Bronze swords. Sword: history of weapons, two-handed and bastard swords

During the Bronze Age, several types of “classical” weapons appeared, which lasted throughout the subsequent millennia until very recently. These are a sword and a spear as offensive weapons and a shield, helmet and shell as elements of armor. For fast movement two-wheeled, horse-drawn war chariots were invented, which, together with the crew - a driver and an archer - constituted a fast and deadly fighting machine.

This combination of these military innovations led to social transformations everywhere, as it changed not only the conduct of combat and war itself, but also the underlying social and economic conditions. There was a need for new abilities and new craftsmen, such as those who could make the horse harness with which the driver could maneuver the war chariot, or those who could build the chariot itself. In addition, skill in handling new species was now necessary. hand weapons- with a sword and a spear, which implied long and lengthy training, which can be judged, for example, by the highly developed shoulders of skeletons from the Early Mycenaean burials of Aegina. Remains in Bronze Age burials often have wounds inflicted by a sword or spear, and the weapon itself often shows signs of combat use - damage and repeated sharpening. An organized and deadly method of warfare entered the historical arena.

Il. 1. Bronze Age warrior, reconstructed based on funerary goods and textiles found in Danish oak coffins

The new military aristocracy differed from their fellow tribesmen in their clothing and well-groomed appearance. There was a need for razors and tweezers, which helped maintain this look; in addition, the new elite sported luxurious woolen raincoats (ill. 1). It would not be a mistake to assume that warfare as a profession has been actively developing since the Middle Bronze Age. The status of a warrior was especially attractive to young men, which forced them to serve as mercenaries in very remote areas. In the cemetery in Neckarsulm in southern Germany, more than a third of male burials, even without weapons in the grave goods, are the remains of non-local, alien men. Globalization was also reflected in the widespread proliferation of new types of swords. Thus, a sword with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle for the period from 1500 to 1100 BC. e. spread from Scandinavia to the Aegean Islands, which indicates an intensive exchange of knowledge in the field of military and combat practice, as well as long journeys warriors and mercenaries (ill. 2).

War chariots

In all likelihood, war chariots appeared in the southern Russian steppes, then, in the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. e. they spread from the region of the Eastern Urals and the Sintashta culture to the Black Sea region, the islands of the Aegean Sea and further to Central and Northern Europe, where very realistic and detailed images of war carts are found in rock paintings. The kingdoms and palace cultures of the Middle East, the Hittites in Anatolia and the Mycenaeans in Greece, especially readily adopted the new product. The aristocratic style of fighting became widespread: first spears were used, and then rapiers and swords up to a meter long. They were used primarily as piercing rather than slashing weapons, this is illustrated by Mycenaean seals and inlays on blades, which depict a piercing attack on the enemy’s shield. It is clear that the sword was the weapon of the elite, the leader, who, however, was always accompanied by a large group of foot soldiers with spears and probably bows and arrows to hit distant targets. In Germany and Denmark - regions in which settlements and necropolises of the Bronze Age are well studied - it is possible to calculate how many warriors from individual households supported the few leaders with swords: the ratio is 6-12 warriors per leader. This coincides with the number of oarsmen on Scandinavian cave paintings with ships and can be considered a stable number of warriors in a group under a local leader (Fig. 3).

Fortified Settlements

At the same time, in the Danube-Carpathian region there was a widespread strengthening of large settlements located on the ground with the help of ramparts and deep ditches. This shows how organized the preparations were for local conflicts; ensured constant protection of people and property large groups warriors Many of these fortified settlements are located at crossroads near big rivers or mountain passes, from which we can conclude that they were needed to ensure the safety of the metal trade. In some places the fortifications were made of large solid stones, this is especially impressive at Moncodonier in Metri and where even the gates were separately protected by a complex stone structure, which is sometimes found in Central European fortifications. On the northern Italian Pa and a certain plain there are also defensive structures of complex design, where water ditches are built around the settlements (Fig. 4).

Fortifications existed throughout the Bronze Age, and there is an explanation for this. Near some, for example, near Velem in Bohemia, those killed in battle were found, dumped in large numbers into pits. Further excavations of Bronze Age fortifications will probably yield the same results.

Il. 4. a - Terramare settlement with palisade, Poviglio, Italy (after: Bernabó Brea 1997); b - Fortress Gate, Moncodonia, Istria (by: Mihovilic i. a. o. J.)

Swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt

Il. 5. Swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching a hilt of the same type, common in the territory between Denmark and the Aegean region

The most ancient swords were practically unsuitable for combat, since the blade and hilt were connected to each other only with rivets. Soon there was an effective and powerful weapon, in which the handle and blade were cast as one piece. The handle itself, made of wood, bone or horn, which ended with a pommel, was attached to a tongue-shaped platform. Such a sword could reflect strong blows and not break when hit by a shield. The new sword, with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt, became the standard weapon of the Bronze Age warrior, and it spread over a vast area from Scandinavia to the Aegean islands, indicating intense connections between groups of mercenaries or even between entire Bronze Age societies. It continued to be used in different variations of shape and length until the very end of the Bronze Age.

In Central Europe, a blade length of 60 cm was preferred. Some blades found were slightly shorter, indicating repeated sharpening of the tip, which could often bend or break. This length of the sword indicates, rather, in favor of individual combat rather than phalanx attacks. In the Aegean region, the length of the sword, after some fluctuations, became 40 cm, like the later Roman gladius, which speaks in favor of fighting in a phalanx with limited movement (ill. 5).

Darts and spears

The most common weapons of the Bronze Age were undoubtedly javelins and spears, which only at the end of this period began to be quite distinctly different from each other. The latter, like modern bayonets, were used in close combat and were the par excellence weapon of the infantry. Each warrior usually carried two javelins or spears, as evidenced by images on Mycenaean vases, as well as grave goods found throughout Europe.

Defensive weapons: shield, helmet and armor

A warrior's best protection from wounds has always been his own skillful handling of weapons. Therefore, the Celts went into battle naked to demonstrate their military superiority and fearlessness. However, even the best warrior needed protection from all sorts of surprises, and along with the progress of weapons, defensive equipment also improved.

Outside of Greece, almost no defensive equipment was found in finds dating from the Early and Middle Bronze Ages, since they were made mainly of wood or leather (shields) and bone (wild boar tusks for helmets). The best sources available to us on this topic are Mycenaean depictions of warfare. Helmets with boar tusks from the Middle Bronze Age were found in the Carpathian region. Nevertheless, in Central Europe, some elements of men's equipment were probably developed specifically for protection in battle: wrist spirals and heavy spiral rings protecting the hand and elbow were often found along with swords. There is no doubt that they were used as they show mechanical damage. Conventional wrist spirals were shaped like the forearm and tapered towards the wrist.

Only towards the end of the Bronze Age, special protective equipment made of unchained bronze appeared throughout Europe - helmets, shields, armor and leggings. Since unforged bronze did not provide the necessary protection, this equipment was considered the prestigious vestment of the military aristocracy, used exclusively for ceremonies and to demonstrate their social status. This conclusion coincides with the observation of researchers that leaders with cast-hilted swords did not take part in heavy battles. In addition, this confirms the presence of a hierarchy in the conduct of hostilities in the Late Bronze Age - the battle was predominantly carried out by warriors, and the elite directed their actions.

However, some usefulness of defensive equipment cannot be ruled out. The armor and leg armor were probably lined on the inside with leather or other organic materials such as felt or linen, as evidenced by fastening rivets. In Greece, helmets, leg plates and wrist guards also had holes for attaching linings. It can be assumed that the situation was the same in the rest of Europe. In addition, one of the most famous helmets dating back to the Late Bronze Age, the helmet from Hajdu-Bösörmei is covered with dents from blows of a sword and ax or arrows and darts. Judging by the rivet holes on the inside, the helmet had a lining of leather or fabric, thanks to which it sat firmly and comfortably on the head.

Bronze swords: functionality and use

One of the constantly repeated arguments against the fact that both cast-hilt swords and tongue-shaped swords were actually used in warfare is the claim that the hilt itself is too short to be held in the hand. Having held hundreds of swords in my hand, I find this argument to be unfounded. Iron Age swords are quite heavy, at least compared to historical or modern rapiers, with most of the weight being in the blade. To control the movements of the sword, you need to clasp the handle very tightly with your palm. This is precisely what the short handle with protruding shoulders is designed for, which in this case are the functional part of the handle. The hand covered the handle along with the hanger, making all movements more precise and controlled. Fingers in such a coverage also became more mobile, which made it possible to use a variety of military equipment. This was an ideal solution for a combination of slashing and stabbing strikes carried out with one hand. During the Late Bronze Age, the cutting technique became dominant and made handling the sword even more difficult, leading to one interesting invention (Fig. 6). Most swords with a cast hilt have a small hole in the pommel, the purpose of which has not yet been explained. However, some swords have abrasions in the area of this hole, clearly caused by a strap, most likely leather. On ill. b shows the use of this cord, which makes one recall a modern police baton, since such a device for the handle of the sword corresponded to the same practical functions: it prevented the ability to release the sword from the hand, allowed the hand to relax, and the warrior to use a larger swing and greater force when striking.

Il. 6. A sword with a fused hilt, equipped with a leather strap that did not allow the weapon to be released from the hand

Proper balancing plays an essential role in sword fighting. The distribution of weight between the handle and the blade determines its use for stabbing or slashing. The long and thin blades of the Middle Bronze Age speak more about their use as a piercing weapon, and in the Late Bronze Age the blade became wide and heavy, which was necessary for a chopping weapon. The difference lies in the location of the center of gravity: for thrusting swords it is located next to the hilt, for cutting swords it is much lower, in the area of the blade.

This means that the piercing sword had to make it possible to make quick defensive and offensive movements, and the slashing sword was too heavy for this, it was intended for energetic movements with a large swing. It should be emphasized, however, that the cutting and thrusting swords of the Bronze Age cannot be compared with modern types of swords, which are very highly specialized and suitable only for their originally intended use. The Bronze Age sword could be used by the most in different ways, despite the fact that one of the functions of a piercing or cutting weapon could be realized by one sword better than by another. Only the earliest examples of rapiers are purely piercing weapons, even compared to the most ancient swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt.

All of the above shows that swords were indeed used in battles in the Bronze Age. This is confirmed by traces of combat on the blades, which can be found on most swords. Such notches and subsequent re-sharpening are characteristic of swords throughout the Bronze Age. The area under the handle is a protection zone, so this is where particularly severe damage and sharpening marks are found. Most often, the defects are more pronounced on one side than on the other, since the warrior usually always held the weapon in his hand in the same way. The consequence of repeated sharpening was that the blades under the hilt often became narrower, they were sharpened more strongly.

Older swords, which had been used longer in combat and were more frequently damaged and repaired, sometimes had the lower crosshairs broken due to repeated sharpening and the fury of enemy blows. Therefore, the lower rivet holes were damaged and unusable. In the Late Bronze Age, this led to technical improvements in swords, in particular to the appearance of a ricasso under the hilt, which helped to hold the enemy blade so that it did not slip upward, damage the crosshairs and injure the warrior’s fingers. Sometimes the entire handle was bent due to frequent strikes and defensive techniques, indicating that heavy fighting were a common occurrence. Swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle could even break in the area of the handle. The findings show that this happened very often, even if you do not count some broken swords found, in which the breakage could have happened in recent times.

In the middle part of the blade there is damage that occurs during an attack when the striking sword is stopped by the enemy’s sword. Here, too, there may be concavities in the cutting edge that appear due to repeated sharpening. These concavities are especially noticeable in comparison with swords that have damage that has not been corrected by re-sharpening (ill. 7). Some swords have oblique notches on the middle edge, indicating that Bronze Age warriors also used defensive techniques that used the flat surface of the blade. The tip of the blade could also be bent or even broken off when the sword hit the shield during a stabbing blow. Sharpening with the formation of a new point is quite common in swords dating back to the Middle Bronze Age, although it is also characteristic of the Late Bronze Age, which indicates the varied use of swords - both for chopping and piercing.

Il. 7. Examples of swords with a re-sharpened and modified blade

To summarize, we can say that we have clear evidence of the great importance of sword fighting in Bronze Age Europe. Throughout this period, there were well-trained experts in the art of sword fighting. It can be stated that different types of swords also had different functions: a sword with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle was the standard weapon of professional warriors, and a sword with a cast handle was more of a leader’s weapon, although it was also used in battle. In swords of this type, the blade is usually damaged to a much lesser extent than in swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle. Regarding the Early and Middle Bronze Age, further evidence of this use of fused hilt swords is the fact that the hilt was secured only with rivets, which could hardly withstand a strong blow. In the Late Bronze Age, the end of the blade was already inserted into the hilt to make the weapon more stable and prevent the sword from breaking between the blade and the hilt. Therefore, the number of rivets was reduced to two, and very small ones. It can be assumed that at this time swords with cast hilts were more often used in real combat. The damage found on both the tongue-shaped swords and the cast-handle swords does not resemble those that could occur when using the swords in practice combat. For them, real swords were too valuable, so special wooden swords were used for training already in the Bronze Age, which, in turn, also indicates the great importance of war in the lives of Bronze Age people.

Nomadic warriors and their significance for the metal trade

During the Bronze Age, an international warrior culture emerged for the first time, testifying to the intense relationships and active mutual influence of various groups of warriors throughout Europe. This can be illustrated with the help of maps of the distribution of different types of swords, for example, swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the hilt or swords with a cast octagonal hilt of the 15th and 14th centuries before. n. e., uniting Denmark with Southern Germany and Central Europe (ill. 8). In addition, the mapping clearly demonstrates that some women were used to establish political alliances between local groups and establish peaceful relations, which were necessary for the metal trade and allowed traders and warriors to move safely between neighboring groups. Il. 8 shows, among other things, that male warriors left home much more often and moved longer distances from it.

Il. 8. The spread of octagonal swords as an indication of the movements of mercenaries and traders in the 15th and 14th centuries. BC e. The circles represent individual cultural groups, and the arrows show places where the woman was buried outside her home region

Such movements were recently confirmed by the discovery of a men's cemetery in Neckarsulm, where more than fifty people were buried. By studying strontium isotopes in tooth enamel, it was possible to prove that a third of the men buried there were from other places. Most likely, these were mercenaries in the service of a foreign ruler. Traders, blacksmiths, warriors, mercenaries, migrants and diplomats traveled long distances in those days. Good examples here would be the ship remains found off the capes and. These ships could transport not only goods to distant possessions, but also warriors or mercenaries, who at the same time also protected the cargo.

It has been historically proven that Germanic and Celtic mercenaries served the Romans, returning after service to their homeland with Roman weapons and Roman goods, the possession of which ensured prestige in society. Therefore, the presence in the eastern part of Central Europe of the 14th and 13th centuries BC. e. Greco-Mycenaean weapons can well be interpreted as evidence of the return of mercenaries after service in Mycenaean territories. The same can be confirmed by Central European, primarily Italic, swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle, found in the area of Mycenaean palaces, as well as ceramics made in the traditions of the native places of the newcomers, for example, vessels reminiscent of Italic ones and discovered in the East Mediterranean.

Ethnographic examples support the thesis of warriors and traders moving over long distances. Warriors often formed their own group identity (warrior communities), which united them within a specific territory through clear rules of acceptable behavior. The rules could concern both the recruitment of new warriors and one’s own travels to distant lands in order to return with glory and prestigious goods. This behavior is typical of the Maasai and Japanese samurai, it is present as a recurring plot element in stories about warriors and wars.

Organization of military units

In some regions of Europe, the proportion of weapons in burials and treasures is so high that it is possible to calculate how many weapons and warriors were available at a certain point in time. In Denmark from the period between 1450 and 1150 BC. e. About 2,000 swords have survived, almost all of which were found in burials. At this time, approximately 50,000 burial grounds were built, from 10 to 15% of which it was possible to explore and find funeral gifts there. Extrapolating from these data, we can conclude that in reality a total of almost 20,000 swords ended up in the necropolises. Based on the lifespan of the sword (30 years), then the warrior’s family needed from three to four swords per century, which for the three hundred years in question is 12-15 swords. This, in turn, gives a figure for the simultaneous use of swords - 1300, which approximately corresponds to the number of settlements in Denmark at that time. The sword was probably the weapon of the local leader, and his warriors were armed with javelins, although some may also have carried a sword.

The ratio of the number of leaders with swords and the number of peasants and warriors in the detachment can also be calculated based on the number of settlements. Individual farms varied in size, with families ranging from 10 to 15 people. Based on one farm per square kilometer and the population of half of Denmark at that time, the total area of which was 44,000 square kilometers, then between 25,000 and 30,000 farms of varying sizes should have existed at the same time. The leader assembled a detachment of supposedly 20-25 farms. Thus, the rulers of even small groups of the population could quickly assemble an army of several hundred warriors. If only the largest households delegated warriors, then for each leader with a sword there were probably only 5-10 warriors, which corresponds more closely to data calculated for some parts of Germany and the number depicted on ships in cave paintings. Thus, it can be considered proven that European societies of the Bronze Age were very well armed. Throughout the entire era, the number of simultaneously existing weapons amounted to tens and hundreds of thousands, even if we take Denmark, small but rich country. Therefore, it is logical to assume that traces of military victims should also be preserved, and this assumption turns out to be fair.

Victims of war

For lately our knowledge of battle wounds on skeletons has increased significantly, as well as our understanding of the number of people killed during different types conflicts.

Il. 9. Combat wound: bronze arrowhead in a vertebra. Klings, South Thuringia (after: Osgord i. a. 2000)

At the Olmo di Nogara cemetery in Northern Italy, dating back to the Middle Bronze Age, 116 male skeletons were examined, half of which were buried along with swords with a tongue-shaped platform for attaching the handle, including early types with a short tongue. Approximately 16% of these people had bone and skull injuries caused by fighting, most often blows from swords or arrows. If we consider that there are many fatal wounds inflicted by a spear or arrow that do not leave marks on the bones, then 16% will turn out to be a very high proportion, indicating permanent local conflicts. In this region, warriors who had a sword actively participated in battles, which corresponds to the picture of burials with weapons in the arch of Mycenaean burials B, for those buried there have numerous wounds and a very short life expectancy.

However, there were also ruthless massacres. The fortification at Vilema in Bohemia has already been mentioned. Another example is Sund in Western Norway. A mass grave from the late Middle Bronze Age was discovered here, containing more than 30 people - men, women and children - killed around 1200 BC. e. The wounds indicate fierce combat between men who apparently fought with swords and many of whom had healed wounds from previous battles. Some showed signs of malnutrition, suggesting that control of food sources may have been a factor in the war.

Il. 10. Wooden club and skull with marks from a blow from a club, discovered on a Bronze Age battlefield in a river valley (photo: Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Office for Culture and Monument Protection, Department of Archeology, Schwerin)

Finally, we must mention the great battle that also took place around 1200 BC. e. in the valley of the small river Tollensee in present-day Mecklenburg, Vorpommern. Here, on a section of the river 1-2 kilometers long, the remains of the skeletons of more than a hundred people were found, and it is likely that others will be discovered in the future (Fig. 9). Obviously, here, after a lost battle, all the dead of the entire army were thrown into the river. Weapons found included the remains of wooden clubs and axes (Fig. 10), as well as arrowheads. It is likely that those who died were migrants looking for new lands, because at this time dramatic changes were taking place throughout Europe.

Thus, there is evidence of the existence of organized warfare, from small conflicts to confrontations of entire armies. In this sense, the Bronze Age was not much different from the subsequent Iron Age.

Conclusion

Even twenty years ago, research into Bronze Age weapons was aimed exclusively at elucidating their typological development, and their practical use was highly questioned. A new generation of researchers looked at the object of their study in a new way. Today, traces of its use on weapons have already been studied, experiments with reconstruction have been carried out, showing how well organized and dangerous the fighting was in the Bronze Age, which is confirmed by anatomical studies of wounds. It would not be far from the truth to say that modern methods warfare has its origins in the Bronze Age, since the forms of weapons and systems of defense known to us from later times were developed then.

Three bronze swords, approximately 1250-1050 BC. The so-called Atlantic type of Naue II leaf-shaped swords. All three were found in France.

The first sword belongs to the group of swords with a leaf-shaped blade and a three-sided tang with “shoulders”. The “hilt” was riveted to such a sword separately. This sword does not have it. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze, with a clearly defined tip and a medial stiffening rib. The total length of the weapon is 474 mm, weight 347 grams, blade length 368 mm, maximum blade width 43 mm, blade thickness (max.) 6.83 mm.

The second sword belongs to the same group of swords from the Bronze Age: with a leaf-shaped blade and a three-sided shank with holes for rivets. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze with a clearly defined tip and a central longitudinal rib. The blade is broken off at the narrowest point - at the shoulders. The total length of the weapon is 503 mm, weight 411 grams, maximum blade width 42 mm, shoulder width 65 mm, blade thickness (max.) 6.96 mm.

The third bronze sword was produced at the same time as the first two and is of the same type. The blade of the sword is leaf-shaped, double-edged, bronze with a clearly defined tip and an implicit central longitudinal rib. The total length of the weapon is 479 mm, weight 352 grams, blade length 388 mm, maximum blade width 39 mm, minimum blade width 30 mm, blade thickness (max.) 5.85 mm.

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Bronze swords

Before the widespread use of iron and steel, swords were made of copper, and then bronze was made of alloys of copper with tin or arsenic. Bronze is very resistant to corrosion, so we have quite a lot of archaeological finds of bronze swords, however, their attribution and clear dating are often very difficult.

Bronze is a fairly durable material that holds an edge well. In most cases, bronze with a tin content of about 10% was used, which is characterized by moderate hardness and relatively high ductility, but in China bronze with a tin content of up to 20% was used - harder, but also more fragile (sometimes only blades were made from hard bronze, and the inner part of the blade is made of softer material).

Bronze swords

Bronze is a precipitation-hardening alloy and cannot be hardened like steel, but can be significantly strengthened by cold deformation (forging) of cutting edges. Bronze cannot “spring” like hardened steel, but a blade made from it can bend within significant limits without breaking or losing its properties - having straightened it, it can be used again. Often, to prevent deformation, bronze blades had massive stiffening ribs. Long blades made of bronze were supposed to be especially prone to bending, so they were used quite rarely; the typical blade length of a bronze sword is no more than 60 centimeters. However, it is completely wrong to call short bronze swords exclusively piercing - modern experiments, on the contrary, have shown a very high cutting ability of this weapon; its relatively short length limited only the combat distance.

Bronze sword

Since the main technology for processing bronze was casting, it was relatively easy to make a more effective complex curved blade from it, so bronze weapons of ancient civilizations often had a curved shape with a one-sided sharpening - this includes the ancient Egyptian khopesh, the ancient Greek makhaira and the kopis borrowed by the Greeks from the Persians. It is worth noting that all of them are modern classification refer to sabers or cutlasses, not swords.

Kopis (modern replica)

The title of the oldest sword in the world today is claimed by a bronze sword, which was found by Russian archaeologist A.D. Rezepkin in the Republic of Adygea, in a stone tomb of the Novosvobodnaya archaeological culture. This sword is currently on display in the Hermitage in St. Petersburg. This bronze proto-sword (total length 63 cm, hilt length 11 cm) dates back to the second third of the 4th millennium BC. e. It should be noted that by modern standards it is more of a dagger than a sword, although the shape of the weapon suggests that it was quite suitable for slashing. In the megalithic burial, the bronze proto-sword was symbolically bent.

Bent Bronze Sword

Before this discovery, the most ancient swords were considered to be those found by the Italian archaeologist Palmieri, who discovered a treasure with weapons in the upper reaches of the Tigris in the ancient palace of Arslantepe: spearheads and several swords (or long daggers) ranging from 46 to 62 cm in length. Palmieri’s finds date back to the end of the 4th millennium.

The next major find is swords from Arslantepe (Malatya). From Anatolia, swords gradually spread to both the Middle East and Europe.

Sword from the site of Bet Dagan near Jaffa, dating back to 2400-2000 BC. e., had a length of about 1 meter and was made of almost pure copper with a small admixture of arsenic.

Copper sword from Bet Dagan, ca. 2400-2000 BC e. Kept in the collection of the British Museum

Also very long bronze swords dating back to around 1700 BC. e., were discovered in the area of the Minoan civilization - the so-called “type A” swords, which had a total length of about 1 meter and even more. These were predominantly stabbing swords with a tapering blade, apparently designed to hit a well-armored target.

Modern reconstructions of various types of Mycenaean swords, including (the top two) - the so-called. type A.

Very ancient swords were found during excavations of monuments of the Harrapan (Indus) civilization, with dating according to some data up to 2300 BC. e. In the area of the ocher painted pottery culture, many swords dating back to 1700-1400 were found. BC e.

Sword, bronze, 62 cm, 1300-1100 BC. Central Europe

Bronze swords have been known in China since at least the Shang period, with the earliest finds dating back to around 1200 BC. uh..

Ancient Chinese bronze sword

Many Celtic bronze swords have been discovered in Great Britain.

Celtic bronze swords from the National Museum of Scotland.

Iron swords have been known since at least the 8th century BC. e, and began to be actively used from the 6th century BC. e. Although soft, non-hardening iron did not have any special advantages over bronze, weapons made from it quickly became cheaper and more accessible than bronze - iron is found in nature much more often than copper, and tin, necessary for obtaining bronze, is found in ancient world In general, it was mined in only a few places. Polybius mentions that Gallic iron swords of the 3rd century BC. e. often bent in battle, forcing owners to straighten them. Some researchers believe that the Greeks simply misinterpreted the Gallic custom of bending sacrificial swords, but the very ability to bend without breaking is distinctive feature namely iron swords (made of low-carbon steel that cannot be hardened) - a sword made of hardened steel can only be broken, not bent.

Ancient iron sword

In China, steel swords, significantly superior in quality to both bronze and iron, appeared already at the end of the Western Zhou period, although they did not become widespread until the Qin or even Han era, that is, the end of the 3rd century BC. e.

Chinese Tao sword from the late Qing Dynasty.

Around the same time, the inhabitants of India began to use weapons made of steel, including those similar to welded Damascus. According to the periplus of the Erythraean Sea, in the 1st century AD. e. Indian steel blades arrived in Greece.

An Etruscan sword from the 7th century found in Vetulonia. BC e. was obtained by connecting several parts with different carbon contents: the inner part of the blade was made of steel with a carbon content of about 0.25%, the blade was made of iron with a carbon content of less than 1%. Another Romano-Etruscan sword of the 4th century BC. e. has a carbon content of up to 0.4%, which implies the use of carburization in its production. Nevertheless, both swords were of low quality metal, with a large number of impurities.

Etruscan swords

The widespread transition to blades made of hardened carbon steel was very delayed - for example, in Europe it ended only around the 10th century AD. e. In Africa, iron swords (mambele) were used back in the 19th century (although it is worth noting that iron processing in Africa began very early, and with the exception of the Mediterranean coast, Egypt and Nubia, Africa “jumped” the Bronze Age, immediately switching to iron processing).

The following types of piercing-cutting swords received the greatest fame in classical antiquity:

Xiphos (modern replica)

An ancient Greek sword with a total length of no more than 70 cm, the blade is pointed, leaf-shaped, less often straight;

The general name for all swords among the Romans, today is usually associated with the specific short sword of the legionnaire;

Scythian sword - from VII BC. e.;

Meotian sword - from the 5th to the 2nd centuries. BC e.

Later, the Celts and Sarmatians began to use cutting swords. The Sarmatians used swords in equestrian combat, their length reached 110 cm. The crosshair of the Sarmatian sword is quite narrow (only 2-3 cm wider than the blade), the handle is long (from 15 cm), the pommel is in the shape of a ring.

Sarmatian swords

Spata having Celtic origin, was used by both foot soldiers and horsemen. The total length of the spatha reached 90 cm, there was no crosspiece, and the pommel was massive and spherical. Initially, the spat had no tip.

Modern reconstruction of a cavalry spatha of the 2nd century AD. e.

In the last century of the Roman Empire, spathas became the standard weapon of legionnaires - both cavalry and (a shorter version, sometimes called "semispatha" - English semispatha) infantrymen. The latter option is considered transitional from the swords of antiquity to the weapons of the Middle Ages.

Few other types of weapons have left such a mark in the history of our civilization. For thousands of years, the sword was not just a murder weapon, but also a symbol of courage and valor, a warrior’s constant companion and a source of pride. In many cultures, the sword represented dignity, leadership, and strength. Around this symbol in the Middle Ages, a professional military class was formed and its concepts of honor were developed. The sword can be called the real embodiment of war; varieties of this weapon are known to almost all cultures of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The knight's sword of the Middle Ages symbolized, among other things, the Christian cross. Before knighting, the sword was kept in the altar, cleansing the weapon from worldly filth. During the initiation ceremony, the weapon was presented to the warrior by the priest.

With the help of a sword they were knighted; this weapon was necessarily part of the regalia used during the coronation of crowned persons of Europe. The sword is one of the most common symbols in heraldry. We see it everywhere in the Bible and the Koran, in medieval sagas and in modern fantasy novels. However, despite its enormous cultural and social significance, the sword primarily remained a melee weapon, with the help of which it was possible to send the enemy to the next world as quickly as possible.

The sword was not available to everyone. Metals (iron and bronze) were rare, expensive, and it took a lot of time and skilled labor to make a good blade. In the early Middle Ages, it was often the presence of a sword that distinguished the leader of a detachment from an ordinary commoner warrior.

A good sword is not just a strip of forged metal, but a complex composite product consisting of several pieces of steel of different characteristics, properly processed and hardened. European industry was able to ensure the mass production of good blades only towards the end of the Middle Ages, when the importance of bladed weapons had already begun to decline.

A spear or battle ax was much cheaper, and it was much easier to learn how to use them. The sword was a weapon of the elite, professional warriors, and definitely a status item. To achieve true mastery, a swordsman had to train daily, for many months and years.

Historical documents that have reached us say that the cost of a sword of average quality could be equal to the price of four cows. Swords made by famous blacksmiths were much more valuable. And the weapons of the elite, decorated with precious metals and stones, cost a fortune.

First of all, the sword is good for its versatility. It could be used effectively on foot or on horseback, for attack or defense, and as a primary or secondary weapon. The sword was perfect for personal protection (for example, on trips or in court battles), it could be carried with you and, if necessary, quickly used.

The sword has a low center of gravity, which makes it much easier to control. Fencing with a sword is significantly less tiring than swinging a club of similar length and weight. The sword allowed the fighter to realize his advantage not only in strength, but also in agility and speed.

The main drawback of the sword, which gunsmiths tried to get rid of throughout the history of the development of this weapon, was its low “penetrating” ability. And the reason for this was also the low center of gravity of the weapon. Against a well-armored enemy, it was better to use something else: a battle axe, a hammer, a hammer, or a regular spear.

Now we should say a few words about the very concept of this weapon. A sword is a type of bladed weapon that has a straight blade and is used to deliver slashing and piercing blows. Sometimes the length of the blade is added to this definition, which should be at least 60 cm. But a short sword was sometimes even smaller; examples include the Roman gladius and the Scythian akinak. The largest two-handed swords reached almost two meters in length.

If a weapon has one blade, then it should be classified as a broadsword, and a weapon with a curved blade should be classified as a saber. The famous Japanese katana is not actually a sword, but a typical saber. Also, swords and rapiers should not be classified as swords; they are usually classified into separate groups of bladed weapons.

How does a sword work?

As mentioned above, a sword is a straight, double-edged bladed weapon designed to deliver piercing, slashing, slashing and stabbing blows. Its design is very simple - it is a narrow strip of steel with a handle at one end. The shape or profile of the blade changed throughout the history of this weapon, it depended on the fighting technique that prevailed in a given period. Combat swords of different eras could “specialize” in slashing or piercing blows.

The division of bladed weapons into swords and daggers is also somewhat arbitrary. We can say that the short sword had a longer blade than the dagger itself - but drawing a clear line between these types of weapons is not always easy. Sometimes a classification based on the length of the blade is used, according to which the following are distinguished:

Short sword. Blade length 60-70 cm;
Long sword. The size of his blade was 70-90 cm, it could be used by both foot and horse warriors;
Cavalry sword. The length of the blade is more than 90 cm.

The weight of the sword varies within a very wide range: from 700 grams (gladius, akinak) to 5-6 kg (large sword of the flamberge type or slasher).

Swords are also often divided into one-handed, one-and-a-half and two-handed. A one-handed sword usually weighed from one to one and a half kilograms.

The sword consists of two parts: the blade and the hilt. The cutting edge of the blade is called the blade; the blade ends with a point. As a rule, it had a stiffener and a fuller - a recess designed to lighten the weapon and give it additional rigidity. The unsharpened part of the blade adjacent directly to the guard is called the ricasso (heel). The blade can also be divided into three parts: the strong part (often it was not sharpened at all), the middle part and the tip.

The hilt includes a guard (in medieval swords it often looked like a simple cross), a handle, and a pommel, or pommel. The last element of the weapon is of great importance for its proper balancing, and also prevents the hand from slipping. The cross also performs several important functions: it prevents the hand from sliding forward after striking, protects the hand from hitting the enemy’s shield, the cross was also used in some fencing techniques. And only as a last resort did the crosspiece protect the swordsman’s hand from the blow of an enemy’s weapon. So, at least, it follows from medieval fencing manuals.

An important characteristic of the blade is its cross-section. Many variants of the section are known; they changed along with the development of weapons. Early swords (during barbarian and Viking times) often had a lenticular cross-section, which was more suitable for cutting and slashing. As armor developed, the rhombic section of the blade became increasingly popular: it was more rigid and more suitable for thrusting.

The sword blade has two tapers: in length and in thickness. This is necessary to reduce the weight of the weapon, improve its controllability in battle and increase the efficiency of use.

The balance point (or equilibrium point) is the center of gravity of the weapon. As a rule, it is located a finger's distance from the guard. However, this characteristic can vary quite widely depending on the type of sword.

Speaking about the classification of this weapon, it should be noted that the sword is a “piece” product. Each blade was made (or selected) for a specific fighter, his height and arm length. Therefore, no two swords are completely identical, although blades of the same type are similar in many ways.

An invariable accessory of the sword was the scabbard - a case for carrying and storing this weapon. Sword sheaths were made from various materials: metal, leather, wood, fabric. At the bottom they had a tip, and at the top they ended at the mouth. Typically these elements were made of metal. The sword scabbard had various devices that made it possible to attach it to a belt, clothing or saddle.

The birth of the sword - the era of antiquity

It is unknown when exactly man made the first sword. Wooden clubs can be considered their prototype. However, the sword in the modern sense of the word could only arise after people began to smelt metals. The first swords were probably made of copper, but this metal was very quickly replaced by bronze, a more durable alloy of copper and tin. Structurally, the oldest bronze blades were not much different from their later steel counterparts. Bronze resists corrosion very well, which is why today we have a large number of bronze swords discovered by archaeologists in different regions of the world.

The oldest sword known today was found in one of the burial mounds in the Republic of Adygea. Scientists believe that it was made 4 thousand years BC.

It is curious that before burial with the owner, bronze swords were often symbolically bent.

Bronze swords have properties that are in many ways different from steel ones. Bronze does not spring, but it can bend without breaking. To reduce the likelihood of deformation, bronze swords were often equipped with impressive stiffening ribs. For the same reason, it is difficult to make a large sword from bronze; usually such weapons had relatively modest dimensions - about 60 cm.

Bronze weapons were made by casting, so there were no particular problems in creating blades of complex shapes. Examples include the Egyptian khopesh, the Persian kopis and the Greek mahaira. True, all these samples of edged weapons were cutlasses or sabers, but not swords. Bronze weapons were poorly suited for piercing armor or fencing; blades made of this material were more often used for cutting rather than piercing blows.

Some ancient civilizations also used a large sword made of bronze. During excavations on the island of Crete, blades more than a meter long were found. They are believed to have been made around 1700 BC.

They learned to make swords from iron around the 8th century BC. new era, and in the 5th century they were already widespread. although bronze was used along with iron for many centuries. Europe switched to iron more quickly because the region had much more of it than the tin and copper deposits needed to create bronze.

Among the currently known blades of antiquity, one can highlight the Greek xiphos, the Roman gladius and spatha, and the Scythian sword akinak.

The xiphos is a short sword with a leaf-shaped blade, the length of which was approximately 60 cm. It was used by the Greeks and Spartans, later this weapon was actively used in the army of Alexander the Great; the warriors of the famous Macedonian phalanx were armed with the xiphos.

The Gladius is another famous short sword that was one of the main weapons of the heavy Roman infantry - legionnaires. The gladius had a length of about 60 cm and the center of gravity was shifted towards the handle due to the massive pommel. These weapons could deliver both slashing and piercing blows; the gladius was especially effective in close formation.

Spatha is a large sword (about a meter long) that apparently first appeared among the Celts or Sarmatians. Later, the Gauls' cavalry, and then the Roman cavalry, were armed with spatami. However, spatha was also used by foot Roman soldiers. Originally, this sword did not have an edge, it was a purely chopping weapon. Later, spatha became suitable for stabbing.

Akinak. This is a short one-handed sword, which was used by the Scythians and other peoples of the Northern Black Sea region and the Middle East. It should be understood that the Greeks often called all the tribes roaming the Black Sea steppes Scythians. Akinak was 60 cm long, weighed about 2 kg, and had excellent piercing and cutting properties. The crosshair of this sword was heart-shaped, and the pommel resembled a beam or a crescent.

Swords from the era of chivalry

The “finest hour” of the sword, however, like many other types of bladed weapons, was the Middle Ages. For this historical period, the sword was more than just a weapon. The medieval sword developed over a thousand years, its history began around the 5th century with the advent of the German spatha, and ended in the 16th century, when it was replaced by the sword. The development of the medieval sword was inextricably linked with the evolution of armor.

The collapse of the Roman Empire was marked by the decline of military art and the loss of many technologies and knowledge. Europe plunged into dark times of fragmentation and internecine wars. Battle tactics were significantly simplified, and the number of armies was reduced. In the Early Middle Ages, battles mainly took place in open areas; opponents, as a rule, neglected defensive tactics.

This period is characterized by almost complete absence armor, unless only the nobility could afford chain mail or plate armor. Due to the decline of crafts, the sword is transformed from the weapon of an ordinary soldier into the weapon of a select elite.

At the beginning of the first millennium, Europe was in a “fever”: the Great Migration of Peoples was underway, and barbarian tribes (Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks) created new states in the territories of the former Roman provinces. The first European sword is considered to be the German spatha, its further continuation is the Merovingian type sword, named after the French royal dynasty Merovingian.

The Merovingian sword had a blade approximately 75 cm long with a rounded tip, a wide and flat fuller, a thick cross and a massive pommel. The blade practically did not taper to the tip; the weapon was more suitable for delivering cutting and chopping blows. At that time, only very wealthy people could afford a combat sword, so Merovingian swords were richly decorated. This type of sword was in use until about the 9th century, but already in the 8th century it began to be replaced by a Carolingian type sword. This weapon is also called the Viking Age sword.

Around the 8th century AD, a new misfortune came to Europe: regular raids by Vikings or Normans began from the north. These were fierce fair-haired warriors who knew no mercy or pity, fearless sailors who plied the expanses of the European seas. The souls of the dead Vikings were taken from the battlefield by golden-haired warrior maidens straight to the halls of Odin.

In fact, Carolingian-type swords were produced on the continent, and they came to Scandinavia as military booty or ordinary goods. The Vikings had a custom of burying a sword with a warrior, which is why a large number of Carolingian swords were found in Scandinavia.

The Carolingian sword is in many ways similar to the Merovingian, but it is more elegant, better balanced, and the blade has a well-defined edge. The sword was still an expensive weapon; according to the orders of Charlemagne, cavalrymen must be armed with it, while foot soldiers, as a rule, used something simpler.

Together with the Normans, the Carolingian sword also entered the territory Kievan Rus. There were even centers on Slavic lands where such weapons were made.

The Vikings (like the ancient Germans) treated their swords with special reverence. Their sagas contain many stories about special magical swords, as well as about family blades passed down from generation to generation.

Around the second half of the 11th century, the gradual transformation of the Carolingian sword into a knightly or Romanesque sword began. At this time, cities began to grow in Europe, crafts developed rapidly, and the level of blacksmithing and metallurgy increased significantly. The shape and characteristics of any blade were primarily determined by the enemy’s protective equipment. At that time it consisted of a shield, helmet and armor.

To learn to wield a sword, the future knight began training with early childhood. At about the age of seven, he was usually sent to some relative or friendly knight, where the boy continued to master the secrets of noble combat. At the age of 12-13 he became a squire, after which his training continued for another 6-7 years. Then the young man could be knighted, or he continued to serve with the rank of “noble squire.” The difference was small: the knight had the right to wear a sword on his belt, and the squire attached it to the saddle. In the Middle Ages, the sword clearly distinguished a free man and knight from a commoner or slave.

Ordinary warriors usually wore leather armor made from specially treated leather as protective equipment. The nobility used chain mail shirts or leather armor, onto which metal plates were sewn. Until the 11th century, helmets were also made of treated leather, reinforced with metal inserts. However, later helmets were mainly made from metal plates, which were extremely difficult to break through with a chopping blow.

The most important element of a warrior’s defense was the shield. It was made from a thick layer of wood (up to 2 cm) durable rocks and were covered on top with treated leather, and sometimes reinforced with metal strips or rivets. This was a very effective defense; such a shield could not be penetrated with a sword. Accordingly, in battle it was necessary to hit a part of the enemy’s body that was not covered by a shield, and the sword had to pierce the enemy’s armor. This led to changes in sword design in the early Middle Ages. Typically they had the following criteria:

Total length about 90 cm;
Relatively light weight, which made it easy to fencing with one hand;
Sharpening blades designed to deliver an effective cutting blow;
The weight of such a one-handed sword did not exceed 1.3 kg.

Around the middle of the 13th century, a real revolution took place in the armament of the knight - plate armor became widespread. To break through such a defense, it was necessary to inflict piercing blows. This led to significant changes in the shape of the Romanesque sword; it began to narrow, and the tip of the weapon became more and more pronounced. The cross-section of the blades also changed, they became thicker and heavier, and received stiffening ribs.

Around the 13th century, the importance of infantry on the battlefield began to increase rapidly. Thanks to the improvement of infantry armor, it became possible to dramatically reduce the shield, or even abandon it altogether. This led to the fact that the sword began to be taken in both hands to enhance the blow. This is how the long sword appeared, a variation of which is the bastard sword. In modern historical literature it is called the “bastard sword.” Bastards were also called “war swords” - weapons of such length and weight were not carried with them just like that, but taken to war.

The bastard sword led to the emergence of new fencing techniques - the half-hand technique: the blade was sharpened only in the upper third, and its lower part could be intercepted by the hand, further enhancing the piercing blow.

This weapon can be called a transitional stage between one-handed and two-handed swords. The heyday of long swords was the era of the late Middle Ages.

During the same period, two-handed swords became widespread. These were real giants among their brothers. The total length of this weapon could reach two meters and weight – 5 kilograms. Two-handed swords were used by infantrymen; they did not have sheaths made for them, but were worn on the shoulder, like a halberd or a pike. Disputes continue among historians today as to exactly how these weapons were used. The most famous representatives of this type of weapon are the zweihander, claymore, spandrel and flamberge - wavy or curved two-handed sword.

Almost all two-handed swords had a significant ricasso, which was often covered with leather for greater ease of fencing. At the end of the ricasso there were often additional hooks (“boar’s tusks”), which protected the hand from enemy blows.

Claymore. This is a type of two-handed sword (there were also one-handed claymores) that was used in Scotland in the 15th-17th centuries. Claymore means "great sword" in Gaelic. It should be noted that the claymore was the smallest of the two-handed swords, its total size reached 1.5 meters, and the length of the blade was 110-120 cm.

A distinctive feature of this sword was the shape of the guard: the arms of the cross were bent towards the tip. The claymore was the most versatile “two-handed weapon”; its relatively small dimensions made it possible to use it in various combat situations.

Zweihander. The famous two-handed sword of the German Landsknechts, and their special unit - the Doppelsoldners. These warriors received double pay; they fought in the front ranks, cutting down the enemy's peaks. It is clear that such work was mortally dangerous; in addition, it required great physical strength and excellent weapon skills.

This giant could reach a length of 2 meters, had a double guard with “boar tusks” and a ricasso covered with leather.

Slasher. A classic two-handed sword, most often used in Germany and Switzerland. The total length of the slasher could reach up to 1.8 meters, of which 1.5 meters was on the blade. To increase the penetrating power of the sword, its center of gravity was often shifted closer to the tip. The weight of the sledge ranged from 3 to 5 kg.

Flamberge. A wavy or curved two-handed sword, it had a blade of a special flame-like shape. Most often, these weapons were used in Germany and Switzerland in the 15th-17th centuries. Currently, flamberges are in service with the Vatican Guard.

The curved two-handed sword is an attempt by European gunsmiths to combine the best properties of a sword and a saber in one type of weapon. Flamberge had a blade with a number of successive curves; when delivering chopping blows, it acted on the principle of a saw, cutting through armor and inflicting terrible, long-lasting wounds. The curved two-handed sword was considered an “inhumane” weapon, and the church actively opposed it. Warriors with such a sword should not have been captured; at best, they were killed immediately.

The flamberge was approximately 1.5 m long and weighed 3-4 kg. It should also be noted that such a weapon was much more expensive than a regular one, because it was very difficult to manufacture. Despite this, such two-handed swords were often used by mercenaries during Thirty Years' War in Germany.

Among the interesting swords of the late Middle Ages, it is also worth noting the so-called sword of justice, which was used to carry out death sentences. In the Middle Ages, heads were most often chopped off with an ax, and the sword was used exclusively for beheading members of the nobility. Firstly, it was more honorable, and secondly, execution with a sword brought less suffering to the victim.

The technique of beheading with a sword had its own characteristics. The scaffold was not used. The condemned man was simply forced to his knees, and the executioner cut off his head with one blow. One might also add that the “sword of justice” had no edge at all.

By the 15th century, the technique of wielding edged weapons was changing, which led to changes in bladed edged weapons. At the same time, it is increasingly used firearms, which easily penetrates any armor, and as a result it becomes almost unnecessary. Why carry a bunch of iron on you if it can't protect your life? Along with armor, heavy medieval swords, which clearly had an “armor-piercing” character, are also becoming a thing of the past.

The sword becomes more and more a piercing weapon, it tapers towards the tip, becomes thicker and narrower. The grip of the weapon changes: in order to deliver more effective piercing blows, swordsmen grasp the cross from the outside. Very soon special arches appear on it to protect the fingers. This is how the sword begins its glorious path.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the sword guard became significantly more complex in order to more reliably protect the fencer’s fingers and hand. Swords and broadswords appeared in which the guard looked like a complex basket, which included numerous bows or a solid shield.

Weapons become lighter, they gain popularity not only among the nobility, but also large quantity townspeople and becomes an integral part of everyday costume. In war they still use a helmet and cuirass, but in frequent duels or street fights They fight without any armor. The art of fencing is becoming significantly more complex, new techniques and techniques are appearing.

A sword is a weapon with a narrow cutting and piercing blade and a developed hilt that reliably protects the fencer’s hand.

In the 17th century, the rapier evolved from the sword - a weapon with a piercing blade, sometimes even without cutting edges. Both the sword and the rapier were intended to be worn with casual clothing, not with armor. Later, this weapon turned into a certain attribute, a detail of the appearance of a person of noble origin. It is also necessary to add that the rapier was lighter than the sword and gave tangible advantages in a duel without armor.

The most common myths about swords

The sword is the most iconic weapon invented by man. Interest in it continues today. Unfortunately, there are many misconceptions and myths associated with this type of weapon.

Myth 1. The European sword was heavy; in battle it was used to inflict concussion on the enemy and break through his armor - like an ordinary club. At the same time, absolutely fantastic figures for the mass of medieval swords are voiced (10-15 kg). This opinion is not true. The weight of all surviving original medieval swords ranges from 600 grams to 1.4 kg. On average, the blades weighed about 1 kg. Rapiers and sabers, which appeared much later, had similar characteristics (from 0.8 to 1.2 kg). European swords were convenient and well-balanced weapons, effective and convenient in battle.

Myth 2. Swords do not have a sharp edge. It is stated that against the armor the sword acted like a chisel, breaking through it. This assumption is also not true. Historical documents that have survived to this day describe swords as sharp weapons that could cut a person in half.

In addition, the very geometry of the blade (its cross-section) does not allow sharpening to be obtuse (like a chisel). Studies of the graves of warriors who died in medieval battles also prove the high cutting ability of swords. The fallen were found to have severed limbs and serious chop wounds.

Myth 3. “Bad” steel was used for European swords. Today there is a lot of talk about the excellent steel of traditional Japanese blades, which are supposedly the pinnacle of blacksmithing. However, historians absolutely know that the technology of welding various types of steel was successfully used in Europe already in antiquity. The hardening of the blades was also at the proper level. The technologies for making Damascus knives, blades and other things were also well known in Europe. By the way, there is no evidence that Damascus was a serious metallurgical center at any time. In general, the myth about the superiority of eastern steel (and blades) over western steel was born back in the 19th century, when there was a fashion for everything eastern and exotic.

Myth 4. Europe did not have its own developed fencing system. What can I say? You should not consider your ancestors more stupid than you. The Europeans waged almost continuous wars using edged weapons for several thousand years and had ancient military traditions, so they simply could not help but create a developed combat system. This fact is confirmed by historians. To this day, many manuals on fencing have been preserved, the oldest of which date back to the 13th century. Moreover, many of the techniques from these books are more designed for the dexterity and speed of the fencer than for primitive brute strength.

And it so happened that in the process of exchanging opinions on materials published in VO, it became clear that a fairly significant part of the users of this site were interested in ... the Bronze Age and, in particular, the weapons and armor of the legendary Trojan War. Well, the topic is really very interesting. Moreover, it is familiar to almost everyone, even at the level of a school textbook for the fifth grade. “Copper-sharp spears”, “helmet-shining Hector”, “famous shield of Achilles” - all this is from there. And besides, this in itself historical event unique. After all, people learned about him from a poem, a work of art. But it turned out that after learning about it and showing appropriate interest, they acquired knowledge about a culture previously unknown to them.

Black-figure ceramic vessel from Corinth depicting characters from the Trojan War. (About 590 - 570 BC). (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York)

Well, you will need to start from the very beginning. Namely, that the myth of Troy, besieged by the Greeks, was not confirmed by convincing facts until the end of the 19th century. But then, fortunately for all mankind, the romantic childhood dream of Heinrich Schliemann received powerful financial support (Schliemann became rich!) and he immediately went to Asia Minor in search of the legendary Troy. After 355 AD this name was not mentioned anywhere, Schliemann decided that the description Herodotus had was identical to the Hissarlik hill and began to dig there. And he dug there from 1871 for more than 20 years, until his death. At the same time, he was no archaeologist! He removed finds from the excavation site without describing them, threw away everything that did not seem valuable to him and dug, dug, dug... Until he found “his” Troy!

Many scientists of that time doubted that this was really Troy, but British Prime Minister William Gladstone began to patronize him, he got professional archaeologist Wilhelm Dornfeld on his team, and gradually the secret of the ancient city began to be revealed! Their most amazing discovery was that they discovered as many as nine cultural layers, that is, each time a new Troy was built on the ruins of the previous one. The oldest, of course, was Troy I, and the “youngest” was Troy IX of Roman times. Today, even more such layers (and sublayers) have been found - 46, so it turned out to be not at all easy to study Troy!

Schliemann believed that the Troy he needed was Troy II, but in fact the real Troy is number VII. It has been proven that the city died in a fire, and the remains of people found in this layer eloquently indicate that they died a violent death. The year when this happened is generally considered to be 1250 BC.

Ruins of ancient Troy.

It is interesting that during the excavations of Troy, Heinrich Schliemann discovered a treasure of gold jewelry, silver cups, bronze weapons, and he took all this for the “treasure of King Priam.” Later it turned out that the “Priam’s treasure” belongs to an earlier era, but that’s not the point, it’s that Schliemann simply appropriated it. His wife Sofia, a like-minded person and assistant, who secretly removed all these things from the excavations, helped him to do this unnoticed. But officially this treasure should have belonged to Turkey, but it did not get it except for a few small things. They placed him in the Berlin Museum, but during the Second World War he disappeared, and until 1991 no one knew where he was or what happened to him. But in 1991 it became known that since 1945 the treasure, taken as a trophy, has been in Moscow at the Pushkin Museum. A.S. Pushkin can still be seen today in room No. 3.

Large diadem from “Hoard A” 2400 – 2200. BC (Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts named after A.S. Pushkin)

However, even without finds from this treasure, we know a lot about that time today. The fact is that professional archaeologists took Schliemann’s discovery as a challenge, but took into account his experience and began to dig in all the places mentioned in Homer’s Iliad - in Mycenae, Pylos, in Crete. They found the “golden mask of Agamemnon,” a lot of other items from that era, and just a very large number of swords and daggers.

Moreover, the good thing is that they were bronze, not iron, and therefore well preserved! So, this is what the most learned historians think about swords and daggers from the era of the Trojan War. different countries the world, including the “master of swords” Evart Oakeshott, in, so to speak, a concentrated form...

In their opinion, the early swords of the Aegean Bronze Age are among the most striking artifacts of the era in terms of craftsmanship and luxury. Moreover, these could be ritual items and weapons actually used in the war. Early swords developed from daggers. The shape is derived from stone daggers. The stone, however, is very brittle and therefore cannot be made into a long sword. With the introduction of copper and bronze, daggers eventually evolved into swords.

CI type rapier sword. Koudonia, Crete. Length 83 cm.

The hilt for this sword.

The earliest swords from the Aegean period were found in Anatolia, Turkey, and date back to approximately 3300 BC. e. The evolution of bladed weapons from bronze is as follows: from the dagger or knife in the Early Bronze Age, to swords (“rapiers”) optimized for thrusting (Middle Bronze Age), and then to the typical swords with leaf-shaped blades of the Late Bronze Age.

One of the earliest swords of the Aegean world is the sword from Naxos (circa 2800-2300 BC). The length of this sword is 35.6 cm, that is, it looks more like a dagger. A copper sword was discovered on the Cyclades Islands in Amorgos. The length of this sword is already 59 cm. Several Minoan bronze short swords were discovered in Heraklion and Siwa. Their general design clearly shows that they are also descended from early leaf-shaped daggers.

But one of the most interesting inventions The Aegean Bronze Age had a large sword. These weapons, which appeared in the middle of the second millennium BC on the island of Crete and on the territory of mainland Greece, differ from all earlier examples.

The famous palace in Knossos. Modern look. Photo by A. Ponomarev.

The territory occupied by the palace was huge and there was so much they could not dig up there. Photo by A. Ponomarev.

Analysis of some specimens shows that the material is an alloy of copper and tin, or arsenic. When the percentage of copper or tin is high, the blades can be distinguished even by their appearance, as they have a reddish or silver color respectively. Was this done intentionally to imitate expensive metals such as gold and silver so that these swords or daggers would have a beautiful appearance, or is this simply the result of an incorrect calculation of the required amount of additives for the alloy, it is unknown. To typologize bronze swords found in Greece, the Sandars classification is used, according to which swords are located in eight main groups, under the letters A to H, plus numerous subtypes, which are not given in this case due to their abundance.

Sandars classification. It clearly shows that the most ancient swords 500 years before the fall of Troy (which is believed to have taken place in 1250 BC) were exclusively piercing! Two hundred years before it, swords with V-shaped crosshairs and a high edge on the blade appeared. The handle was now also cast together with the blade. 1250 is characterized by swords with an H-shaped handle, which in principle can be used to both chop and stab. Its base was cast together with the blade, after which wooden or bone “cheeks” were attached to it with rivets.

The connection between Minoan triangular small swords or daggers and long swords can be traced, for example, in an example found in Malia on Crete (circa 1700 BC). It has distinctive blade rivet holes at the tail and a distinct rib. That is, this sword, like early daggers, did not have a hilt. The handle was wooden and fastened with rivets with massive caps. It is clear that it was impossible to chop with such a sword, but to stab - as much as you wanted! The finish of its handle, which was covered with a gold engraved sheet, was surprisingly luxurious, and a wonderful piece of rock crystal was used as a pommel.

Dagger circa 1500 BC. Length 24.3 cm. Decorated with a notch with gold wire.

Long rapier swords have been found in the palace of Crete in Mallia, in Mycenaean tombs, in the Cyclades, in the Ionian Islands and in Central Europe. Moreover, both in Bulgaria and Denmark, Sweden and England. These swords sometimes reach a meter in length. All have a riveted handle and a high diamond-shaped rib, except when it has complex decoration.

The hilts of these swords were made of wood or ivory and were sometimes decorated with gold plates. The swords date back to 1600 – 1500. BC, and the most recent examples to the period around 1400 BC. The length ranges from 74 to 111 cm. They also find sheaths, or rather their remains. Based on these finds, we can conclude that they were made of wood and often wore gold jewelry. Moreover, the preservation of metal and even wooden (!) parts, which made it possible to carry out radiocarbon analysis of these products, makes it possible to completely reconstruct swords and daggers of this period, which was done, in particular, on the instructions of the archaeological museum in Mycenae.

Swords were worn on richly decorated baldrics, the decor of which has also survived to this day. Well, confirmation that piercing blows were inflicted with such swords are the images of warriors who fight with them on rings and seals. At the same time, modern dating shows that a number of such swords were made during the 200 years of Homer's Trojan War!

Reconstruction of an F2c sword by Peter Connolly.

In this regard, many historians note that such long piercing swords were in service with the “peoples of the sea” and, in particular, the famous Shardans, known in Egypt from images on the walls of the temple in Medinet Habu in 1180 BC.

It is worth once again drawing attention to the fact that the existing opinion that these swords are suitable for anything other than their immediate purpose is incorrect. Replicas of these swords were tested, and they demonstrated their high effectiveness as a piercing weapon, designed to make deadly attacks in the fight of real fencers!

That is, today the finds of bronze swords and daggers in the Aegean Sea region are so voluminous that they have made it possible to develop their typology and also draw a number of interesting conclusions. It is clear that all of them simply cannot be attributed directly to the Trojan War. This is nonsense! But we can talk about the “Homeric time”, the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, the “Aegean region”, etc.

Reconstruction of two Naue II swords with wooden hilts with rivets. This type of sword was characteristic of Central and Northern Europe around 1000 BC.

Moreover, the spread of such weapons in European countries tells us that perhaps trade relations at that time were much more developed than is commonly believed, so it is quite possible to speak of “European internationalization” and “integration” in the Bronze Age. Specifically, this can be expressed in the fact that there was a certain people of seafarers - the same “peoples of the sea”, who sailed around the whole of Europe and spread Mycenaean and Cretan weapons, and, in particular, swords throughout Europe.

Image of warriors of the “peoples of the sea” (Shardans) on a relief from Medinet Habu.

Somewhere they found use, but where the war tactics were different, these weapons were purchased as “overseas curiosities” and sacrificed to the gods. In addition, we can draw a conclusion about tactics: there was a people whose warriors were a caste, and a rather closed one at that. The warriors of this people learned to use their long piercing swords from childhood. But it was impossible to just pick up this sword and cut with it from the shoulder. But then this caste died out.

Type F swords depicted in a fresco from Pylos (circa 1300 BC)

“Soldiers” were needed for the “mass army,” whom there was neither time nor energy to train, and piercing swords very quickly replaced cutting ones. After all, the chopping blow is intuitive and much easier to master than the thrust. Especially with a sword of such a complex design.