The principle of operation of a jet engine. Description and device

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Jet engine

Early aircraft with jet engines: Me.262 and Yak-15

The ideas of creating a heat engine, which includes a jet engine, have been known to man since ancient times. Thus, in the treatise of Heron of Alexandria entitled “Pneumatics” there is a description of Aeolipile - the ball “Aeolus”. This design was nothing more than a steam turbine, in which steam was supplied through tubes into a bronze sphere and, escaping from it, spun this sphere. Most likely, the device was used for entertainment.

The great Leonardo did not ignore the idea either, intending to use hot air supplied to the blades to rotate a spit for frying.

The idea of a gas turbine engine was first proposed in 1791 by the English inventor J. Barber: his gas turbine engine design was equipped with a gas generator, a piston compressor, a combustion chamber and a gas turbine.

Used as power plant for his aircraft, developed in 1878, a heat engine and A.F. Mozhaisky: two steam engines drove the propellers of the machine. Due to low efficiency, the desired effect could not be achieved.

Another Russian engineer - P.D. Kuzminsky - in 1892, developed the idea of a gas turbine engine in which fuel burned at constant pressure. Having started the project in 1900, he decided to install a gas turbine engine with a multi-stage gas turbine on a small boat. However, the death of the designer prevented him from finishing what he started.

More intense for creation jet engine began only in the twentieth century: first theoretically, and a few years later - practically.

In 1903, in the work “Exploration of World Spaces by Reactive Instruments” K.E. Tsiolkovsky were developed theoretical foundations liquid rocket engines (LPRE) with a description of the main elements of a jet engine using liquid fuel.

The idea of creating an air-breathing engine (WRE) belongs to R. Lorin, who patented the project in 1908. When trying to create an engine, after the drawings of the device were made public in 1913, the inventor failed: the speed required for the operation of the jet engine was never achieved.

Attempts to create gas turbine engines continued further. So, in 1906, Russian engineer V.V. Karavodin developed and, two years later, built a compressor-free gas turbine engine with four intermittent combustion chambers and a gas turbine. However, the power developed by the device, even at 10,000 rpm, did not exceed 1.2 kW (1.6 hp).

The intermittent combustion gas turbine engine was also created by the German designer H. Holwarth. Having built a gas turbine engine in 1908, by 1933, after many years of work to improve it, he brought the engine efficiency to 24%. However, the idea has not found widespread use.

The idea of a turbojet engine was voiced in 1909 by Russian engineer N.V. Gerasimov, who received a patent for a gas turbine engine for creating jet thrust. Work on the implementation of this idea did not stop in Russia and subsequently: in 1913 M.N. Nikolskoy designs a gas turbine engine with a power of 120 kW (160 hp) with a three-stage gas turbine; in 1923 V.I. Bazarov proposes a schematic diagram of a gas turbine engine, similar in design to modern turboprop engines; in 1930 V.V. Uvarov together with N.R. Briling designs and in 1936 implements a gas turbine engine with a centrifugal compressor.

A huge contribution to the creation of the theory of the jet engine was made by the work of Russian scientists S.S. Nezhdanovsky, I.V. Meshchersky, N.E. Zhukovsky. French scientist R. Hainault-Peltry, German scientist G. Oberth. The creation of an air-breathing engine was also influenced by the work of the famous Soviet scientist B.S. Stechkin, who published his work “The Theory of an Air-Jet Engine” in 1929.

Work on the creation of a liquid jet engine did not stop: in 1926, the American scientist R. Goddard launched a rocket using liquid fuel. Work on this topic also took place in the Soviet Union: from 1929 to 1933 V.P. Glushko developed and tested an electrothermal jet engine at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory. During this period, he also created the first domestic liquid jet engines - ORM, ORM-1, ORM-2.

The greatest contribution to the practical implementation of the jet engine was made by German designers and scientists. Having support and funding from the state, which hoped to achieve this way technical superiority V the coming war, the engineering corps of the III Reich, with maximum efficiency and in a short time, approached the creation of combat systems based on the ideas of jet propulsion.

Concentrating attention on the aviation component, we can say that already on August 27, 1939, the Heinkel test pilot, captain E. Warsitz, took off the He.178 - a jet aircraft, the technological developments of which were subsequently used in the creation of the Heinkel He.280 and Messerschmitt Me.262 Schwalbe.

The Heinkel Strahltriebwerke HeS 3 engine installed on the Heinkel He.178, designed by H.-I. von Ohain, although he did not have high power, but managed to open the era of jet flights of military aviation. Achieved by He.178 maximum speed at 700 km/h using an engine whose power did not exceed 500 kgf spoke volumes. Ahead lay limitless possibilities, which deprived piston engines of a future.

A whole series of jet engines created in Germany, for example, Jumo-004 manufactured by Junkers, allowed it to have serial jet fighters and bombers at the end of World War II, ahead of other countries in this direction by several years. After the defeat of the Third Reich, it was German technology that gave impetus to the development of jet aircraft in many countries around the world.

The only country that managed to answer the German challenge was Great Britain: the Rolls-Royce Derwent 8 turbojet engine created by F. Whittle was installed on the Gloster Meteor fighter.

Trophy Jumo 004

The world's first turboprop engine was the Hungarian Jendrassik Cs-1 engine, designed by D. Jendrasik, who built it in 1937 at the Ganz plant in Budapest. Despite the problems that arose during implementation, the engine was supposed to be installed on the Hungarian twin-engine attack aircraft Varga RMI-1 X/H, specially designed for this purpose by aircraft designer L. Vargo. However, the Hungarian specialists were unable to complete the work - the enterprise was redirected to the production of German Daimler-Benz DB 605 engines, selected for installation on the Hungarian Messerschmitt Me.210.

Before the start of the war, work continued in the USSR to create various types jet engines. So, in 1939, rockets were tested, powered by ramjet engines designed by I.A. Merkulova.

In the same year, work began at the Leningrad Kirov Plant on the construction of the first domestic turbojet engine designed by A.M. Cradles. However, the outbreak of war stopped experimental work on the engine, directing all production power to the needs of the front.

The real era of jet engines began after the end of World War II, when in a short period of time not only the sound barrier, but also gravity was conquered, which made it possible to take humanity into outer space.

Back at the beginning of the 20th century. Russian scientist K.E. Tsiolkovsky predicted that after the era of propeller-driven airplanes, the era of jet airplanes would come. He believed that only with a jet engine could supersonic speeds be achieved.

In 1937, the young and talented designer A.M. Lyulka proposed a design for the first Soviet turbojet engine. According to his calculations, such an engine could accelerate the plane to speeds unprecedented at that time - 900 km/h! It seemed fantastic, and the young designer’s proposal was treated with caution. But, nevertheless, work on this engine began, and by mid-1941 it was almost ready. However, the war began, and the design bureau where A.M. worked. Lyulka, was evacuated deep into the USSR, and the designer himself was switched to work on tank engines.

But A.M. Lyulka was not alone in his desire to create a jet aircraft engine. Just before the war, engineers from the design bureau of V.F. Bolkhovitinova - A.Ya. Bereznyak and A.M. Isaev - proposed a project for a fighter-interceptor "BI-1" with a liquid jet engine.

The project was approved and the designers began work. Despite all the difficulties of the first period of the Great Patriotic War, the experimental “BI-1” was nevertheless built.

May 15, 1942 world's first rocket fighter was lifted into the air by test pilot EY. Bakhchivandzhi. The tests continued until the end of 1943 and, unfortunately, ended in disaster. In one of the test flights, Bakhchivandzhi reached a speed of 800 km/h. But at this speed the plane suddenly lost control and rushed towards the ground. The new car and its brave tester were killed.

The first aircraft with a Messer-schmitt Me-262 jet engine appeared in the skies just before the end of the Second World War. It was produced in well-camouflaged factories located in the forest. One of these plants in Gorgau - 10 km south of Augsburg along the autobahn - supplied the wings, nose and tail sections of the aircraft to another "timber" plant nearby, which carried out final assembly and picked up the finished aircraft directly from the autobahn. The roof of the buildings was painted in green, and it was almost impossible to detect such a “timber” plant from the air. Although the Allies managed to detect the takeoffs of the Me-262 and bomb several uncovered aircraft, they were able to establish the location of the plant only after they occupied the forest.

The discoverer of the jet engine, the Englishman Frank Whittle, received his patent back in 7930. The first jet The Gloster aircraft was built in 1941 and was tested in May. The government abandoned it - it was not powerful enough. Only the Germans fully revealed the potential of this invention, in 1942 they assembled the Messerschmitt Me-262, which they used to fight until the end of the war. The first Soviet jet aircraft was the MiG-9, and its “descendant”, the MiG-15, wrote many glorious pages in history. battle history war in Korea (1950-1953).

During these same years, in Nazi Germany, which had lost air superiority on the Soviet-German front, work on jet aircraft was being increasingly intensive. Hitler hoped that with the help of these aircraft he would again seize the initiative in the war and achieve victory.

In 1944, the Messerschmitt Me-262 aircraft, equipped with a jet engine, was put into mass production and soon appeared at the front. German pilots were very wary of this unusual machine, which did not have the usual propeller. In addition, at a speed close to 800 km/h, it was pulled into a dive, and it was impossible to get the car out of this state. The aviation units then issued strict instructions - under no circumstances should the speed be increased to 800 km/h.

However, even with this limitation, the Me-262 was superior in speed to all other fighters of those years. This allowed the commander of Hitler's fighter aviation, General Holland, to declare that the Me-262 was “the only chance to organize real resistance to the enemy.”

On the Eastern Front, the Me-262 appeared at the very end of the war. In this regard, design bureaus received an urgent task to create devices to combat German jet aircraft.

A.I. Mikoyan and P.O. Sukhoi, to help the conventional piston engine located in the bow of the device, added a motor-compressor motor designed by K.V. Kholshchevnikov, installing it in the tail of the plane. The additional engine had to be started when the aircraft needed to be given significant acceleration. This was dictated by the fact that the K.V. engine Kholshchevnikov worked no more than three to five minutes.

The first to finish work on a high-speed fighter was A.I. Mikoyan. His I-250 aircraft took flight in March 1945. During testing of this aircraft, a record speed of 820 km/h was recorded, first achieved in the USSR. Fighter P.O. The Sukhoi Su-5 entered testing in April 1945, and after switching on the additional tail engine, a speed exceeding 800 km/h was achieved.

However, the circumstances of those years did not allow the launch of new high-speed fighters into mass production. Firstly, the war is over, even the vaunted Me-262 did not help restore lost air superiority to the Nazis.

Secondly, the skill of Soviet pilots made it possible to prove to the whole world that even jet aircraft can be shot down while flying an ordinary production fighter.

In parallel with the development of an aircraft equipped with a “pushing” motor-compressor engine, in the design bureau of P.O. Sukhoi created the Su-7 fighter, in which the liquid-jet RD-1, developed by designer V.P., worked together with a piston engine. Glushko.

Flights on the Su-7 began in 1945. It was tested by pilot G. Komarov. When RD-1 was turned on, the aircraft's speed increased by an average of 115 km/h. This was a good result, but soon the tests had to be stopped due to frequent failure of the jet engine.

A similar situation arose in the design bureaus of S.A. Lavochkin and AS. Yakovleva. On one of the experimental La-7R aircraft, the accelerator exploded in flight; the test pilot miraculously managed to escape. But when testing the Yak-3 with the RD-1 booster, the plane exploded and its pilot died. The increasing frequency of accidents led to the fact that testing of aircraft with the RD-1 was stopped. In addition, it became clear that piston engines were to be replaced by new engines - jet engines.

After the defeat of Germany, the USSR received German jet aircraft with engines as trophies. The Western allies received not only samples of jet aircraft and their engines, but also their developers and equipment from fascist factories.

To gain experience in jet aircraft construction, it was decided to use German engines"JUMO- 004" and "BMW-003", and then create your own based on them. These engines were named “RD-10” and “RD-20”. In addition, the designers of A.M. Lyulke, A.A. Mikulin, V.Ya. Klimov was tasked with creating a “fully Soviet” aircraft jet engine.

While the “engine guys” were working, P.O. Sukhoi developed the Su-9 jet fighter. Its design was made according to the scheme of twin-engine aircraft - two captured JUMO-004 (RD-10) engines were placed under the wings.

Ground tests of the RA-7 jet engine were carried out on the airfield of the airfield in Tushino. During operation, it made a terrible noise and emitted clouds of smoke and fire from its nozzle. The roar and glow from the flames were noticeable even at the Moscow Sokol metro station. There was also some curiosity. One day, several fire engines rushed to the airfield, called by Muscovites to put out the fire.

The Su-9 aircraft could hardly be called just a fighter. Pilots usually called it a “heavy fighter,” since a more accurate name—fighter-bomber—appeared only in the mid-50s. But due to its powerful cannon and bomb armament, the Su-9 could well be considered a prototype of such an aircraft.

This placement of motors had both disadvantages and advantages. The disadvantages include a large drag, created by motors located under the wings. But on the other hand, placing the engines in special outboard engine nacelles allowed unhindered access to them, which was important for repairs and adjustments.

In addition to jet engines, the Su-9 aircraft contained many “fresh” design solutions. So, for example, P.O. Sukhoi installed on his plane a stabilizer controlled by a special electromechanism, starting powder accelerators, an ejection seat for the pilot and a device for emergency release of the canopy covering the pilot's cockpit, air brakes with a landing flap, and a braking parachute. We can say that the Su-9 was created entirely from innovations.

Soon, a prototype version of the Su-9 fighter was built. However, attention was drawn to the fact that performing turns on it is physically difficult for the pilot.

It became obvious that with increasing speeds and flight altitude, it would become increasingly difficult for the pilot to cope with the controls, and then a new device was introduced into the aircraft control system - a booster amplifier, similar to power steering. But in those years, the use of a complex hydraulic device on an airplane caused controversy. Even experienced aircraft designers were skeptical about it.

And yet the booster was installed on the Su-9. Sukhoi was the first to completely shift the effort from the aircraft control stick to the hydraulic system. The pilots' positive reaction was not long in coming. Flying the plane has become more enjoyable and less tiring. The maneuver was simplified and became possible at all flight speeds.

It should be added that in achieving design perfection, P.O. Sukhoi “lost” in the competition between the bureaus of Mikoyan and Yakovlev. The first jet fighters of the USSR - MiG-9 and Yak-15 - took off on the same day - April 26, 1946. They took part in the air parade in Tushino and were immediately put into production. And the Su-9 appeared in the air only in November 1946. However, the military really liked it and in 1947 it was recommended for mass production. But it did not go into production - the aircraft factories were already busy producing MiG and Yakov jets. Yes and P.O. By that time, Sukhoi was already finishing work on a new, more advanced machine - the Su-11 fighter.

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Inventor: Frank Whittle (engine)
Country: England
Time of invention: 1928

Turbojet aviation originated during the Second World War, when the limit of perfection of previous propeller-equipped aircraft was reached.

Every year the race for speed became more and more difficult, since even a slight increase in speed required hundreds of additional horsepower of the engine and automatically made the aircraft heavier. On average, an increase in power of 1 hp. led to an increase in the mass of the propulsion system (the engine itself, the propeller and aids) on average per 1 kg. Simple calculations showed that it was almost impossible to create a propeller-driven fighter aircraft with a speed of about 1000 km/h.

The engine power of 12,000 horsepower required for this could only be achieved with an engine weight of about 6,000 kg. In the future, it turned out that a further increase in speed would lead to the degeneration of combat aircraft, turning them into devices capable of carrying only themselves.

There was no longer any room left on board for weapons, radio equipment, armor and fuel supplies. But even this It was impossible to get a big increase in speed at the cost. A heavier engine increased the overall weight, which forced the wing area to increase; this led to an increase in their aerodynamic drag, to overcome which it was necessary to increase engine power.

Thus, the circle was closed and a speed of about 850 km/h turned out to be the maximum possible for an aircraft with . There could be only one way out of this vicious situation - it was necessary to create a fundamentally new design of an aircraft engine, which was done when turbojet aircraft replaced piston aircraft.

The principle of operation of a simple jet engine can be understood by considering the operation of a fire hose. Water under pressure is supplied through a hose to the fire nozzle and flows out of it. The internal cross-section of the nozzle tip tapers towards the end, and therefore the stream of flowing water has a higher speed than in the hose.

The force of back pressure (reaction) in this case is so great that the firefighter often has to strain with all your strength in order to keep the fire hose in the required direction. The same principle can be applied to an aircraft engine. The simplest jet engine is the ramjet engine.

Let's imagine a pipe with open ends mounted on a moving airplane. The front part of the pipe, into which air flows due to the movement of the aircraft, has an expanding internal cross-section. Due to the expansion of the pipe, the speed of air entering it decreases, and the pressure increases accordingly.

Let us assume that in the expanding part fuel is injected into the air flow and burned. This part of the pipe can be called the combustion chamber. The highly heated gases rapidly expand and escape through the converging jet nozzle at a speed many times greater than that of the air flow at the inlet. This increase in speed creates a thrust force that pushes the aircraft forward.

It is easy to see that such an engine can only work if it moves in the air with significant speed, but it cannot be activated when it is motionless. An aircraft with such an engine must either be launched from another aircraft or accelerated using a special starting engine. This disadvantage is overcome in a more complex turbojet engine.

The most critical element of this engine is the gas turbine, which rotates the air compressor sitting on the same shaft. The air entering the engine is first compressed in the inlet device - the diffuser, then in the axial compressor and then enters the combustion chamber.

The fuel is usually kerosene, which is sprayed into the combustion chamber through a nozzle. From the chamber, the combustion products, expanding, flow, first of all, onto the gas blades, causing it to rotate, and then into the nozzle, in which they accelerate to very high speeds.

A gas turbine uses only a small part of the energy of the air-gas jet. The rest of the gases are used to create a reactive thrust force, which arises due to the flow of a jet at high speed combustion products from the nozzle. The thrust of a turbojet engine can be boosted, that is, increased for a short period of time, in various ways.

For example, this can be done using so-called afterburning (in this case, additional fuel is injected into the gas flow behind the turbine, which burns due to oxygen not used in the combustion chambers). Afterburning is possible for short term additionally increase engine thrust by 25-30% at low speeds and up to 70% at high speeds.

Gas turbine engines have revolutionized the world since 1940. aviation technology, but the first developments to create them appeared ten years earlier. Father of the turbojet engine English inventor Frank Whittle is rightfully considered. Back in 1928, while a student at the Cranwell Aviation School, Whittle proposed the first design of a jet engine equipped with a gas turbine.

In 1930 he received a patent for it. The state at that time was not interested in his developments. But Whittle received help from some private firms, and in 1937, based on his design, the British Thomson-Houston company built the first turbojet engine in history, designated “U”. Only after this did the Ministry of Aviation pay attention to Whittle's invention. To further improve the engines of its design, the Power company was created, which had support from the state.

At the same time, Whittle's ideas fertilized the design thought of Germany. In 1936, the German inventor Ohain, then a student at the University of Göttingen, developed and patented his turbojet engine. Its design was almost no different from Whittle's. In 1938, the Heinkel company, which hired Ohain, developed under his leadership the HeS-3B turbojet engine, which was installed on the He-178 aircraft. On August 27, 1939, this aircraft made its first successful flight.

The design of the He-178 largely anticipated the design of future jet aircraft. The air intake was located in the forward part of the fuselage. The air, branching, went around the pilot's cockpit and entered the engine in a direct flow. Hot gases flowed out through a nozzle in the tail section. The wings of this plane were still wooden, but the fuselage was made of duralumin.

The engine, installed behind the cockpit, ran on gasoline and developed a thrust of 500 kg. Maximum the plane's speed reached 700 km/h. At the beginning of 1941, Hans Ohain developed a more advanced HeS-8 engine with a thrust of 600 kg. Two of these engines were installed on the next He-280V aircraft.

Its tests began in April of the same year and showed good results - the aircraft reached speeds of up to 925 km/h. However, serial production of this fighter never began (a total of 8 were produced) due to the fact that the engine still turned out to be unreliable.

Meanwhile, British Thomson-Houston released the W1.X engine, specially designed for the first English turbojet aircraft, the Gloucester G40, which made its first flight in May 1941 (the aircraft was then equipped with an improved Whittle W.1 engine). The English first-born was far from German. Its maximum speed was 480 km/h. In 1943, the second Gloucester G40 was built with a more powerful engine, reaching speeds of up to 500 km/h.

In its design, the Gloucester was surprisingly reminiscent of the German Heinkel. G40 had all-metal structure with an air intake in the forward fuselage. The air supply duct was divided and went around the pilot's cabin on both sides. The outflow of gases occurred through a nozzle in the rear of the fuselage.

Although the parameters of the G40 not only did not exceed those of high-speed propeller-engined aircraft at that time, but were also noticeably inferior to them, the prospects for the use of jet engines turned out to be so promising that the British Ministry of Aviation decided to begin serial production of turbojet fighter-interceptors. The Gloucester company received an order to develop such an aircraft.

In subsequent years, several English companies began to produce various modifications of the Whittle turbojet engine. The Rover company, taking the W.1 engine as a basis, developed engines W2B/23 and W2B/26. These engines were then purchased by Rolls-Royce, which used them to create their own models, the Welland and Derwent.

The first serial turbojet aircraft in history was, however, not the English Gloucester, but the German Messerschmitt Me-262. In total, about 1,300 of these aircraft of various modifications were manufactured, equipped with the Junkers Yumo-004B engine. The first aircraft of this series was tested in 1942. It had two engines with a thrust of 900 kg and a speed of 845 km/h.

The English production aircraft Gloucester G41 Meteor appeared in 1943. Equipped with two Derwent engines with a thrust of 900 kg each, the Meteor reached speeds of up to 760 km/h and had a flight altitude of up to 9000 m. Subsequently, more powerful Derwents with a thrust of about 1600 kg began to be installed on aircraft, which made it possible to increase the speed to 935 km/h. This aircraft performed well, so production of various modifications of the G41 continued until the end of the 40s.

The United States initially lagged far behind European countries in the development of jet aviation. Until World War II, there were no attempts at all to create a jet aircraft. Only in 1941, when samples and drawings of Whittle engines were received from England, did this work begin in full swing.

General Electric, using Whittle's model as a basis, developed a turbojet engine I-A, which was installed on the first American jet aircraft, the P-59A Ercomet. The American first-born flew for the first time in October 1942. It had two engines, which were located under the wings close to the fuselage. It was still an imperfect design.

According to the American pilots who tested the aircraft, the P-59 was good to fly, but its flight characteristics remained unimportant. The engine was too underpowered, so it was more of a glider than a real combat aircraft. A total of 33 such machines were built. Their maximum speed was 660 km/h, and their flight altitude was up to 14,000 m.

The first production turbojet fighter in the United States was the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star with an engine General Electric I-40 ( modification I-A). Until the end of the 40s, about 2,500 of these fighters of various models were produced. Their average speed was about 900 km/h. However, on June 19, 1947, on one of the modifications of this aircraft, the XF-80B, a speed of 1000 km/h was achieved for the first time in history.

At the end of the war, jet aircraft were still inferior in many respects to mature models of propeller-driven aircraft and had many of their own specific disadvantages. In general, during the construction of the first turbojet aircraft, designers in all countries encountered significant difficulties. Every now and then the combustion chambers burned out, the blades and compressors broke and, separating from the rotor, turned into projectiles that crushed the engine body, fuselage and wing.

But, despite this, jet aircraft had a huge advantage over propeller-driven aircraft - The increase in speed with increasing power of a turbojet engine and its weight occurred much more rapidly than that of a piston engine. That solved it future fate high-speed aviation - it is becoming jet-powered everywhere.

The increase in speed soon led to a complete change in the appearance of the aircraft. At transonic speeds, the old shape and profile of the wing turned out to be unable to carry the aircraft - it began to “nod off” and entered an uncontrollable dive. The results of aerodynamic tests and analysis of flight accidents gradually led designers to a new type of wing - thin, swept.

This type of wing shape first appeared on Soviet fighters. Despite the fact that the USSR was later than the Western states began to create turbojet aircraft, Soviet designers very quickly managed to create high-quality combat vehicles. The first Soviet jet fighter to enter production was the Yak-15.

It appeared at the end of 1945 and was a converted Yak-3 (a piston-engine fighter known during the war), which was equipped with an RD-10 turbojet engine - a copy of the captured German Yumo-004B with a thrust of 900 kg. It reached a speed of about 830 km/h.

In 1946 entered service Soviet army The MiG-9 arrived, equipped with two Yumo-004B turbojet engines (official designation RD-20), and in 1947 the MiG-15 appeared - the first in history, a combat jet aircraft with a swept wing, equipped with an RD-45 engine (this was the designation for the Nin engine from Rolls-Royce, purchased under license and modernized by Soviet aircraft designers) with a thrust of 2200 kg.

The MiG-15 was strikingly different from its predecessors and surprised combat pilots with its unusual backward-sloping wings, a huge fin topped with the same swept stabilizer, and a cigar-shaped fuselage. The plane also had other new features: an ejection seat and hydraulic power steering.

He was armed with a rapid-fire weapon and two (in later modifications - three guns). With a speed of 1,100 km/h and a ceiling of 15,000 m, this fighter remained the world's best combat aircraft for several years and attracted enormous interest. (The MiG-15 design later had a significant influence on fighter design in Western countries.)

IN short time The MiG-15 became the most common fighter in the USSR, and was also adopted by the armies of its allies. This aircraft has proven itself well during Korean War. In many respects it was superior to the American Sabers.

With the advent of the MiG-15, the childhood of turbojet aviation ended and the new stage in her history. By this time, the jet aircraft had mastered all subsonic speeds and were very close to the sound barrier.

ABSTRACT

ON TOPIC:

Jet Engines .

WRITTEN BY: Kiselev A.V.

KALININGRAD

Introduction

Jet engine, an engine that creates the traction force necessary for movement by converting the initial energy into the kinetic energy of the jet stream of the working fluid; As a result of the outflow of the working fluid from the engine nozzle, a reactive force is generated in the form of a reaction (recoil) of the jet, moving the engine and the apparatus structurally connected to it in space in the direction opposite to the outflow of the jet. Various types of energy (chemical, nuclear, electrical, solar) can be converted into the kinetic (velocity) energy of a jet stream in a rocket jet. A direct reaction engine (direct reaction engine) combines the engine itself with a propulsion device, i.e., it provides its own movement without the participation of intermediate mechanisms.

To create the jet thrust used by R.D., it is necessary:

source of initial (primary) energy, which is converted into kinetic energy of the jet stream;

the working fluid, which is ejected from the jet in the form of a jet stream;

The R.D. itself is an energy converter.

The initial energy is stored on board an aircraft or other vehicle equipped with a rocket engine (chemical fuel, nuclear fuel), or (in principle) can come from outside (solar energy). To obtain a working fluid in a liquid propellant, a substance taken from the environment (for example, air or water) can be used;

a substance located in the tanks of the apparatus or directly in the R.D. chamber; a mixture of substances coming from the environment and stored on board the vehicle.

In modern R.D., chemical is most often used as a primary

Missile fire tests

engine Space Shuttle

Turbojet engines AL-31F airplane Su-30MK. Belong to class air-breathing engines

energy. In this case, the working fluid is hot gases - products of combustion of chemical fuels. During the operation of a combustion engine, the chemical energy of combustion substances is converted into thermal energy of combustion products, and thermal energy hot gases are converted into mechanical energy of the translational motion of the jet stream and, consequently, the apparatus on which the engine is installed. The main part of any combustion engine is the combustion chamber in which the working fluid is generated. The final part of the chamber, which serves to accelerate the working fluid and produce a jet stream, is called a jet nozzle.

Depending on whether or not the environment is used during the operation of rocket engines, they are divided into 2 main classes - air-breathing engines (ARE) and rocket engines (RE). All VRDs are heat engines, the working fluid of which is formed during the oxidation reaction of a combustible substance with atmospheric oxygen. The air coming from the atmosphere makes up the bulk of the working fluid of the WRD. Thus, a device with a propellant engine carries an energy source (fuel) on board, and draws most of the working fluid from the environment. In contrast to the VRD, all components of the RD working fluid are located on board the apparatus equipped with the RD. Lack of propulsion that interacts with environment, and the presence of all components of the working fluid on board the device make the RD the only one suitable for work in space. There are also combined rocket engines, which are a combination of both main types.

History of jet engines

The principle of jet propulsion has been known for a very long time. The ancestor of R. d. can be considered the ball of Heron. Solid propellant rocket engines - powder rockets - appeared in China in the 10th century. n. e. For hundreds of years, such missiles were used first in the East and then in Europe as fireworks, signal, and combat missiles. In 1903, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, in his work “Exploration of World Spaces with Jet Instruments,” was the first in the world to put forward the basic principles of the theory of liquid rocket engines and proposed the basic elements of a liquid-fuel rocket engine design. The first Soviet liquid rocket engines - ORM, ORM-1, ORM-2 were designed by V.P. Glushko and, under his leadership, created in 1930-31 at the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL). In 1926, R. Goddard launched a liquid fuel rocket. For the first time, an electrothermal RD was created and tested by Glushko at the GDL in 1929-33.

In 1939, the USSR tested missiles with ramjet engines designed by I. A. Merkulov. The first turbojet engine diagram? was proposed by the Russian engineer N. Gerasimov in 1909.

In 1939, the construction of turbojet engines designed by A. M. Lyulka began at the Kirov plant in Leningrad. The testing of the created engine was prevented by the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45. In 1941, a turbojet engine designed by F. Whittle (Great Britain) was first installed on an aircraft and tested. Great value The creation of R.D. was based on the theoretical works of Russian scientists S. S. Nezhdanovsky, I. V. Meshchersky, N. E. Zhukovsky, the works of the French scientist R. Hainault-Peltry, and the German scientist G. Oberth. An important contribution to the creation of the WRD was the work of the Soviet scientist B. S. Stechkin, “The Theory of an Air-Jet Engine,” published in 1929.

R.D. have various purposes and the scope of their application is constantly expanding.

Radar drives are most widely used on aircraft of various types.

Most military and civil aircraft around the world are equipped with turbojet engines and bypass turbojet engines, and they are used on helicopters. These radar engines are suitable for flights at both subsonic and supersonic speeds; They are also installed on projectile aircraft; supersonic turbojet engines can be used in the first stages of aerospace aircraft. Ramjet engines are installed on anti-aircraft guided missiles, cruise missiles, and supersonic interceptor fighters. Subsonic ramjet engines are used on helicopters (installed at the ends of the main rotor blades). Pulse jet engines have low thrust and are intended only for aircraft at subsonic speeds. During the 2nd World War 1939-45, these engines were equipped with V-1 projectile aircraft.

Taxiways are mostly used on high-speed aircraft.

Liquid rocket engines are used on launch vehicles of spacecraft and spacecraft as propulsion, braking and control engines, as well as on guided ballistic missiles. Solid propellant rocket engines are used in ballistic, anti-aircraft, anti-tank and other military missiles, as well as on launch vehicles and spacecraft. Small solid propellant engines are used as boosters for aircraft take-off. Electric rocket motors and nuclear rocket motors can be used on spacecraft.

However, this mighty trunk, the principle of direct reaction, gave birth to a huge crown of the "family tree" of the jet engine family. To get acquainted with the main branches of its crown, crowning the “trunk” of direct reaction. Soon, as you can see from the picture (see below), this trunk is divided into two parts, as if split by a lightning strike. Both new trunks are equally decorated with powerful crowns. This division occurred because all “chemical” jet engines are divided into two classes depending on whether they use ambient air for their operation or not.

One of the newly formed trunks is the class of air-breathing engines (WRE). As the name itself indicates, they cannot operate outside the atmosphere. That's why these engines are the basis modern aviation, both manned and unmanned. VRDs are used atmospheric oxygen for fuel combustion, without it the combustion reaction in the engine will not proceed. But still, turbojet engines are currently most widely used.

(turbojet engines), installed on almost all modern aircraft without exception. Like all engines that use atmospheric air, turbojet engines require a special device to compress the air before it is fed into the combustion chamber. After all, if the pressure in the combustion chamber does not significantly exceed atmospheric pressure, then the gases will not flow out of the engine at a higher speed - it is the pressure that pushes them out. But at a low exhaust speed, the engine thrust will be low, and the engine will consume a lot of fuel; such an engine will not find application. In a turbojet engine, a compressor is used to compress air, and the design of the engine largely depends on the type of compressor. There are engines with an axial and centrifugal compressor; axial compressors can have fewer or more compression stages, be single- or double-stage, etc. To drive the compressor, the turbojet engine has a gas turbine, which gives the engine its name. Because of the compressor and turbine, the engine design is quite complex.

Non-compressor air-breathing engines are much simpler in design, in which the necessary increase in pressure is achieved by other methods, which have names: pulsating and ramjet engines.

In a pulsating engine, this is usually done by a valve grid installed at the engine inlet; when a new portion of the fuel-air mixture fills the combustion chamber and a flash occurs in it, the valves close, isolating the combustion chamber from the engine inlet. As a result, the pressure in the chamber increases, and gases rush out through the jet nozzle, after which the whole process is repeated.

In a non-compressor engine of another type, direct-flow, there is not even this valve grid and the pressure in the combustion chamber increases as a result of the high-speed pressure, i.e. braking the oncoming air flow entering the engine in flight. It is clear that such an engine is capable of operating only when the aircraft is already flying at a sufficiently high speed; it will not develop thrust when parked. But at very high speed, 4-5 times the speed of sound, a ramjet engine develops very high thrust and consumes less fuel than any other “chemical” jet engine under these conditions. That's why ramjet engines.

The peculiarity of the aerodynamic design of supersonic aircraft with ramjet engines (ramjet engines) is due to the presence of special accelerator engines that provide the speed necessary to begin stable operation of the ramjet engine. This makes the tail section of the structure heavier and requires the installation of stabilizers to ensure the necessary stability.

The principle of operation of a jet engine.

Modern powerful jet engines of various types are based on the principle of direct reaction, i.e. creation principle driving force(or thrust) in the form of a reaction (recoil) of a stream of “working substance” flowing from the engine, usually hot gases.

In all engines there are two energy conversion processes. First, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into thermal energy of combustion products, and then the thermal energy is used to perform mechanical work. Such engines include piston engines of cars, diesel locomotives, steam and gas turbines of power plants, etc.

Let's consider this process in relation to jet engines. Let's start with the combustion chamber of the engine, in which a combustible mixture has already been created in one way or another, depending on the type of engine and type of fuel. This could be, for example, a mixture of air and kerosene, as in the turbojet engine of a modern jet aircraft, or a mixture of liquid oxygen and alcohol, as in some liquid rocket engines, or, finally, some kind of solid fuel for powder rockets. The flammable mixture can burn, i.e. enter into a chemical reaction with the rapid release of energy in the form of heat. The ability to release energy during a chemical reaction is the potential chemical energy of the molecules of the mixture. The chemical energy of molecules is related to the features of their structure, more precisely, the structure of their electronic shells, i.e. that electron cloud that surrounds the nuclei of the atoms that make up the molecule. As a result of a chemical reaction, in which some molecules are destroyed and others are created, a restructuring of the electron shells naturally occurs. In this restructuring there is a source of released chemical energy. It can be seen that jet engine fuels can only be those substances that, during a chemical reaction in the engine (combustion), release quite a lot of heat and also form a large amount of gases. All these processes occur in the combustion chamber, but let’s focus on the reaction not at the molecular level (this has already been discussed above), but at the “phases” of work. Until combustion has begun, the mixture has a large supply of potential chemical energy. But then the flame engulfed the mixture, another moment - and the chemical reaction was over. Now, instead of molecules of the combustible mixture, the chamber is filled with molecules of combustion products, more densely “packed”. Excess binding energy, which is the chemical energy of the combustion reaction that has taken place, is released. The molecules possessing this excess energy almost instantly transferred it to other molecules and atoms as a result of frequent collisions with them. All molecules and atoms in the combustion chamber began to move randomly, chaotically at a significantly higher speed, and the temperature of the gases increased. This is how the potential chemical energy of the fuel was converted into thermal energy of combustion products.

A similar transition was carried out in all other heat engines, but jet engines are fundamentally different from them with regard to the further fate of the hot combustion products.

After hot gases containing large thermal energy have been generated in a heat engine, this energy must be converted into mechanical energy. After all, engines serve to perform mechanical work, to “move” something, to put it into action, it doesn’t matter whether it’s a dynamo, please add drawings of a power plant, a diesel locomotive, a car or an airplane.

In order for the thermal energy of gases to transform into mechanical energy, their volume must increase. With such expansion, gases perform work, which consumes their internal and thermal energy.

In the case of a piston engine, the expanding gases press on the piston moving inside the cylinder, the piston pushes the connecting rod, which then rotates the crankshaft of the engine. The shaft is connected to the rotor of a dynamo, the driving axles of a diesel locomotive or car, or an airplane propeller - the engine performs useful work. In a steam engine or gas turbine, the gases, expanding, force the wheel connected to the turbine shaft to rotate - here there is no need for a transmission crank mechanism, which is one of the great advantages of the turbine

Gases, of course, also expand in a jet engine, because without this they do not do work. But the expansion work in that case is not spent on shaft rotation. Associated with a drive mechanism, as in other heat engines. The purpose of a jet engine is different - to create jet thrust, and for this it is necessary that a stream of gases - combustion products - flow out of the engine at high speed: the reaction force of this stream is the thrust of the engine. Consequently, the work of expansion of the gaseous products of fuel combustion in the engine must be spent on accelerating the gases themselves. This means that the thermal energy of gases in a jet engine must be converted into their kinetic energy - the random chaotic thermal movement of molecules must be replaced by their organized flow in one direction common to all.

One of the most important parts of the engine, the so-called jet nozzle, serves this purpose. No matter what type this or that jet engine belongs to, it is necessarily equipped with a nozzle through which hot gases - the products of fuel combustion in the engine - flow out of the engine at great speed. In some engines, gases enter the nozzle immediately after the combustion chamber, for example, in rocket or ramjet engines. In others, turbojet engines, the gases first pass through a turbine, to which they give off part of their thermal energy. In this case, it is used to drive the compressor, which compresses the air in front of the combustion chamber. But, one way or another, the nozzle is the last part of the engine - gases flow through it before leaving the engine.

The jet nozzle can have different shapes, and, moreover, different designs depending on the type of engine. The main thing is the speed at which gases flow out of the engine. If this outflow velocity does not exceed the speed with which sound waves propagate in the outflowing gases, then the nozzle is a simple cylindrical or tapered section of pipe. If the outflow speed should exceed the speed of sound, then the nozzle is shaped like an expanding pipe or first narrowing and then expanding (Lavl nozzle). Only in a pipe of this shape, as theory and experience show, can gas be accelerated to supersonic speeds and crossed the “sound barrier.”

Jet engine diagram

The turbofan engine is the most widely used jet engine in civil aviation.

Fuel, entering the engine (1), is mixed with compressed air and burns in the combustion chamber (2). The expanding gases rotate high-speed (3) and low-speed turbines, which, in turn, drive the compressor (5), which pushes air into the combustion chamber, and fans (6), which drive air through this chamber and direct it into the exhaust pipe. By displacing air, fans provide additional thrust. An engine of this type is capable of developing thrust up to 13,600 kg.

Conclusion

The jet engine has many wonderful features, but the main one is this. A rocket does not need earth, water, or air to move, since it moves as a result of interaction with gases formed during the combustion of fuel. Therefore, the rocket can move in airless space.

K. E. Tsiolkovsky is the founder of the theory of space flight. Scientific proof of the possibility of using a rocket for flights into outer space, beyond the Earth's atmosphere and to other planets of the solar system was given for the first time by Russian scientist and inventor Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky

References

Encyclopedic Dictionary of Young Technicians.

Thermal Phenomena in Technology.

Materials from the site http://goldref.ru/;

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Jet engine was invented Hans von Ohain, an outstanding German design engineer and Sir Frank Whittle. The first patent for a working gas turbine engine was obtained in 1930 by Frank Whittle. However, it was Ohain who assembled the first working model.

On August 2, 1939, the first jet aircraft, the He 178 (Heinkel 178), equipped with the HeS 3 engine developed by Ohain, took off into the skies.

Quite simple and at the same time extremely difficult. Simply based on the principle of operation: outside air (in rocket engines- liquid oxygen) is sucked into the turbine, where it mixes with fuel and burns, at the end of the turbine it forms the so-called. “working fluid” (jet stream), which moves the car.

Everything is so simple, but in reality it is a whole area of science, because in such engines operating temperature reaches thousands of degrees Celsius. One of the most important problems of turbojet engine construction is the creation of non-melting parts from melting metals. But in order to understand the problems of designers and inventors, you must first study the fundamental structure of the engine in more detail.

Jet engine design

jet engine main parts

At the beginning of the turbine there is always fan, which sucks air from external environment into turbines. The fan has large area and a huge number of blades special form, made of titanium. There are two main tasks - primary air intake and cooling of the entire engine as a whole, by pumping air between the outer shell of the engine and the internal parts. This cools the mixing and combustion chambers and prevents them from collapsing.

Immediately behind the fan there is a powerful compressor, which forces air under high pressure into the combustion chamber.

Combustion chamber It also acts as a carburetor, mixing fuel with air. After the fuel-air mixture is formed, it is ignited. During the combustion process, significant heating of the mixture and surrounding parts occurs, as well as volumetric expansion. In effect, a jet engine uses a controlled explosion to propel itself.

The combustion chamber of a jet engine is one of its hottest parts - it requires constant intensive cooling. But this is not enough. The temperature in it reaches 2700 degrees, so it is often made of ceramics.

After the combustion chamber, the burning fuel-air mixture is sent directly to the turbine.

Turbine consists of hundreds of blades on which the jet stream presses, causing the turbine to rotate. The turbine, in turn, rotates the shaft on which the fan and compressor “sit”. Thus, the system is closed and requires only a supply of fuel and air for its operation.

After the turbine, the flow is directed to the nozzle. The jet engine nozzle is the last but not the least part of a jet engine. It directly forms the jet stream. Cold air is directed into the nozzle, forced by the fan to cool the internal parts of the engine. This flow restricts the nozzle collar from the super-hot jet stream and causes it to melt.

Deflectable thrust vector

Jet engine nozzles come in a variety of different types. He considers the most advanced to be a movable nozzle mounted on engines with a deflectable thrust vector. It can compress and expand, and also deflect at significant angles, adjusting and directing directly jet stream. This makes aircraft with thrust vectoring engines very maneuverable, because maneuvering occurs not only thanks to the wing mechanisms, but also directly by the engine.

Types of jet engines

There are several main types of jet engines.

Classic F-15 jet engine

Classic jet engine– the fundamental structure of which we described above. Used mainly on fighter aircraft in various modifications.

Turboprop. In this type of engine, the power of the turbine is directed through a reduction gearbox to rotate a classic propeller. Such engines will allow large aircraft to fly at acceptable speeds and consume less fuel. The normal cruising speed of a turboprop aircraft is considered to be 600-800 km/h.

This type of engine is a more economical relative of the classic type. the main difference is that a larger diameter fan is installed at the inlet, which supplies air not only to the turbine, but also creates a fairly powerful flow outside it. In this way, increased efficiency is achieved by improving efficiency.

Used on airliners and large aircraft.

Ramjet engine