appearing at the moment of perception, they would immediately disappear as soon as they fall out of the field of view of the perceiving subjects. But, Berkeley argued, it just so happened: that thanks to the constant vigil of God, who evokes ideas in us, everything in the world (trees, rocks, crystals, etc.) exists constantly, as common sense believes.

23.Philosophy of the French Enlightenment.

John Locke (1632 - 1704) developed many of the philosophical ideas of Bacon and Hobbes, put forward a number of his own theories, and continued the empirical and materialist tradition of English philosophy of modern times.

The following main provisions of the philosophy of J. Locke can be distinguished:

The world is materialistic;

Knowledge can only be based on experience (“there is nothing in the thoughts (mind) of a person that was not previously in the feelings”);

Consciousness is an empty cabinet, which is filled with experience throughout life (in this regard, Locke’s world-famous statement about consciousness as a “blank slate” on which experience is recorded - tabula rasa);

The source of experience is the external world;

The purpose of philosophy is to help a person achieve success in his activities;

The ideal person is a calm, law-abiding, respectable gentleman who improves his level of education and achieves good results in his profession;

The ideal of the state is a state built on the basis of the separation of powers into legislative, executive (including judicial) and federal (foreign policy). Locke was the first to put forward this idea, and this is his great merit.

24. theory of knowledge and Kant

One of the greatest minds of mankind, the founder of German classical philosophy is Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Not only in philosophy, but also in concrete science, Kant was a deep, insightful thinker.

Man, ethics and law are the main themes of Kant’s philosophical teachings.

Kant believed that the solution to such problems of philosophy as the problems of human existence, soul, morality and religion should be preceded by an investigation of the possibilities of human knowledge and the establishment of its boundaries. The necessary conditions for knowledge are inherent, according to Kant, in reason itself and form the basis of knowledge. They give knowledge the character of necessity and universality. But they are also the impassable boundaries of reliable knowledge. Rejecting the dogmatic method of knowledge, Kant believed that instead it was necessary to take as a basis another - a method of critical philosophizing, consisting in the study of the methods of reason itself, in the dissection of the general human ability of knowledge and in the study of how far its boundaries can extend. Kant distinguishes between the phenomena of things perceived by man and things as they exist in themselves. We experience the world not as it really is, but only as it appears to us. Only phenomena of things (phenomena) that make up the content of our experience are accessible to our knowledge: the world is cognized by us only in its manifested forms.

In his doctrine of knowledge, Kant great place devoted dialectics: he considered contradiction as a necessary moment of cognition. But dialectics for him is only an epistemological principle; it is subjective, since it does not reflect the contradictions of the things themselves, but only the contradictions of mental activity. Precisely because it contrasts the content of knowledge and its logical form, these forms themselves become the subject of dialectics.

In the logical aspect of the theory of knowledge, Kant introduced the idea and term “synthetic judgment,” which allows for the synthesis of reason and data from sensory perception and experience.

Kant introduced imagination into the theory of knowledge, calling it the Copernican revolution in philosophy. Our knowledge is not a dead cast of things and their connections. This is a spiritual construction, erected by the imagination from the material of sensory perceptions and the framework of pre-experimental (a priori) logical categories. A person uses the help of imagination in every link of his reasoning. Kant adds to his characterization of man: this is a being endowed with the productive ability of imagination.

In his theory of knowledge, Kant often considers anthropological problems themselves. He identifies in cognition such a phenomenon of the spirit as transcendental apperception, i.e. the unity of consciousness, which constitutes the condition of the possibility of all knowledge. This unity is not the result of experience, but a condition of its possibility, a form of knowledge rooted in the cognitive ability itself. Kant distinguished transcendental apperception from the unity that characterizes the empirical Self and consists in attributing a complex set of states of consciousness to our Self as its center, which is necessary for unifying all the diversity given in experience and forming the content of all experiences of the Self. This is the brilliant idea of ​​the great thinker.

According to Kant, we know only phenomena - the world of things in themselves is inaccessible to us. When trying to comprehend the essence of things, our mind falls into contradictions.

Scrupulously developing his concept of “things in themselves,” Kant meant that in the life of an individual, in our relationship to the world and man, there are such depths of mystery, such areas where science is powerless. According to Kant, man lives in two worlds. On the one hand, he is part of the world of phenomena, where everything is determined, where the character of a person determines his inclinations, passions and the conditions in which he acts. But on the other hand, in addition to this empirical reality, a person has another, supersensible world of “things in themselves”, where incidental, random, incomprehensible and unforeseen impulses from the person himself, or a coincidence of circumstances, or a moral duty dictating his will are powerless.

25.The ethical teaching of I. Kant.

“The basis of Kant’s ethics, as well as his entire philosophy, is the distinction between the sensory (empirical) world and the intelligible world. At the level of the empirical world, sensibility and reason act, generalizing the data of sensibility. In the intelligible world, the mind acts in accordance with the universal objective laws of the mind, independent of the sensory empirical world. In ethical and practical aspects, this independence appears as freedom and autonomy of the mind from sensual inclinations, needs and passions. The objective laws of reason are here expressed in the form of objective laws of will or imperatives."
The central concept of Kant's ethics is imperatives and the corresponding practical formulations, prescriptions - maxims, but to identify the fundamental imperatives and maxims, Kant introduces the auxiliary concept of the “kingdom of goals”, which played an exceptional role in subsequent axiology.
Schematically, the foundations of Kant’s ethics can be presented in the form of two series of concepts, one of which is associated with the sensual, conditional, accidental, the other with the rational, moral, absolute, necessary:
- sensory (empirical) world
- sensuality, reason
- dependence on inclinations and needs
- hypothetical imperatives
- subjective desires
- subjective goals corresponding to inclinations
- relative values ​​that have a price, allowing equivalent replacement
- intelligible world
- intelligence
- freedom, autonomy
- categorical imperatives
- objective laws of reason and will
- objective goals corresponding to the universal laws of volition
- absolute values ​​that have dignity and cannot
to be replaced by nothing

26. Philosophy of G. Hegel.

The highest achievement of German classical philosophy was the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831). According to Vl. Solovyov, Hegel can be called a philosopher par excellence, because of all the philosophers, philosophy was everything to him alone. For other thinkers, it is an attempt to comprehend the meaning of existence, but for Hegel, on the contrary, existence itself tries to become philosophy, to turn into pure thinking. Other philosophers subordinated their speculation to an object independent of it: for some this object was God, for others it was nature. For Hegel, on the contrary, God himself was only a philosophizing mind, which only in perfect philosophy achieves its own absolute perfection. Hegel looked at nature in its innumerable empirical phenomena as a kind of “scales that the snake of absolute dialectics sheds in its movement.” Hegel developed the doctrine of the laws and categories of dialectics, and for the first time developed in a systematized form the basic principles of dialectical logic. He contrasted Kant's “thing in itself” dialectical principle: the essence is manifested, the phenomenon is essential. Hegel, seeing in the life of nature and man the immanent power of the absolute idea that drives the world process and reveals itself in it, argued that categories are objective forms of reality, which are based on the “world mind”, “absolute idea” or “world spirit”. This is an active principle that gave impetus to the emergence and development of the world. Activity absolute idea is thinking, the goal is self-knowledge. In the Process of self-knowledge, the mind of the world goes through three stages: the presence of the self-knowing absolute idea in its own womb, in the element of pure thinking (logic, in which the idea reveals its content in the system of laws and categories of dialectics); development of an idea in the form of “other being” in the form of natural phenomena (it is not nature itself that develops, but only categories); the development of ideas in thinking and in the history of mankind (history of the spirit). At this last stage the absolute idea returns to itself and comprehends itself in the form of human consciousness and self-consciousness. Hegel died of cholera. He was already dying when his wife turned to him with a question about God. Weakened by suffering, Hegel pointed his finger at the Bible lying on the table by the bed and said: here is all the wisdom of God. This position of Hegel reflects his panlogism(from the Greek pan - everything and logos - thought, word), dating back to B. Spinoza and closely associated with the recognition of the existence of God. According to Hegel, “half-hearted philosophy separates you from God, but true philosophy leads to God.” The Spirit of God, according to Hegel, is not a spirit above the stars, beyond the world, but God is omnipresent. In his works, Hegel acts as a biographer of the world spirit. His philosophy did not pretend to foresee what this spirit would do in the future: its actions can only be known after they have occurred. Philosophy is unable to foresee the future. Hegel’s enormous merit lies in establishing true and fruitful concepts in philosophy and general consciousness: process, development, history. Everything is in process - there are no absolute boundaries between different forms of being, there is nothing separate, not connected with everything. Philosophy and science have acquired genetic and comparative methods in all areas.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770 - 1831) - professor at Heidelberg and then Berlin universities, was one of the most authoritative philosophers of his time both in Germany and in Europe, a prominent representative of German classical idealism.

Hegel’s main merit to philosophy lies in the fact that he put forward and developed in detail:

The theory of objective idealism (the core concept of which is the absolute idea - the World Spirit);

Dialectics as a universal philosophical method.

Hegel's most important philosophical works include:

"Phenomenology of Spirit";

"Science of Logic";

"Philosophy of Law".

27.Marxism. Man as an active being.

It is often customary to divide:

Activity is a form of active and creative attitude towards the world around us. The essence of this relationship is the expedient change and transformation of the world.

Activities are divided into material and ideal, spiritual. From the point of view of the creative role of activity in social development, it is of particular importance to divide it into reproductive (aimed at obtaining an already known result using known means) and productive or creativity, associated with the development of new means to achieve known goals.

Every activity includes a goal, a means, a result and the process of activity itself.

Man is a unique biological being who, surviving in a constantly changing environment, has invented a social system. The social system is built “around” and “above” the biological nature of existence. In this regard, the unification of scientific knowledge about a person can occur on the basis of considering activity as a category that determines the qualitative specificity of an object.

28. Marxism. The problem of alienation.

It is traditionally believed that the following 3 provisions are of great importance in Marx’s theory:

The doctrine of surplus value,

Materialistic understanding of history (historical materialism)

The doctrine of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

It is often customary to divide:

Marxism as a philosophical doctrine (dialectical and historical materialism);

Marxism as a doctrine that influenced scientific concepts in economics, sociology, political science and other sciences;

Marxism as a political movement that affirms the inevitability of class struggle and social revolution, as well as the leading role of the proletariat in the revolution, which will lead to the destruction of commodity production and private property that form the basis of capitalist society and the establishment, on the basis of public ownership of the means of production, of a communist society aimed at comprehensive development every member of society;

The problem of alienation is complex and multifaceted. And the confusions associated with this problem in the socio-economic literature are not accidental. After all, the beginning of these confusions was laid by Hegel, and the source that feeds them was the fuzzy distinction of Marx. The fact that these concepts in the Russian language are covered by the single term “alienation” also hinders the disclosure of the problem.
In our opinion, it is precisely the clear distinction between these concepts that contributes to the correct reading of the “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844,” which, undoubtedly, is the key to solving the problem.
By the most general definition, alienation is an extreme form of social degeneration of a person, the loss of his tribal essence.

29. Existentialism as a philosophy of crisis consciousness

For the first time they started talking about existentialism (philosophy of existence) in the late 20s of the 20th century. Many considered this direction of philosophy to be unpromising, but it soon grew into a major ideological movement. Conventionally, this movement is divided into two directions: atheistic (representatives - M. Heidegger in Germany, J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus in France) and religious - K. Jaspers (Germany), G. Marcel (France).

Existentialism is a philosophical expression of the deep upheavals that befell society during the crises of the 20s and 40s. Existentialists tried to comprehend a person in critical, crisis situations. They focused on the problem of spiritual endurance of people thrown into an irrational, out-of-control stream of events.

The crisis period of history, that is, the twentieth century, is viewed by existentialists as a crisis of humanism, reason, as an expression of a “world catastrophe.” But in this confusion, the pathos of existentialism is directed against personal capitulation to the “global crisis.” The consciousness of a person living in the twentieth century is characterized by apocalyptic fear, a feeling of abandonment, loneliness. The task of existentialism is to create new definitions of the subject of philosophy, its tasks and the possibilities of new postulates.

Existentialism - (from Late Latin Exsistentia - existence), or philosophy of existence - a direction of modern philosophy, the main subject of study of which was man, his problems, the difficulties of existence in the world around him. People first started talking about existentialism in the late 20s of the 20th century. Many considered this direction of philosophy to be unpromising, but it soon grew into a major ideological movement.

The actualization and flourishing of existentialism in the 20s - 70s. XX century The following reasons contributed:

Moral, economic and political crises that gripped humanity before the First World War, during the First and Second World Wars and between them;

The rapid growth of science and technology and the use of technical achievements to the detriment of people (improvement of military equipment, machine guns, machine guns, mines, bombs, the use of toxic substances during combat operations, etc.);

The danger of the destruction of humanity (the invention and use of nuclear weapons, an approaching environmental disaster);

Increasing cruelty, inhumane treatment of people (70 million dead in two world wars, concentration camps, labor camps);

The spread of fascist and other totalitarian regimes that completely suppress the human personality;

The powerlessness of man before nature and technogenic society.

30. The problem of freedom in existentialism

Existence is a way of human being. For the first time in this meaning the term existence is used by Kierkegaard.

Existentialism (from Late Latin exsistentia - existence) is the “philosophy of existence”, one of the most fashionable philosophical movements in the middle of the 20th century, which was “the most direct expression of modernity, its lostness, its hopelessness... Existential” philosophy expresses the general sense of time: feeling decline, meaninglessness and hopelessness of everything that happens... Existential philosophy is the philosophy of radical finitude"

Existentialism is a philosophy of man. The main theme of all works is man, his relationship with the world, man in his self-awareness. The essence of the existentialist approach is as follows: the personality does not depend on the environment, while the mind, logical thinking constitutes only a certain part of a person (not his main part).

According to existentialism, the task of philosophy is to deal not so much with the sciences in their classical rationalistic expression, but with issues of purely individual human existence. A person, against his will, is thrown into this world, into his destiny, and lives in a world that is alien to himself. His existence is surrounded on all sides by some mysterious signs and symbols. Why does a person live?

What is the meaning of his life? What is man's place in the world? What is his choice of his life path? These are really very important questions that people cannot help but worry about. Existentialists proceed from a single human existence, which is characterized by a complex of negative emotions - concern, fear, consciousness of the approaching end of one’s existence. When considering all these and other problems, representatives of existentialism expressed many deep and subtle observations and considerations.

The basis of each personality is a certain stream of experiences of his worldview, experiences of his own being. It is this flow of experiences that is called existence. Existence not only does not depend on the environment, it is always unique and inimitable. There are two conclusions from this:

a person is irresistibly lonely, because all his connections with other people do not provide a full opportunity to express his existence. It can be expressed in his creativity, but any product of creativity is something material and alienated from its creator;

a person is internally free, but this freedom is not a blessing, but a heavy burden (“We are cursed by our freedom” J.P. Sartre), because it is associated with the burden of responsibility. Man creates himself.

There are two varieties of existentialism: religious and atheistic. Religious - the unity of man with God. A real person is forced to live in society, obey its requirements and laws. But this is not true existence.

31. The philosophy of positivism and the main stages of its development

Positivism (lat. positivus - positive) as main problem examines the question of the relationship between philosophy and science. The main thesis of positivism is that genuine (positive) knowledge about reality can only be obtained by specific, special sciences.

The first historical form of positivism arose in the 30-40s of the 19th century as the antithesis of traditional metaphysics in the sense of the philosophical doctrine of the beginnings of all things, of the universal principles of being, knowledge of which cannot be given in direct sensory experience. The founder of positivist philosophy is Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher and sociologist who continued some traditions of the Enlightenment, expressed his belief in the ability of science to endlessly develop, and adhered to the classification of sciences developed by encyclopedists.

Kant argued that any attempts to adapt “metaphysical” problematics to science are doomed to failure, because science does not need any philosophy, but must rely on itself. The “new philosophy,” which must decisively break with the old, metaphysical (“revolution in philosophy”), should consider as its main task the generalization of scientific data obtained in private, special sciences.

The second historical form of positivism (the turn of the 19th-20th centuries) is associated with the names of the German philosopher Richard Avenarius (1843-1896) and the Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach (1838-1916). The main currents are Machism and empirio-criticism. The Machians refused to study the external source of knowledge as opposed to the Kantian idea of ​​the “thing in itself” and thereby revived the traditions of Berkeley and Hume. The main task of philosophy was seen not in generalizing the data of particular sciences (Comte), but in creating a theory of scientific knowledge. We considered scientific concepts as a sign (the theory of hieroglyphs) for an economical description of the elements of experience - sensations.

In 10-20 years. In the 20th century, a third form of positivism appeared - neopositivism or analytical philosophy, which has several directions.

Logical positivism or logical empiricism is represented by the names of Moritz Schlick (1882-1936), Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970) and others. The focus is on the problem of the empirical meaningfulness of scientific statements. Philosophy, say logical positivists, is neither a theory of knowledge nor a meaningful science about any reality. Philosophy is a type of activity in the analysis of natural and artificial languages. Logical positivism is based on the principle of verification (Latin verus - true; facere - to do), which means empirical confirmation of the theoretical provisions of science by comparing them with observable objects, sensory data, experiment. Scientific statements that are not confirmed by experience have no cognitive significance and are incorrect. A statement of fact is called a protocol or protocol sentence. The limitations of verification were subsequently revealed in the fact that the universal laws of science are not reducible to a set of protocol proposals. The very principle of verifiability also could not be exhausted by a simple sum of any experience. Therefore, supporters of linguistic analysis, another influential trend of neo-positivism, George Edward Moore (1873-1958) and Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951), fundamentally abandoned the verification theory of meaning and some other theses.

The fourth form of positivism, post-positivism, is characterized by a departure from many of the fundamental provisions of positivism. A similar evolution is characteristic of the work of Karl Popper (1902-1988), who came to the conclusion that philosophical problems cannot be reduced to the analysis of language. He saw the main task of philosophy in the problem of demarcation - the distinction between scientific knowledge and non-scientific knowledge. The demarcation method is based on the principle of falsification, i.e. the fundamental refutability of any statement related to science. If a statement, concept or theory cannot be refuted, then it is not a science, but a religion. The growth of scientific knowledge consists of putting forward bold hypotheses and refuting them.

32.Features of the development of Russian philosophy and its periodization

In modern Russian philosophy, the following periods of Russian philosophy are usually distinguished:

I period – The emergence of philosophical thought in Rus'. (XI-XVII centuries)

II period – Russian Renaissance philosophy (XVIII – early XIX century)

II period – Russian philosophy XIX – early XX centuries.

I period – The emergence of philosophical thought in Rus'. (XI-XVII centuries) XI-XVII centuries during this period are characterized by ethical philosophy. Philosophical moral teachings. Philosophy of unity. Philosophy reflects the connection between secular and spiritual life.

II period – Formation of Russian philosophy (XVIII – early XIX centuries) XVIII – mid-XIX centuries. This period is characterized by attempts to borrow Western philosophy and at the same time the emergence of nature philosophy (philosophy of nature) in the person of Lomonosov

III period – Russian philosophy XIX – early XX century: Mid-XIX and first decades of the XX century. This period is characterized by the highest development of Russian philosophy (“golden age”).

IV period – Philosophy in the Soviet period of history (1917 – 1991).

After 1917, completely different, largely unnatural and violent social conditions for its development fell heavily on Russian philosophy. If the most severe ideological oppression was established in the USSR, accompanied by direct terror against dissent, then in the conditions of emigration, Russian philosophy could not but be affected by its isolation from Russian reality and from the Russian people who found themselves behind the “Iron Curtain”.

1. First and main feature Russian philosophy is PRIMARILY RELIGIOUS, AND SOMETIMES RELIGIOUS-MYSTICAL, RELIGIOUS-SYMBOLIC CHARACTER, i.e. LONG-TERM DOMINATION IN IT OF RELIGIOUS FORMS OF CONSCIOUSNESS, CONSTANT SEARCH FOR THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF CHRISTIAN IDEAS FOR THE INDIVIDUAL, SOCIETY AND CULTURE. The second characteristic feature of Russian philosophy: ULTIMATE DUALISM, ANTINOMISM (antinomy is a contradiction between two mutually exclusive positions, equally convincingly proven by logical means) IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE WORLD, MAN AND HISTORY as a consequence of the confrontation between the pagan and Christian sources of Russian culture that has not been overcome to the end. As the third distinctive feature of Russian philosophy, it is necessary to note the SPECIFICITY OF THE STYLE OF PHILOSOPHY ITSELF. in Western philosophy since the 17th century. The purely rationalistic, “scientific” method of presentation became dominant, reaching its apotheosis among representatives of German classical philosophy. In Russian philosophy, the rationalistic method has never been the main one; moreover, for many thinkers it seemed false, not making it possible to get to the essence of the main philosophical problems. From the third follows another, fourth, feature of Russian philosophy: it was the PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE in the full sense of the word. Philosophy, detached from life and locked in speculative constructions, could not count on success in Russia. Therefore, it was in Russia - earlier than anywhere else - that she consciously submitted to solving the pressing problems facing society.

33. Philosophy of Russian cosmism.

Russian cosmism is a current of domestic religious and philosophical thought, based on a holistic worldview, presupposing a teleologically determined evolution of the Universe. Characterized by awareness of universal interdependence, unity; searching for the place of man in Space, the relationship between space and earthly processes; recognition of the proportionality of the microcosm (man) and macrocosm (the Universe) and the need to measure human activity with the principles of the integrity of this world. Includes elements of science, philosophy, religion, art, as well as pseudoscience, occultism and esotericism. This movement is described in a significant number of Russian publications on anthropocosmism, sociocosmism, biocosmism, astrocosmism, sophiocosmism, light cosmism, cosmoaesthetics, cosmoecology and other related topics, but has virtually no noticeable influence in Western countries.

Interest in the teachings of cosmists arose in the USSR in connection with the development of astronautics and the actualization of social and environmental problems. The term “Russian cosmism” as a characteristic of the national tradition of thought arose in the 1970s, although the expressions “cosmic thinking”, “cosmic consciousness”, “cosmic history” and “cosmic philosophy” (French. philosophy cosmique) were also found in the occult and mystical XIX literature centuries (Carl Duprel, Max Theon, Helena Blavatsky, Annie Besant, Peter Ouspensky), as well as in evolutionary philosophy. The term "cosmic philosophy" was used by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. In the 1980-1990s, a narrow understanding of Russian cosmism as a natural science school initially prevailed in Russian literature (Nikolai Fedorov, Nikolai Umov, Nikolai Kholodny, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Vladimir Vernadsky, Alexander Chizhevsky and others). However, later everything higher value begins to acquire a broad interpretation of Russian cosmism as a sociocultural phenomenon, including the specified “narrow” understanding as its own special case, along with other directions of domestic cosmism, such as religious-philosophical, poetic-artistic, aesthetic, musical-mystical, existential-eschatological, projective and others. At the same time, researchers note the diversity and conventionality of classifications of this phenomenon for two reasons: all “cosmists” were gifted with talents in various fields culture, and were original thinkers who created fairly independent systems that required individual analysis.

Some philosophers find consonance between the main principles of the philosophy of cosmism and many fundamental ideas of the modern scientific picture of the world and their positive potential for the development of new metaphysics as the philosophical foundation of a new stage in the development of science. Supporters see the relevance of the ideas of cosmism in resolving the challenges of our time, such as the problem of finding moral guidelines, uniting humanity in the face of an environmental crisis, and overcoming cultural crisis phenomena. Adherents consider cosmism to be the original fruit of the Russian mind, an essential part of the “Russian idea,” the specifically national character of which is supposed to be rooted in the unique Russian archetype of “all-unity.”

On the other hand, Russian cosmism is closely connected with pseudoscientific, occult and esoteric currents of philosophical thought and is recognized by some researchers as a speculative concept formulated in very vague terms.

34. Problems of anthroposociogenesis. Biological and social in man.

Axiology studies issues related to the nature of values, their place in reality and the structure of the value world, that is, the connection of various values ​​with each other, with social and cultural factors and the structure of personality. The question of values ​​was first raised by Socrates, who made it the central point of his philosophy and formulated it in the form of a question about what is good. Good is realized value - utility [ ] . That is, value and benefit are two sides of the same coin. In ancient and medieval philosophy, the question of values ​​was directly included in the structure of the question of being: the fullness of being was understood as an absolute value for a person, which simultaneously expressed ethical and aesthetic ideals. In Plato's concept, the One or Good was identical to Being, Good and Beauty. The same ontological and holistic interpretation regarding the nature of values ​​is adhered to by the entire Platonic branch of philosophy, right up to Hegel and Croce. Accordingly, axiology as a special section of philosophical knowledge arises when the concept of being is split into two elements: reality and value as the possibility of practical implementation. The task of axiology in this case is to show the possibilities of practical reason in the general structure of being.

Naturalistic psychologism

Represented by names such as Meinong, Perry, Dewey, Lewis. This theory boils down to the fact that the source of values ​​lies in the biopsychologically interpreted needs of a person, and the values ​​themselves can be empirically fixed as certain facts.

Transcendentalism

It was developed in the Baden school of neo-Kantianism (Windelband, Rickert) and is associated with the idea of ​​value as an ideal being, correlating not with the empirical, but with “pure” or transcendental consciousness. Being ideal, values ​​do not depend on human needs and desires. However, values ​​must somehow correlate with reality. Therefore, we must either idealize empirical consciousness, attributing to it normativity, or develop the idea of ​​​​a “logos”, some superhuman essence on which values ​​are based.

Personalistic ontologism

The philosophy of science has the status of historical sociocultural knowledge, regardless of whether it is focused on the study of natural sciences or social sciences and humanities. The philosopher of science is interested in scientific research, the “discovery algorithm,” the dynamics of the development of scientific knowledge, and research methods. (It should be noted that the philosophy of science, although interested in the reasonable development of sciences, is still not intended to directly ensure their reasonable development, as multidisciplinary metascience is called upon to do.) If the main goal of science is to obtain truth, then the philosophy of science is one of the most important areas for humanity application of his intellect, within the framework of which the issue is discussed “how is it possible to achieve truth?”.

41. Methods and forms of scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is the most objective way of discovering new things. In this article we will look at the methods and forms of scientific knowledge and try to get to the heart of the question of how they differ.

There are two levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. And in this regard, the following forms of scientific knowledge in philosophy are distinguished: scientific fact, problem, hypothesis and theory. Let's give each of them a little attention.

A scientific fact is an elementary form that can be considered as scientific knowledge, but about one single phenomenon. Not all research results can be recognized as facts if they are not obtained as a result of studying them in interaction with other phenomena and have not undergone special statistical processing.

The problem exists in the form of knowledge, in which, along with the known, there is something that needs to be known. It consists of two points: firstly, the problem must be identified, and secondly, it must be solved. What is sought and known in a problem are closely interconnected. In order to solve a problem, you need to make not only physical and mental, but also material efforts. Therefore, some of the problems remain unknown for a very long time.

To solve a problem, a hypothesis is put forward, which indicates the scientist’s knowledge of patterns that can help this or that problem. The hypothesis must be justified, that is, meet the conditions of verifiability, compatibility with factual material, and the possibility of comparison with other objects under study. The truth of the hypothesis is proven in practice. Once the truth of a hypothesis has been verified, it takes the form of a theory, which completes the stages of development that have been reached modern methods and forms of scientific knowledge.

And the highest form of scientific knowledge is theory. This is a model of scientific knowledge that gives a general idea of ​​the laws of the field being studied. Logical laws follow from the theory and are subject to its basic principles. The theory explains, systematizes and predicts and determines the methodology of scientific knowledge, its integrity, validity and reliability.

The forms of scientific knowledge in philosophy also determine the basic methods of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is the result of observations and experiments. Experiment as a method of scientific knowledge arose in the 17th century. Until this time, researchers relied more on everyday practice, common sense, and observation. The conditions for experimental scientific knowledge developed with the development of technology and the emergence of new mechanisms as a result of the industrial revolution that occurred at that time. The activity of scientists at this time increases due to the fact that the experiment made it possible to subject the object under study to special influences, placing it in isolated conditions.

However, when considering the methods and forms of scientific knowledge, the importance of observation cannot be diminished. It is this that opens the way to conducting an experiment. Let us at least remember how V. Gilbert, rubbing amber with wool, discovered the existence of static electricity. This was one of the simplest experiments involving external observation. And later, the Dane H. Ørsted conducted a real experiment, using a galvanic device.

Modern methods and forms of scientific knowledge have become much more complex and are on the verge of a technical miracle. The dimensions of the experimental equipment are huge and massive. The amount that is invested in their creation is also impressive. Therefore, scientists often save money by replacing the basic methods of scientific knowledge with the method of thought experiments and scientific modeling. An example of such models is an ideal gas, where it is assumed that there are no collisions of molecules. Mathematical modeling is also widely used as an analogue of reality.

42. Scientific pictures of the world (classical, non-classical, post-non-classical).

A wide panorama of knowledge about nature, including the most important theories, hypotheses and facts, is associated with the scientific picture of the world. The structure of the scientific picture of the world offers a central theoretical core, fundamental assumptions and particular theoretical models that are constantly being developed. The central theoretical core is relatively stable and maintains its existence for quite a long time. It is a set of specific scientific and ontological constants that remain unchanged in all scientific theories. When it comes to physical reality, the superstable elements of any picture of the world include the principles of conservation of energy, constant growth of entropy, fundamental physical constants that characterize the basic properties of the universe: space, time, matter, field, motion.
Fundamental assumptions are of a specific nature and are accepted as conditionally irrefutable. These include a set of theoretical postulates, ideas about the methods of interaction and organization into a system, about the genesis and patterns of development of the universe. In the event of a collision between the existing picture of the world and counterexamples or anomalies, in order to preserve the central theoretical core and
Based on fundamental assumptions, a number of additional private scientific models and hypotheses are formed. They are the ones who can change, adapting to anomalies.
The scientific picture of the world is not just a sum or a set of individual knowledge, but the result of their mutual coordination and organization into a new integrity, i.e. into the system. Related to this is such a characteristic of the scientific picture of the world as its systematic nature. The purpose of the scientific picture of the world as a body of information is to ensure a synthesis of knowledge. This implies its integrative function.
The scientific picture of the world is paradigmatic in nature, since it sets a system of attitudes and principles for the development of the universe. By imposing certain restrictions on the nature of the assumptions of “reasonable” new hypotheses, the scientific picture of the world thereby directs the movement of thought. Its content determines the way of seeing the world, since it influences the formation of sociocultural, ethical, methodological and logical norms of scientific research. Therefore, we can talk about the normative as well as the psychological functions of the scientific picture of the world, which creates a general theoretical background for research and coordinates the guidelines of scientific research.
The evolution of the modern scientific picture of the world involves a movement from the classical to the non-classical and post-non-classical picture of the world (which has already been discussed). European science started with the adoption of the classical scientific picture of the world, which was based on the achievements of Galileo and Newton, and dominated for quite a long period - until the end of the last century. She claimed the privilege of possessing true knowledge. It corresponds to a graphic image of progressively directed linear development with strictly unambiguous determination. The past determines the present just as the present determines the future. All states of the world, from the infinitely distant past to the very distant future, can be calculated and predicted. The classical picture of the world described objects as if they existed on their own in a strictly defined coordinate system. It clearly observed the orientation towards “ontos”, i.e. that which is in its fragmentation and isolation. The main condition became the requirement to eliminate everything that related either to the subject of cognition or to disturbing factors and interference.

43. Subject and object of knowledge. Human cognitive abilities.

Any activity as a specifically human form of a person’s active relationship to the world represents the interaction of subject and object. The subject is the carrier of material and spiritual activity, the source of activity aimed at the object. An object is something that opposes the subject, towards which his activity is directed. In contrast to objective reality, an object is only that part of it that is included in the activity of the subject.

In development public relations cognitive activity stands out from material, practical activity and acquires relative independence; The “subject-object” relationship acts as a relationship between the subject and the object of cognition.

The subject of cognition is the bearer of cognitive activity, the source of activity aimed at the object. The object of cognition is what the cognitive activity of the subject of cognition is aimed at. For example, the planet Neptune, which has existed as an objective reality since the emergence of the Solar System, becomes an object of knowledge only after its discovery (1846): its distance from the Sun, period of revolution, equatorial diameter, mass, distance from the Earth and other characteristics were established.

In different philosophical teachings, the subject and object of knowledge are interpreted differently. In materialism of the XVII-XVIII centuries. the object was considered as something that exists independently of the subject, and the subject - as an individual passively perceiving the object. This position is characterized by contemplation. In idealistic systems, the subject acted as an active, creative need; the subject was understood as either an individual consciousness, creating an object in the form of combinations (complexes) of sensations (the teachings of Berkeley, Hume, empirio-criticism), or a non-human subject - God, the world mind, creating and cognizing reality. In Hegel's system, for example, the starting point of which is the identity of thinking and being, the absolute idea (objective thinking) turns out to be both the subject and the object of knowledge.

Knowledge is not the result of the activity of an individual subject isolated from society; it is impossible without knowledge that has become public property. But on the other hand, knowledge is impossible without a subject, and this subject is, first of all, a person, an individual with the ability to know, endowed with consciousness and will, armed with skills and knowledge expressed in concepts, categories, theories, recorded in language and passed on from generation to generation. generation (Popper's "third world"). The epistemological subject has a social nature, it is a social person who has mastered the achievements of material and spiritual culture, and in this broader sense, the subject of knowledge can be considered as a collective, a social group, society as a whole. As a universal epistemological subject, society unites subjects of all levels, all generations. But it carries out cognition only through cognitive activity individual subjects.

Usually there are two stages of cognition: sensory and mental - although they are inextricably linked
Sensory cognition:
- based on human cognitive abilities associated with the senses. The word “sensual” has many meanings; it is associated not only with sensation, but also with feeling, as a manifestation of emotions.
Sensory cognition is a form of cognition associated with the understanding of sensory data, but not reducible to them. Human senses can hardly be considered the most developed. There are four stages of sensory cognition: initial impression (living contemplation), sensation, perception, representation.
A person’s first meeting with the phenomena of the surrounding world allows him to receive a holistic, undifferentiated initial impression of the object of interest. This impression may remain, but may be subject to change, clarification, and subsequent differentiation into elementary sensations.

44. Truth and error. Reliability of knowledge. Criteria of truth.

Truth is usually defined as the correspondence of knowledge to an object. Truth is adequate information about an object, obtained through either sensory or intellectual comprehension, or reporting about it, and characterized in terms of its reliability. Thus, truth exists as a subjective reality in its informational and value aspects.

The value of knowledge is determined by the measure of its truth. Truth is a property of knowledge, not an object of knowledge.

Truth is defined as an adequate reflection of an object by a cognizing subject, reproducing reality as it is in itself, outside and independently of consciousness. Truth is an adequate reflection of reality in the dynamics of its development.

But humanity rarely achieves truth except through extremes and delusions. Delusion is the content of consciousness that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted as true. Misconceptions also reflect objective reality and have a real source. Misconceptions are also caused by the relative freedom to choose the paths of knowledge, the complexity of the problems being solved, and the desire to realize plans in a situation of incomplete information.

But delusions should be distinguished from lies as a moral and psychological phenomenon. A lie is a distortion of the actual state of affairs, with the purpose of deceiving someone. A lie can be either an invention about something that did not happen, or a deliberate concealment of what did happen.

The source of lies can also be logically incorrect thinking.

Scientific knowledge is inherently impossible without a clash of different opinions and beliefs, just as it is impossible without errors. Errors are often made during observation, measurement, calculations, judgments, and assessments.

Everything is much more complicated in the social sciences, in particular in history. This includes the availability of sources, their reliability, and politics.

Truth is historical. The concept of ultimate or unchangeable truth is just a phantom.

Any object of knowledge is inexhaustible, it changes, has many properties and is connected by an infinite number of connections with the outside world. Each stage of knowledge is limited by the level of development of society and science. Scientific knowledge is therefore relative character. The relativity of knowledge lies in its incompleteness and probabilistic nature. Truth is therefore relative, because it does not reflect the object completely, not exhaustively. Relative truth is limited-true knowledge about something.

Absolute truths include reliably established facts, dates of events, birth, death, etc. Absolute truth is the content of knowledge that is not refuted by the subsequent development of science, but is enriched and constantly confirmed by life.

Concreteness is a property of truth based on knowledge of real connections, interactions of all aspects of an object, main, essential properties, trends of its development. Thus, the truth or falsity of certain judgments cannot be established if the conditions of the place and time in which they are formulated are not known.

The criterion of truth lies in practice. It is in practice that a person must prove the truth, i.e. the reality of your thinking. One of the principles of thinking says: a certain proposition is true if it is possible to prove whether it is applicable in a particular situation. This principle is expressed in the term realizability. Through the implementation of an idea in practical action, knowledge is measured and compared with its object, thereby revealing the real measure of objectivity, the truth of its content.

But we must not forget that practice cannot completely confirm or refute any idea or knowledge. “The atom is indivisible” - this was believed for many centuries and practice confirmed this. Practice remains silent regarding what is outside its historical boundaries disabilities. However, it is constantly developing and improving. In the process of developing true knowledge and increasing its volume, science and practice increasingly appear in inseparable unity.

45. Global problems. Classification global problems. Future prospects.

Global problems of our time- this is a set of socio-natural problems, the solution of which determines the social progress of mankind and the preservation of civilization. These problems are characterized by dynamism, arise as an objective factor in the development of society and require the united efforts of all humanity to be solved. Global problems are interconnected, cover all aspects of people's lives and affect all countries of the world.

The emergence of global problems and the increasing danger of their consequences pose new challenges for science in predicting and solving them. Global problems are a complex and interconnected system that affects society as a whole, humans and nature, and therefore requires constant philosophical understanding.

Global problems primarily include:

prevention of global thermonuclear war, creation of a non-violent world providing peaceful conditions for the social progress of all peoples; bridging the growing gap in the level of economic and cultural development between countries, eliminating economic backwardness throughout the world; ensuring the further economic development of mankind with the necessary resources for this natural resources(food, raw materials, energy sources); overcoming the environmental crisis caused by human invasion of the biosphere: stopping rapid population growth (population growth in developing countries, falling birth rates in developed countries); timely anticipation and prevention of various negative consequences of scientific and technological revolution and the rational and effective use of its achievements for the benefit of society and the individual.

Philosophical understanding of global problems is the study of processes and phenomena related to the problems of planetary civilization, the world-historical process. Philosophy analyzes the reasons that led to the emergence or aggravation of global problems, studies their social danger and conditionality.

Modern philosophy has developed the main approaches to understanding global problems:

all problems can become global; the number of global problems must be limited to the number of pressing and most dangerous ones (war prevention, ecology, population); accurate determination of the causes of global problems, their symptoms, content and methods for rapid resolution.

Global problems have common features: they affect the future and interests of all humanity, their resolution requires the efforts of all mankind, they require urgent resolution, being in a complex relationship with each other.

Global problems are, on the one hand, natural in nature, and on the other, social. In this regard, they can be considered as an influence or result of human activity that has had a negative impact on nature. The second option for the emergence of global problems is a crisis in relations between people, which affects the entire complex of relationships between members of the world community.

46. Basic concepts and problems of philosophical ontology.

The German philosopher Hegel called being a “meager abstraction,” meaning the fact that pure being (being as such) is an absolutely meaningless, and therefore useless concept. Nothing can be asserted about such a being except that it exists, i.e. one can only produce a tautology of it. Taken in itself, i.e. without relation to anything, it is nothing. However, with its help, it was convenient for Hegel to build a logic that describes the development from bare and abstract ideas to concrete knowledge enriched by experience. Initially, the empty, abstract and unmanifested essence of being unfolds itself in a system of concepts. Developing this idea, Heidegger notes that, despite all its emptiness, the category of being is a source of enormous semantic wealth. However, this wealth will manifest itself only if we are able to differentiate the initially undifferentiated, outwardly self-understandable, but in fact the hidden meaning of being. Simply put, the meaning of existence, like a diamond, plays on the edges of differences. Armed with this thought, let us try to capture this meaning in the faceting of ontological categories. Being and non-being (nothing). “Why is there something and not nothing” as the main question of philosophy. The question of the reality of non-existence and nothingness in the history of philosophy (from Parmenides to Sartre). Ontological status is nothing in the light of the concepts of absolute and relative being. The significance of the experience of Nothing in the development of an ontological problem. Being and existence. The concept of “basic ontological difference” and its significance for ontology. Being as a “meager abstraction” (Hegel) and as a hidden wealth of meaning (Heidegger). Difference between ontic and ontological analysis. Being and time. Development of ideas about time in the history of philosophy. Time as “a kind of being of moving objects” (Aristotle). Time as the reality of consciousness (Augustine). Substantialist interpretation of time. Time as an objective property of nature and as an a priori form of cognition of the subject (Kant). The time of human existence. Being and becoming. Motives of constancy and variability of existence in the history of philosophy (from Heraclitus to Hegel). Contradiction in the object or in the judgment?: dialectics and metaphysics on the nature of becoming. The idea of ​​development and the laws of dialectics. Progress and regression in developing systems. Existence of material and spiritual. The idea of ​​the material and ideal structures of existence in the history of philosophy. Philosophy fusis and contemplative materialism of the ancient Greeks. Matter as the atom of Democritus and eidos of Plato. Existence is real and possible. Matter and form. Matter as a negative (Plato) and positive (Aristotle) ​​possibility of existence. Theological nature of the opposition between spirit and matter in the Middle Ages. Mathematization of nature and hylozoism of modern times. The question of the primacy or secondary nature of spirit and matter and its philosophical meaning. Freedom and necessity. Providentialism and voluntarism regarding freedom. Determinism and its varieties. Freedom as “conscious necessity” (Hegel) and as the negation of necessity (Berdyaev). Freedom as a manifestation of the negative nature of man (Sartre). Freedom and responsibility. Necessity and action. Types of determinations: goal, desires, actions. Freedom and necessity in the context of creativity. The problem is the thing. The problem of a thing as an ontological and epistemological problem. I. Kant about “things in themselves” and phenomena. The concept as the reality of a thing (Hegel). “The departure” of things and the call of phenomenology “back to the things themselves.” Thing as an existential problem (M. Heidegger). Things in the structure of “postavka” and the problem of overcoming the subject-object paradigm of interpreting things. J. Baudrillard about the “pornography of things.” The materiality of a thing and the objectivity of a thing. A thing as an event of man and the world.