TODAY IS OUR ARMY'S DAY! HAPPY HOLIDAY TO YOU, MEN. AND, OF COURSE, THE LADIES WHO ARE INVOLVED!

Because discussing this topic It’s not at all necessary to talk only about the ancient Romans

Maybe just about the history of military art. Because being a soldier and winning is an art

MATERIAL FOR ALL SOLDIERS AND THOSE SIMPLY INTERESTED!

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome- a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

Roman army in different times had different numbers, number of legions, different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a banner made of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Mary, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced into the Roman army new system training, reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleras) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and not to become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, on the site of some Roman camps, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.

The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile being thrown, the ballista throwing the cannonballs, the catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined with each other, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 – Weapons.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. Middle part the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, just like a modern helmet is worn.

Rice. 11 – Pipes.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. For slingers on the right side, across left shoulder, bags for stones were hanging. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

Fig 12 – Centurion.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Rice. 17 – Roman horseman.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

Literature used

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchino

Legion (lat. legio, gender legionis, from legio - collecting, recruiting) - the main organizational unit in the army of Ancient Rome.

The legion consisted of 5-6 thousand, in later periods - up to 8 thousand infantry and several hundred horsemen. Every legion had its own number and name. According to surviving written sources, approximately 50 different legions have been identified, although it is believed that their number in each historical period did not exceed twenty-eight, but this could be increased if necessary.

The legion was headed by a military tribune during the Republic period, and by a legate during the Empire period.

Story

Initially, during the era of the Roman kingdom, the legion was the name given to the entire Roman army, which was a slave-owning militia of about 3 thousand infantry and 300 horsemen from wealthy citizens, gathered only during war or for military training.

It was tribal militia, proportionally formed from the composition main genera (curiae) according to the decimal principle - each gender exhibited 100 infantry - centuries and 10 horsemen - a total of 3300 people , every a militia detachment of 1000 people was commanded by a tribune (from tribe - tribe ).

Legion of Servius Tullius (6th century BC)

The organization of the legion was based on universal conscription for citizens, property qualification and age division - more senior legionaries were in reserves and garrisons, the high command - two military tribunes.

The main tactical formation of a legion is a phalanx of heavily armed infantry, with cavalry on the flanks and light infantry outside the phalanx formation.

The armament of the 1st and 2nd rows consisted of wealthier legionnaires, armed with a sword, spear, darts, dressed in bronze armor, helmet, round shield, greaves; the next 6 rows of the phalanx had lighter weapons.

Legion of the Roman Republic period

IN early period The Roman Republic, the country was led by two consuls, the Roman army - the legion was divided into two separate legions, each of which was subordinate to one of the consuls.

In the early years of the Roman Republic, military operations consisted mainly of armed raids by forces legion.

As the wars waged by the Roman Republic became more frequent and nature of planned combat operations . In the 4th century BC. e. each consul was already subordinate to two legions, and their total number increased to four. If it was necessary to conduct a military campaign, additional legions were recruited.

From 331 BC. e. At the head of each legion stood a military tribune. The internal structure of the legion became more complex, the battle formation was changed from the classical phalanx to manipular, and at the same time the tactics of combat use of the legions were improved.

From the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. The soldiers were given a small salary. The legion began to number 3000 heavy infantry (principles, hastati, triarii), 1200 light infantry (velites) and 300 cavalry men.

Legion organization IV century BC e. — 4200 infantry in 30 maniples - tactical departments 60-120 warriors each , consisting of 2 centuries, consolidated into 10 cohorts , And 300 horsemen in 10 tours.

Legion combat tactics : transition from a phalanx to a manipular formation with a clear division into 3 lines and manipular units in a row with intervals. The combat formation of the legion consisted of 3 lines of 10 maniples each.

Hastati - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 1 row;
Principles - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 2nd row;
Triarii - 600 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 30 people - 3rd row;
Light Infantry - velites, out of formation - 1200 people;
Cavalry on the flanks.
By the beginning of the 2nd Punic War (218 BC-201 BC), the number of infantry was increased to 5000-5200 people by increasing the number of individual centuries.

They were attached to the legion detachments of the allied forces (alas, from allae - wings), located on the flanks under the command of prefects - performing the functions of tribunes of units of the allied forces of the legion. Auxiliary units - auxiliaries, later became part of the army.

Universal conscription led to the ruin of the free peasantry and therefore conscription was abolished, soldiers' salaries were increased, and The Roman army became a professional mercenary army.

IN Republic era The legion included the following units:

Cavalry (horses) . Heavy cavalry was originally the most prestigious branch of the military, where wealthy Roman youth could demonstrate their valor and skill, thereby laying the foundations for their future political career. The cavalryman himself bought weapons and equipment e - round shield, helmet, armor, sword and spears. The legion numbered approximately 300 cavalrymen, divided into curios - divisions 30 people each under the command of a decurion . In addition to the heavy cavalry, there was also light cavalry , which was recruited from poor citizens and young rich citizens who were not old enough to become hastati or horsemen.

Light infantry (velites). Velites, armed with javelins and swords, did not strictly specific place and assignments in order of battle. They were used where there was a need.

Heavy infantry . The main combat unit of the legion. It consisted of citizen legionnaires who could afford to purchase equipment, which included a bronze helmet, shield, armor and a short suit. spear - dart - pilum, Gladius is a short sword. Before reforms Gaius Marius, who abolished the division of infantry into classes, which turned legions into a professional army, heavy infantry was subdivided , in accordance with the combat experience of legionnaires into three lines of battle formation :

Hastati (hastatus) - the youngest - 1st row
Principles - warriors in their prime (25-35 years old) - 2nd row
Triarii (triarius) - veterans - in the last row; in battle they were used only in the most desperate situations.
Each of the three lines was divided into tactical units - maniples of 60-120 warriors, making up 2 centuries under the command of the senior of two centurions (centurion II rank). Nominally, the century consisted of 100 warriors, but in reality it could number up to 60 people, especially in the triarii maniples.

In battle, maniples were usually located in a checkerboard pattern - quincunx. The maniples of the principles covered the gap between the hastati, and those were covered by the maniples of the triarii.

Late Republic Legion

Organization of the legion after the reform of Gaius Marius - cohorts replace maniples as the main tactical unit of the legion. The cohort consists of 6 centuries. There were also specialized cohorts, such as firefighters.

The legion consisted of approximately 4,800 legionnaires and a significant number of support staff, servants and slaves. A legion could consist of up to 6,000 warriors, although at times their number was reduced to 1,000 in order to deprive wayward commanders of support. The legions of Julius Caesar numbered approximately 3300 - 3600 people.

Each legion was assigned auxiliary troops of almost the same size - this included numerous specialists - sappers, scouts, doctors, standard bearers, secretaries, personnel of throwing weapons and siege towers, various service units and units of non-citizens - light cavalry, light infantry, weapons workshop workers. They were granted Roman citizenship upon dismissal from military service.

Political role of the legions

During the era of the late Roman Republic and Empire, legions began to play a serious political role. It is no coincidence that Augustus, after the severe defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), cried out, clutching his head, - "Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions". Legions are a military force that ensures the future emperor seizes and maintains power in Rome - or, conversely, a force capable of depriving him of power. In an attempt to mitigate the possible threat of exploitation military power legions pretenders to power in Rome, provincial governors were forbidden to leave their province along with the troops under their command. Julius Caesar crossed into 42 BC e. border river Rubicon (lat. Rubicō, Italian. Rubicone), speaking from the province of Cisalpine Gaul (now northern Italy) and brought his troops to Italy, this caused a crisis in Rome.

The legions also played a huge role in the Romanization of the “barbarian” (non-Roman) population. The Roman legions were stationed on the borders of the Empire, and attracted traders from the center and thus occurred cultural exchange between the Roman world and the “barbarians” - neighboring peoples.

Imperial Legions

Under Emperor Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD), who served as consul 13 times, the number of legions, which had greatly increased during the civil wars, was reduced and at the end of his reign amounted to 25 legions.

The transition during the imperial era to the creation of more permanent legions was caused mainly by internal reasons- the desire to provide the loyalty of the legions to the emperor, and not to the military leaders. The names of the legions came from the names of the provinces in which they were created - Italic, Macedonian.

The legion began to be led by a legate (lat. legatus) - usually this was a senator for about thirty years, holding this position for three years. They were directly subordinate to him six military tribunes - five staff officers and the sixth - a candidate for senator.

Legion officers
Senior officers

Legate of the Legion (lat. Legatus Legionis) - Commander of the legion. The emperor usually appointed a former tribune for three to four years ah, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where one legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor of the province. Where there were several legions, each had its own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribune Laticlavius ​​(Tribunus Laticlavius) - this tribune was appointed to the legion by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and had less experience than the five military tribunes (Latin Tribuni Angusticlavii), nevertheless, his position was the second most senior in the legion, immediately after the legate. The job title comes from the word "laticlava" - meaning two wide purple stripes on the tunic , due to officials of senatorial rank.

Camp Prefect (lat. Praefectus Castrorum) - the third most senior post in the legion. It was usually occupied by a promoted veteran soldier who had previously held the post of one of the centurions.

Tribunes of Angustiklavii (lat. Tribuni Angusticlavii) - each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian class. Most often, these were professional military men who held high administrative positions in the legion, and during hostilities they could command the legion. They were supposed to tunics with narrow purple stripes (lat. angusticlava).

Primipil (lat. Primus Pilus) - the highest-ranking centurion of the legion, standing at the head of the first double century. In the first and second centuries AD, upon discharge from military service Primipil was included in the class of horsemen and could achieve a high equestrian position. The name literally means "first rank" . Due to the similarity of the words pilus - line, and pilum - "pilum, throwing spear", the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear".

Average officers

Centurions . In every the legion had 59 centurions, each of whom commanded a century. Centurions were the backbone of the professional Roman army. These were professional warriors who lived everyday life their subordinate soldiers, and during the battle they commanded them. Usually this post was received veteran soldiers , however, one could become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or another high-ranking official. The cohorts were numbered from the first to the tenth, and the centuries within the cohorts were numbered from the first to the sixth. Moreover, in the first cohort there were only five centuries, but the first century was double - thus, there were 58 centurions and primipiles in the legion. The number of the century commanded by each centurion directly reflected his position in the legion, that is the highest position was occupied by the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest - centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".

Junior officers

Standard bearer (lat. Aquilifer) . An extremely important and prestigious post ( Aquilifer - "carrying an eagle"). The loss of the banner (“eagle”) was considered a terrible dishonor. The next step up the ranks is becoming a centurion.

Standard bearer (lat. Signifer). Each century had a treasurer who was responsible for paying the soldiers' salaries and safeguarding their savings. He was carrying combat badge of a century (Signum) - a spear shaft decorated with medallions. At the top of the shaft there was often an image of an open palms - a sign of oath, given by the soldiers.

Option (lat. Optio) . Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle if he was wounded. He was chosen as a centurion from among his soldiers.
Tesserary (lat. Tesserarius). Assistant option. His duties included organizing guards and transmitting passwords.
Bugler (lat. Cornicen). He was next to the standard bearer, giving commands to assemble to the battle badge and transmitting the commander’s orders to the soldiers with bugle signals.
Imaginifer- carried a standard with the image of the emperor, which served as a constant reminder of the army’s loyalty to the emperor.
Standard bearer (lat. Vexillarius). Carried the standard of a certain infantry or cavalry unit of the Roman troops.

Reforms of Octavian Augustus

The legate of the legion is the only commander, the first cohort has double the number of people, and the post of camp prefect is introduced.

Military service was permitted for provincial residents, but command positions were only for Roman citizens.

Military service in auxiliary units gives citizenship to immigrants and increases their salaries.

Leggings are no longer used in army weapons! In the 1st century AD Segmented armor appears in the German legions. During Trajan's Dacian campaign, foot soldiers are used bracers.

Hadrian's reforms

Organization: increasing the powers of the tribunes, reducing the powers of the centurions.

Formation: legions are formed in places of permanent deployment.

Armament: Cavalry equipment is being improved.

Reforms of Septimius Severus

Organization: the camp prefect becomes the prefect of the legion and takes on part of its powers.

Formation: Non-citizens are allowed to hold command positions.

Weapon: the long sword of the spatha is replacing the traditional gladius, which indirectly indicates a change in the nature of combat formations, because with a long sword it is easier to fight in a less dense formation than with a gladius, which is openly adapted for a dense formation.

Gallienus' reforms

Organization: senators are prohibited from holding military positions (while prefects from among the equestrians finally replace legates at the head of the legions), the posts of military tribunes are abolished.

Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine

Legionnaire from the northern provinces of the Roman Empire, 3rd century. (modern reconstruction) Constantine divided the army into two parts - relatively light border troops and heavy soldiers of the field army (the former were supposed to restrain the enemy, and the latter to destroy him)

Organization: transition to recruiting border legions from barbarians, division of the legions - a maximum of 1000 people with a tribune at the head, a significant part of the army serves within the country, cavalry is no longer assigned to the legions.

From the 3rd century AD e. the fighting qualities of the legions are gradually declining due to the barbarization of the army, in addition, cavalry is beginning to play an increasingly important role.

The legions (now largely composed of Germans) were formed into columns, switched to the spear instead of the javelin and sword, and their armor was significantly lightened. At the end of the Western Roman Empire, they gave way to mercenary barbarian units, but the last legion was disbanded already in the Byzantine Empire.

Legions in new history

The name "legion" was used in the 16th-20th centuries. for military units of irregular strength, usually volunteer. The French Foreign Legion is especially famous.

Regular army of Ancient Rome

The ancient Roman army (Latin exercitus, formerly classis) is the regular army of Ancient Rome, one of the main elements of Roman society and state, a decisive factor in the formation of the power of the ancient Roman state.

During the heyday of Ancient Rome, the total number of the army was usually up to 100 thousand people, but could increase to 250-300 thousand people. and more. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, an experienced and well-trained command staff, and was distinguished by strict discipline and high military skill of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

Infantry - the main branch of the army of Ancient Rome

The main branch of the army was infantry. The fleet provided action ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, the establishment of field camps, the ability to make rapid transitions over long distances, and the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

The main unit of the army of Ancient Rome is the legion

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was the legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniples (infantry) and 10 turmas (cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - of 30 maniples (each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turmas. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical division of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 BC. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts (each of which united three maniples). The legion also included battering and throwing machines and a convoy. In the 1st century AD e. The legion's strength reached approx. 7 thousand people (including about 800 horsemen).

Organizational structure of the army of Ancient Rome

In almost all periods there existed simultaneously:
contubernium - 8-10 people;
century - 80-100 people;
manipula - 120-200 people;
cohort - approx. 960 people in the first and 480 in the others.

The concept signum meant either maniples or centuries.
Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and als (in the Late Empire they were replaced by wedges - cunei). The irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical composition, as they corresponded to the traditional preferences of the peoples who composed them, for example the mauri (Moors). Vexillations were the name given to individual units that were separated from a unit, such as a legion. So the vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Armament

Under Servius Tullius:
1st class: offensive - gladius, hasta and darts (tela), defensive - helmet (galea), armor (lorica), bronze shield (clipeus) and leggings (ocrea);
2nd class - the same, without a shell and scutum instead of clipeus;
3rd class - the same, without leggings;
4th class - hasta and pica (verutum).
After Scipio's reform:
offensive - Spanish sword (gladius hispaniensis)
After the reform, Maria:
offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
protective - iron chain mail (lorica hamata).
Under Augustus:
offensive - dagger (pugio).
At the beginning of the Empire:
protective - Carapace of Lorica Segmentata, segmented Lorica late lamellar armor made of individual steel segments. Comes into use starting from the 1st century. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the weapons of the crupellarian gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Florus Sacrovir in Germany (21). Also during this period, chain mail (lorica hamata) appeared --83.234.14.245 03:32, January 25, 2013 (UTC ) with double chain mail covering on the shoulders, especially popular among cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units.

From the middle of the 1st century:
offensive - “Pompeian” sword, weighted pilums.
Starting from Severov:
protective - scale armor (lorica squamata)

Uniform

In the I-II centuries:
paenula (short dark woolen cloak with a hood).
From the 3rd century:
tunic with long sleeves, sagum - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military one.

Build

Manipulative tactics

It is almost generally accepted that during the period of their dominance the Etruscans introduced the phalanx to the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and formed a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in descriptions of battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the former was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.
Around the Latin War or earlier, the Romans began to adopt manipulative tactics. According to Livy and Polybius, it was carried out in a three-line formation with intervals (hastati, principles and triarii in the rear reserve), and the maniples of the principles stood against the intervals between the maniples of the hastati.

The legions were positioned next to each other, although in some battles of the Second Punic War they stood one behind the other.
To fill the too widened intervals when moving over rough terrain, a second line served, individual detachments of which could move into the first line, and if this was not enough, a third line was used. In a collision with the enemy, the small remaining intervals were filled in by themselves, due to the freer arrangement of the soldiers for ease of use of weapons. The Romans began using second and third lines to bypass enemy flanks at the end of the Second Punic War.

The opinion that the Romans threw pilums when attacking, after which they switched to swords and changed lines of battle during the battle, was refuted by Delbrück, who showed that changing lines during close combat with swords was impossible. This was explained by the fact that for a quick and organized retreat of the hastati behind the principles, maniples must be placed at intervals equal to the width of the front of an individual maniple. At the same time, enter into hand-to-hand combat with such intervals in the line it would be extremely dangerous, since this would allow the enemy to envelop the hastati maniples from the flanks, which would lead to the rapid defeat of the first line. According to Delbrück, in reality there was no change of lines in battle - the intervals between maniples were small and served only to facilitate maneuvering. However, most of the infantry was intended only to plug gaps in the first line. Later, relying in particular on Caesar’s “Notes on the Gallic War,” the opposite was again proven, although it was recognized that it was not coordinated maneuvers of orderly units.
On the other hand, even the hastati maniple, surrounded on all sides, could not be quickly destroyed, and kept the enemy in place, simply surrounding itself with shields on all sides (the huge shield of the legionnaires, absolutely unsuitable for individual combat, reliably protected it in the ranks and the legionnaire was vulnerable only for piercing blows from above, or for a retaliatory blow), and the enemy who penetrated through the gaps could simply be bombarded with darts (tela) of the principles (which were apparently attached to the inside of the shield in the amount of seven pieces), independently climbing into the fire bag and not having no protection from flanking fire. The change of lines could represent a retreat of the hastati during a throwing battle, or a simple advance of the principles forward, with the hastati remaining in place. But a breakthrough of a continuous front with subsequent confusion and massacre of defenseless heavy infantry (English)Russian, who had lost formation, was much more dangerous and could lead to a general flight (the encircled maniple simply had nowhere to run).

Cohort tactics

Since about the 80s. BC e. cohort tactics began to be used. The reason for the introduction of the new formation was the need to effectively withstand the massive frontal onslaught used by the alliance of Celto-Germanic tribes. The new tactics supposedly found their first application in the Allied War 91? 88 BC e. By the time of Caesar, cohort tactics were already generally accepted.
The cohorts themselves were built in a checkerboard pattern (quincunx), and on the battlefield they could be used in particular:
triplex acies - 3 lines of four cohorts in the 1st and three in the 2nd and 3rd at a distance of 150-200 feet (45-65 meters) from each other;
duplex acies - 2 lines of 5 cohorts each;
simplex acies - 1 line of 10 cohorts.

Quincunx

3 cohorts of 360 people each. in undeployed formation with intervals
On the march, usually in enemy territory, they were built in four parallel columns in order to make it easier to change into triplex acies at an alarm signal, or they formed a so-called orbis (“circle”), which facilitated retreat under intense fire.
Under Caesar, each legion placed 4 cohorts in the first line, and 3 in the second and third. When the cohorts stood in close formation, the distance separating one cohort from another was equal to the length of the cohort along the front. This gap was destroyed as soon as the ranks of the cohort deployed for battle. Then the cohort stretched along the front almost twice as much as the usual formation.
Cohort interactions, due to the larger size of an individual detachment and ease of maneuvering, did not place such high demands on the individual training of each legionnaire.

Evocati

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but re-enlisted in the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, the consul, were called evocati - lit. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class who guarded his sleeping quarters; presumably, a similar guard retained its name under some subsequent emperors, cf. evocati Augusti in Hyginus). Usually they were included in almost every unit, and, apparently, if the military leader was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with the vexillaria, the evocati were exempt from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc. and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared to horsemen or even candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his former evocati to centurions after the end of the civil war, but collectively all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. The entire contingent of evocati was usually commanded by a separate prefect (praefectus evocatorum).

Legion (Ancient Rome)

Roman legionnaires (modern reconstruction)

The legion consisted of 5-6 thousand (in later periods - up to 8 thousand) infantry and several hundred horsemen. Each legion had its own number and name. According to surviving written sources, approximately 50 different legions have been identified, although it is believed that their number in each historical period did not exceed twenty-eight, but this could be increased if necessary.

The legion was headed by a military tribune during the Republic period, and by a legate during the Empire period.

Roman legionary (modern reconstruction)

Legionnaire on the march. Reconstruction. Legionnaire in full armor; the helmet hangs on a special hook attached to the shell. On a stick (furca) the legionnaire carries luggage consisting of a chest, a net for provisions, a pot with a spoon and a water bottle. In case of alarm, the luggage could be abandoned instantly.

Story

Originally (during the Roman era) legion was the name of the entire Roman army, which was a slave-owning militia of about 3 thousand infantry and 300 horsemen from wealthy citizens who gathered only during war or for military training.

Tactics: basic phalanx formation with cavalry on the flanks and light infantry out of formation

Armament: 1st and 2nd rows - the most wealthy - bronze armor, helmet, round shield, leggings, sword, spear, dart, subsequent rows (6 in total) have increasingly lighter weapons.

Republic Period Legion

At a certain period of time (possibly in the early period of the Roman Republic, which was led by two consuls), the legion (Roman army) was divided into two separate legions, each of which was subordinate to one of the consuls.

In the early years of the Roman Republic, military operations consisted mainly of armed raids, and therefore it is unknown whether the full scale of military operations was used in the course of military operations. combat power legion.

The wars waged by the Roman Republic became more and more frequent and took on the character of planned military operations. In the 4th century BC. e. Each consul was already subordinate to two legions, and their total number increased to four. If it was necessary to conduct a military campaign, additional legions were recruited.

From 331 BC e. At the head of each legion stood a military tribune. The internal structure of the legion became more complex, the battle formation was changed from the classical phalanx to manipular, and at the same time the tactics of combat use of the legions were improved.

From the beginning of the 4th century BC. e. The soldiers were given a small salary. The legion began to consist of 3,000 heavy infantry (principes, hastati, triarii), 1,200 light infantry (velites) and 300 cavalry.

Organization: initially 4200 infantry in 30 tactical units - maniples (60-120 soldiers each, consisting of 2 centuries), consolidated into 10 cohorts, and 300 horsemen in 10 turmas.

Tactics: transition from phalanx to manipular formation (clear division into 3 lines and manipular units in a row with intervals). The combat formation of the legion consisted of 3 lines of 10 maniples each.

• hastati - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 1 row;
• principles - 1200 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 60 people - 2nd row;
• triarii - 600 people = 10 maniples = 20 centuries of 30 people - 3rd row;
• light infantry - velites, out of formation (1200 people);
• cavalry on the flanks.

The legions (now largely composed of Germans) were formed into columns, switched to the spear instead of the javelin and sword, and their armor was significantly lightened. At the end of the Western Roman Empire, they gave way to mercenary barbarian units, but the last legion was disbanded already in the Byzantine Empire.

Legions in new history

Name " legion"used in the 16th century. for military units of irregular strength, usually volunteer. Particularly famous

At the very beginning of the Roman state, the entire army was called a legion. It included all “arms of the armed forces.” The principle of uniting different types of troops in a legion was preserved in the future, when with the growth of the power of Rome the number of legions increased many times over. Each legion continued to be an army in miniature and consisted of heavily armed infantry, a detachment of horsemen and "artillery" (throwing machines), allowing it to carry out a wide variety of military tasks.

After the reform of Maria, the smallest division of the legion became the century (centuria - one hundred). It was divided into 10 sections of 8 people. Every two centuries (160 people) were united into a maniple, and 3 maniples formed a cohort (480 people).

The role of the maniples, which before the reform of Marius were the core of the combat order of the legion, passes to larger units - cohorts, and the division of the cohort into maniples becomes more and more formal. Centuries become the basis of the administrative and economic structure of the cohort.

From the second half of the 1st century. n. e. the first cohort of each legion was strengthened to approximately 800 men and reorganized into five centuries. Thus, the number of I) infantry cohorts forming the legion fluctuated at different times from 5,500 to 6,000 people.

In the second half of the 2nd century. BC e. cavalry detachments within the legions were abolished, but already under Augustus they were restored and existed until the end of the reign of Vespasian (79). The legionary cavalry then disappeared and only reappeared under Hadrian (117–138). This does not mean that cavalry disappeared from time to time as a branch of the Roman army, but during these periods it was not directly part of the legions.

A fully equipped legion would have a detachment of 120 cavalry (equites legionis - horsemen of the legion), divided into four turmae. Each turma consisted of three decuriae (decuriae), headed by three foremen (decuriones), one of whom commanded the entire turma. It is not known exactly whether these cavalrymen were a separate unit within the legion or were distributed among infantry centuries.

The range of tasks performed by the legion's cavalry included: observation of the enemy, reconnaissance of terrain and roads. They were also used as messengers or messengers. Their combat use was very modest. They did not play a decisive role in battles; this role always belonged to the Roman heavily armed infantry - legionnaires.

Each legion had its own "artillery", usually consisting of one balliste (balliste) per cohort and one "scorpio" (scorpio) per century. Total quantity There were hardly more than 60 throwing machines per legion.

The concepts of “corporateness” and “unit honor” for the legionnaire were expressed in the banner of the legion. The eagle, without exaggeration, was considered the sacred symbol of the legion. They were also considered sacred serial number and the name of the legion. The name could be reminiscent of the first enemy of the newly formed legion. For example, Parthica is a legion originally created for the war against Parthia. The name could reflect the glorious past of the legion (Macedonica. Scythica, Gallica), which testified to the victorious campaigns in Macedonia and Scythia. Gaul. Warlike nicknames were also included in the name (Victrix - victorious. Fort is - brave). Similar names and nicknames could be given to legions for valor in battle or devotion to the emperor, but legions could lose these distinctions for misconduct. Legions have had their own number since the time of Julius Caesar (legio prima, decima - first, tenth, etc.... the soldiers belonging to them were called primani, decimani, etc., respectively). After Vespasian, emperors sometimes gave new legions numbers I to III. This practice led to the fact that several legions at the same time had the same number (differing only in names).

Legion Command

The legion was commanded by a legate. Under his command were all the centurions, including the senior one (primus pilus), as well as the camp prefect (praefecti castrorum), who was responsible for organizing the troops, convoys, transporting food, forage, etc., whose functions can be compared to a modern quartermaster. The highest command of the legion included military tribunes (tribuni militares).

There were 6 military tribunes for each legion. They could be appointed by the emperor and provincial governors. Since the time of Julius Caesar, military tribunes have usually been entrusted with the command of units less significant than the legion. The military tribunes were mainly young people belonging to the equestrian class. The senior of them in rank, but not always in age, tribunus laticlavius, occupied second place in the hierarchy of officers of the legion after the legate. Tribuni laticlavii came from senatorial families. Since they were not old enough to participate in Senate meetings (the minimum age for a senator was 25 years), they were temporarily sent to serve their fatherland. Of course, they did not have the slightest military experience and usually very quickly exchanged the sword for the toga, giving preference to political activity. Ten years later the former tribunus laticlavius. having acquired the favor of the emperor, he could return to the troops, but as a commander of the legion.

Hierarchy of legion centurions

The careers of the five other tribunes (angusticlavii) were subject to different laws. Before appointment, they could occupy the positions of city magistrate employees (minimum age 25 or 30 years). The older ones, as a rule, already had some military experience. From the middle of the 2nd century. The practice of appointing these tribunes as prefects of auxiliary infantry cohorts spread. The best of them were appointed by the emperor as commanders of reinforced auxiliary infantry and mixed (from different types of troops) cohorts. While in the legion, the tribunes were in charge of administrative affairs and monitored the implementation of the daily routine.

The direct commanders of the soldiers were centurions. Like privates, they served for 26 years, or even more.

The appointment of centurions was also the prerogative of provincial governors, although they generally did not make such appointments without the approval of the legion commander and tribunes. In addition, a soldier of the Praetorian Guard who had served his term could also become a centurion in an ordinary legion.

Each legion had 59 centurions. The commander of the leading centuria prior of the first cohort commanded at the same time the entire maniple and was called centurio prior. The remaining centurions commanded ordinary centuries, which retained the traditional (from the time before the reform of Maria) titles and the corresponding hierarchy. The first two centuries in terms of seniority in each (from II to X) cohort were called: pilus prior and pilus posterior, then came princeps prior, princeps posterior, hastatus prior, hastatus posterior. The cohort number was indicated before each of these names, for example decimus hastatus posterior (posterior centurion of hastati of the tenth cohort). The seniority of the century also determined the status of the centurion who commanded it. Before the reform of Marius, each legion had three categories of heavily armed warriors - principles (principes), hastati (hastati) and triarii (triarii). The first two categories (principes and hastati) consisted of young warriors of “blooming age” and occupied the first two lines in battle order. The third category (triarii) included veterans and were built in the third line, in reserve. There was a saying: “It has come to the triarii,” and this meant that the situation was critical. After the reform of Marius, the differences between the categories of heavily armed warriors in the legion disappeared, but the names remained.

The first ten centurions, commanding the five centuries of the double composition of the first cohort, were called primi ordines and had the right to participate in the council of war. They also had their differences. Above all stood the senior centurion, called centurio primi pili prior or primus pilus (primipilus). The youngest was decimus hastatus posterior - a centurion of the posterior centurion of the hastati of the tenth cohort.

Not all centurions reached the rank of senior centurion (primus pilus). To do this, you needed to have some education, administrative abilities and, of course, courage. The minimum age for the position of primus pilus was usually 50 years. How many valiant veterans, having served for 40 years as soldiers and ordinary centurions, may never have reached this coveted position. The point is not only that retirement provided senior centurions with a large pension and an honorary title - primipilaris. The main thing was that they belonged to the military elite.

Other positions

Below the centurions on the legion's career ladder there were about a hundred more positions. They differed in pay and number of privileges, the first and most important of which was exemption from the daily onerous duties of a simple legionnaire. This right is reflected in their common name- immunis (exempt from official duties). They received one and a half or double pay, occupied administrative and economic posts at the centuries, at the headquarters of the legion, and worked in workshops and hospitals.

Centuria had its own standard bearer (signifer), whose duties included taking care of the unit's badge, as well as the salaries and savings of the legionnaires. One step below was the assistant centurion (optio), who, if necessary, replaced the centurion. Its main function was to train soldiers. Optio and signifer had double salary. The third junior officer (with one and a half pay) was the tesserarius, whose duties were to organize guards and transmit passwords (tessera or signum).

Since the Roman army suffered from the bureaucracy inherent throughout the empire, the positions of senior officers over the offices and clerks played a fairly prominent role in army life. The legion produced a lot of papers: annual reports to Rome, instructions to commanders, lists officials, personal files indicating salaries, stored savings, vacations, results of medical checks of recruits, daily reports on the legion and many other documents. The staff of the offices included accountants (librarii).

The legions had many specialist craftsmen in their ranks. Among them were bakers, carpenters, blacksmiths, gunsmiths, etc. Starting from the 2nd century. these people often had their own “business”, to which they devoted all their time, avoiding the usual soldier’s duties.

The legion was also accompanied by a mass of traders, stonemasons, and carpenters. Almost every servant of the legion's fighting vehicles also had a name for his specialty, and therefore a position that was distinguished by a slightly increased pay. The legion also had builders (the eldest above them was called architectus) and, finally, doctors and veterinarians.