Mixed forest zone. Natural area of mixed and deciduous forests

Continue to formulate the concept of a natural-economic zone. Explore the features of the zone mixed forests. Compare the characteristics of the components of mixed and coniferous forests. Today in the lesson we will try to reveal some of the secrets and mysteries of this amazing creature. In previous lessons, we began to get acquainted with this natural complex. We met the taiga.

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Geography lesson in 8th grade (38)

Topic: Zone of mixed deciduous-coniferous forests

Geography teacher Bakuradze L.A.

Date of: 29.01.2013

Lesson objectives: continue to formulate the concept of a natural economic zone;

Study the features of the mixed forest zone;

Compare the characteristics of the components of mixed and coniferous forests;

Lesson equipment : Map “Natural zones of Russia”, landscape of Shishkin, painting of a forest, projector, screen, audio equipment, atlases, 8th grade textbook

It’s high time to give him the praise that this dear grandfather, an old friend of our childhood, a warrior who fought to the death and a reliable supplier of raw materials, a breadwinner of rivers and a guardian of harvests, deserves.

L. Leonov

What do you think this is about?

(About the forest) Hello, forest, dense forest,

full of fairy tales and miracles!

What are you making noise about?

on a dark, stormy night,

what do you whisper to us at dawn

all in dew, like in silver?

Who is hiding in your wilderness?

What kind of animal? What bird?

Open everything, don’t hide it!

You see, we are our own.

S. Pogorelovsky

Today in our lesson we will try to reveal some of the secrets and mysteries of this amazing creature. In previous lessons, we began to get acquainted with this natural complex. We met the taiga.

Frontal conversation:

Can Russia be called a country of forests? (Yes, because forests occupy 6.3 million km 2 - this is 45% of the country, 25% of all forests on the planet) forest border - name it!

What types of forests are there? (work with the diagram at the board)

What is the importance of forests in nature?

natural filter – protection against dust

source of O 2 = absorbs CO 2

soil-protective and anti-erosion role

improves the climate of the ground layer of air

water protection role

increases the yield of agricultural crops

Check the diagram on the board.

Coniferous forests occupy 80% of the forest area. What are they called differently? (taiga)

“Whoever has been among a typical taiga, for example, in a dense fir-spruce forest, has, of course, experienced a special feeling caused by its gloomy and majestic picture, enhanced by the peculiar roar of the wind sliding between dense needles... But the impression is stronger for those who knows that, penetrating into such a taiga, for example, from a birch forest, he moves from a contemporary situation to a situation already in those distant times when its current powerful ruler, man, was not yet on earth.”

(Krylov – “Flora” Western Siberia»)

The forest is like a painted tower,

Lilac, gold, crimson,

A cheerful, motley wall

Standing above a bright clearing.

Birch trees with yellow carving

Glisten in the blue azure,

Like towers, the fir trees are darkening,

And between the maples they turn blue

Here and there through the foliage

Clearances in the sky, like a window.

The forest smells of oak and pine,

Over the summer it dried out from the sun,

And autumn is a quiet widow

Enters his motley mansion.

What forest have you just heard a description of?

This is a mixed forest. It accounts for 20% of Russia's forests, of which 8% are deciduous forests.

In the last lesson we talked about coniferous forests, and today we will get acquainted with mixed forests, the characteristics of their distribution, relief, climate, inland waters, vegetation and animals. Let's see what types economic activity you can study here.

The results will be entered into a table (see below).

Coniferous forests (Taiga)	Mixed forests
1. Solid stripe. Occupies a large area.	1. Does not have a continuous distribution.
2. Moraine relief, no terraces above the floodplain.	2. Diverse relief: moraine relief, gently sloping basins, above-floodplain terraces
3. Harsh climatic conditions	3. Favorable climatic conditions.
4. Rich in surface and groundwater. Swamping. Permafrost. S.	4. Rich in surface and groundwater. Less swampy. There is no permafrost.
5. Podzolic soils + permafrost-taiga soils.	5. Soddy-podzolic gray forest soils.
6. Coniferous trees.	6. Deciduous + coniferous species.
7. 90 species of mammals. Fur-bearing animals (sable, mink, marten, squirrel, otter). Seed-eating birds. Focal settlement	7. Fur-bearing animals (fox, squirrel, marten, raccoon dog, ermine, forest polecat). Many seed-eating birds. Severely exterminated by humans.
8. Forestry. Breeding dairy and meat and dairy cattle. South – agriculture (rye, barley, flax, potatoes, vegetables, forage grasses).	8. Dense network of urban and rural settlements. Selective agricultural development (rye, barley, wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, forage grasses, berries). Meat and dairy farming and pig farming, poultry farming, beekeeping. Suburban agricultural type. The forestry industry is less developed.

Frontal conversation

Prolonged cold and impregnated with resin
b) Tall cylindrical trunks withstand snow.

Practical work

Using climate map Russia in the atlas, determine:

average t January

average t July

Conclude what determines the spread of forests to the east. Present the result in a table

Settlements	t January	t July
			July temperatures with amazing constancy remain within 17-19°C, January temperatures are steadily falling from -10°C (Moscow) to -15°C (Ekaterinburg). From this we can conclude that the narrowing of the zone of mixed forests to the east is associated not with summer temperatures, which are almost unchanged, but with winter temperatures. For this type of vegetation, -15°C turns out to be the limit.

Ekaterinburg

Appreciate the richness of the surface waters of the taiga. Mixed forests are also rich in surface water. Less swampy (Meshchera) No permafrost. The forest regulates the water regime of rivers. How?
(The soil of forests retains moisture well, so surface runoff is very insignificant; almost all rain and melt moisture, especially in spring, goes into the soil. The soils are heavily washed out.)
- Do you think this contributes to soil fertility? (No, because nutrients washed out of the soil)
- How did plants adapt to this? (Long roots + symbiosis with fungi, which absorb minerals from the soil.)

Name the forest soils.
- Why are the soils of mixed forests and broad-deciduous forests more fertile? (Because leaf decline appears, a lot of humus rots, and less nutrients are washed out.)

What are the features of vegetation
- Characteristics of coniferous and deciduous species.
Question on the card: How can larch survive in very low temperatures?
- (They talk about the taiga at the blackboard.)

Crossword solution

Horizontally:

1. It is covered with dark bark, 2. The houses are tall,

The leaf is beautiful, cut out. Countless floors

And at the tips of the branches there are prickly spiers

Lots and lots of acorns. Under the flying clouds.

(Oak) (Spruce)

3.What kind of girl is this - 4.Grows in the spring,

Not a seamstress, not a craftswoman, Blooms in summer,

She doesn’t sew anything herself, she falls off in the fall,

And in needles for a whole year. And the flower is honey,

(Pine) Treats the flu,

Coughing and wheezing.

Vertically:

5. The beauty is standing - 6. Although I’m dressed well

Winter braids, white dress, always gives me chills

The bark is flammable, both in spring and hot summer

The branches are weeping, the seed is flying. I'm shaking all over, like I'm in the cold

(Birch) (Aspen)

7.In the fall, as soon as the whistle blows

Unsteady wind-raincoat,

It has green leaves

They will turn red at the same moment.

Layering of forests. The role of individual tiers in nature.

The Parable of the Bushes and Trees

In Germany, a forester decided to restore order in the forest. He reasoned that the forest is trees. This means that everything in the forest is superfluous except the trees. Bushes and grass are superfluous: after all, their roots suck water from the ground and take it away from the trees. Fallen leaves, windbreaks, dead wood are unnecessary: after all, they litter the forest and prevent it from growing. By order of the forester, they began to clean and tidy up the forest. They burned all the leaves and cut down the bushes. The forest became clean and spacious. There is not a speck on the ground. The chief forester walks around and admires it. Now, he thinks there is order in the forest.

A year passed, a second, a third, and the forester began to notice that something was wrong in the forest. The tops of the pines have thinned. The foliage on oaks and lindens is sparse. Everywhere you look there are tall, bare trees. Autumn is far away, and the ground is all covered with yellow leaves, the chief forester thought: “What happened? Why did the trees in the forest begin to dry out? What do you think happened? (Bushes are a home for birds, there are no bushes, there are no birds, there are a lot of pests that destroy the forest).

7. The slides show photographs of animals. It is necessary to determine what unites them (fox, wolf, squirrel, hare, hedgehog, bear, wild boar, woodpecker). These animals live in the forest zone. Characteristics of animals in the table (see below).

Types of economic activities.

“The forest played a major role in our history. It was the centuries-old setting of Russian life: until the second halfXVIII The life of the majority of the Russian people took place in the forest belt of our plain. The forest provided Russian people with various services - economic, political and even moral. “The forest serves as the most reliable refuge from external enemies, replacing mountains and castles for Russian people.”

V.O. Klyuchevsky.

Work in micro groups.

Students are offered riddles in which forest resources are encrypted:

1 group In a small pot, the porridge is sweet. (Nut)

Little man, bone coat. (Nut)

2nd group

I go into the forest empty - empty, and out of the forest - dense - dense. (Basket with berries)

Little dark, little, sweet, cute to the guys. (Blueberry)

3 group

A man went into a pine forest, found a slug, it would be a pity to leave it, eat it raw

(Mushroom - milk mushroom)

Who has one leg, and even then without a shoe. (Mushroom)

4 group

I was walking through the forest

I found a tree

From this tree

Four cases come out:

The first thing is to give light to the blind;

The second thing is to amuse the naked;

The third thing is to help the squeaky one;

The fourth thing is to make the sick person feel better. (Birch, splinter, broom, birch bark, sap)

5 group

He goes into the forest and looks home; goes home - looks into the forest. (Axe in belt)

6 group

All the gentlemen took off their caftans, one gentleman did not take off his caftan (Foliage and pine needles).

Each group characterizes the role and significance of forests in human life.

Wood resource use table.

Crown	Pine-vitamin flour, medicinal substances
Bitch	Chips for the production of cardboard and wood boards
Bark	Tannins, building block fillers
Trunk	Lumber, sleepers, fastenings for mines, supports for communication and power lines. cellulose. paper, ethyl alcohol, furniture, plywood, feed yeast, buildings, matches, pencils, skis, musical instruments.
Stump and roots	Rosin, turpentine, camphor, furfural.

Forest chemistry is studied in 10th grade - chemistry.

A tree accompanies a person throughout his life. The hut, utensils, furniture are all made of wood, the spinning wheel, shelf, and dishes are made of wood.

During the long winter months, peasants made various things, processing wood, giving birth to amazing things. This is how Khokhloma wood painting was born (report).

Khokhloma brush!

Thank you very much!

Tell a fairy tale for the joy of life!

You, like the soul of the people, are beautiful

You are like people you serve your fatherland.

V. Bokov

Every year, more and more forests are destroyed to meet their needs. Broad-leaved trees are almost destroyed, primary forests are protected by secondary forests with small-leaved species. In the European part of Russia, forest cover in this zone has decreased to 30%. Forests already alternate with areas of arable land (about 40% of them) and meadow pasture lands. Such a landscape is called a forest field.

They are actively engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry.

The mixed forest zone is the core of the formation of the Russian state. Densely populated, a dense network of urban and rural settlements.

Less than in the taiga, but forestry is developing. Changes in the external appearance of the zone and industry - it is this zone that accounts for the most industrially developed territories, therefore mixed forests, unlike other zones, are a natural-anthropogenic zone.

The trees outside my window were killing

The guillotine saw squealed hysterically

They obediently lay down on the chopping block of unbelief,

As if on the Scaffold of universal evil

Their heads were torn off alive,

The monster neighbor filed a complaint against them

Then the dogs gave him no rest,

The trees block the sunlight from being seen.

The maple tree rustled to him on lonely nights:

I'm with you, which means you're not alone at all,

And in the heat I covered it when there was no urine,

From the hot sun, so as not to get sick.

And in winter, with twisted laces of frost,

That maple tree brightened the dullness of a boring day.

And now he is defeated, he and his friends are killed,

An executioner in whom the soul has long been deadened.

Residents believed that just as the forest is eternal, so is restless life.

And in order to preserve this life, forests have long been tried to be preserved, and our Bryansk region, the Bryansk forest region, was no exception. In order to preserve the forests of the Bryansk region, the Bryansk Forest Nature Reserve was created in the 70s (report).

Currently in active use natural resources to meet human needs, one of which is forest. Many plant species are listed in the Red Book and are on the verge of extinction. The best way The protection of wild plant species is the preservation of the natural conditions under which they develop. For these purposes, nature reserves are being organized, some of which include the Bryansk Forest.

In the country they say about him: “Bryansk forests are the beauty of Russia!” So it is, the nature of the Bryansk region is rich and unique. The Bryansk forest occupies a considerable territory of the Bryansk region on the left bank of the Desna. In old documents and forest drawings this region is often called the Never-Before Land. Why unprecedented? The answer was found in even more ancient documents, in which it is called “Unprecedented State Forest in Dachas,” which means: “Never been in private appropriation.”

The main source of livelihood for local residents is the use of forests. This entails intensive destruction of wood. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, due to the deterioration of forest quality, many forestry industries began to decline.

During the Great Patriotic War Bryansk Forest was the largest partisan base. Tens of thousands of local residents were saved there.

Our Bryansk forest.

And all of Russia is ours.

A lead blizzard reaches the stars,

And the funeral - like there were trees.

How you made a stern noise at the enemy,

Our Bryansk forest, adding strength to us!

Our Bryansk forest!

The silent intercessor!

He is ready to help us out every time.

But he waits patiently

When will we start defending him?

Since 1959, Bryansk scientists have been trying to organize a reserve in the Bryansk forest. But only after considerable efforts of people interested in this in 1987, the Russian Government assigned this status to the southern part of the Bryansk forest.

A protected forest is a complex living mechanism that has a connection with nature, therefore all types of economic use are prohibited here. The reserve is a haven for all types of plants and animals.

At the moment, there are many prohibitions for people on the territory of the complex, but it is much more important to ensure that people understand the idea of the reserve.

The Bryansk forest looks at us with hope,

It's like a father looking at his son.

Tired of the noise of rally battles,

Let's keep quiet for a moment.

Let's listen to the noise of the Bryansk forest.

And maybe we’ll become taller, sharper, stricter!

Throughout this lesson. We got acquainted with the mixed forest.

What features of the forest can you name?

(Located in a narrow strip, favorable climatic conditions,

varied terrain determines appearance this zone, soddy-podzolic soils, coniferous and deciduous tree species, natural-anthropogenic zone).

Verification work.

Match:

Option-1 Option-2

Taiga- Taiga-

Mixed forest - Mixed forest -

1. Only conifers grow 1. Characteristic of focal settlement

2. Gray forest soils are located 2. The number of animals is very

reduced

3.Severely changed economic 3.Severe climatic conditions

human activity

4. The climate is mild, summer 4. There are no pronounced

long-lasting floodplain terraces

5. Occupies the largest area 5. Low waterlogging

The forest attracts us with its grandeur and mystery, calm and stability - those qualities that people so lack in their hectic and fleeting life.

The forest can turn out to be inhospitable and harsh when, too confident in your strengths and knowledge or through carelessness, you get lost and frantically search for a way out of the one-faced hostile thicket. But he is friendly and reveals all the riches to the one who knows and to a strong man.

The forest is close to us. But the former mutual understanding between us is no longer there. And what attitude could the “master of nature” have towards the forest? The forest is just one of the areas of his utilitarian interests. This situation needs to change.

View presentation content
"GEO 8 class Mixed forests U38"

Natural areas of Russia

Almost half of Russia's territory is occupied by forests.
Most of them are in the European North and the Far East.
The forest zone is heterogeneous and represents a mosaic of landscapes: meadows, lakes, rivers, fields, pastures, ravines, swamps.
A fifth of the forests are especially valuable: these are water protection, protective, nut-producing, tundra forests, forests of reserves, game reserves, national parks.

In Russia, two types of spruce are most common: common and Siberian. The maximum age of spruce is 250-300 years, it grows up to 30m, rarely up to 60m.
Fir appears in the northeast of Russia, Siberia, and the Far East. It looks like a spruce (fir has cones that look up).
IN southern mountains Siberia has a lot of cedar forests - cedar trees. Cedar lives 600 years or more, grows up to 1.5 - 2 m. Its wood and nuts are valued.

There is no continuous shade in larch and pine forests.

Larch grows from Arkhangelsk to Pacific Ocean. Larch is the pioneer of the forest. It easily settles on bare soils after a fire. They grow for a long time - 300-400 years, height - 8-10 m, 10 cm in girth.
A pine forest is often called a pine forest. On fertile soils, a tree can live up to 500 years, reach a height of 50 m, and be more than 1 m in diameter. The industry uses not only valuable pine wood, but also resin and pine needles.

Forests formed by trees with small leaves - aspen, birch, gray alder.

Birch forests are a symbol of Russia. Birch trees grow almost everywhere. There are several dozen species of birch trees in Russia. But only the warty and fluffy ones are widespread. By the age of 70 it reaches 35 m in height and 70 cm in diameter. They live up to 100-150 years.
Aspen is widespread in Russia everywhere, but more often in spruce, birch, and oak forests. In autumn, the leaves turn bright colors from yellow to red.

Gray alder is short-lived, living only 50-60 years. Found on wet soils, in the floodplains of rivers and streams.

Trees with large broadleaf and hardwood - oak, linden, maple, ash, beech. They dominate in the southern part of the forest zone.

Oak trees are found only in the European part of Russia and the Far East. They live up to 500 years and reach 50m in height. Prefers fertile soils.

Honey lime trees. Linden is cold-resistant and not afraid of shade. The age limit is 600 years. Lipnyaki is a place of beekeeping. The best honey plant. A wonderful decorative tree.

Forests make up just over 45% of Russia's area, and almost a quarter of the world's total forest area. There are much fewer of them in the European part of the country than in the Asian part. The most common forest-forming tree species are spruce, larch, pine, cedar, oak, maple and hornbeam. The forests contain many berry bushes, mushrooms, valuable herbs, and are also home to countless species. leads to a reduction in forest areas and the threat of extinction of many animals. In the 21st century, it is very important to be able to reproduce, which play a major role in regulating the climate on the planet.

Map of forest cover of Russian territory in %

Russia is the largest strange world, and for this reason, on its territory there are many in which they grow different kinds trees. The forests of Russia, depending on the predominance of certain tree species, are divided into four main types: 1) coniferous forests; 2) broad-leaved forests; 3) mixed forests; 4) small-leaved forests. Below we will look at each of these forest types in more detail.

Characteristics of coniferous forests in Russia

Coniferous forests are located in the territory and occupy about 70% of the country's total forest area. This area is known for low temperatures and humid air. Coniferous forests stretch from the western borders of Russia to the Verkhoyansk Range. The main forest-forming species are spruce, pine, fir and larch.

In harsh winter conditions, you can most often find mixed forests: dark coniferous and light coniferous. Evergreen tree species develop well. they begin in the spring with the onset of favorable weather conditions. There is practically no undergrowth in the taiga. There is podzolic soil and many swamps. Conifers shed needles, which, when decomposed, release compounds that are toxic to many plants into the ground. The ground is usually covered with mosses and lichens. Shrubs and flowers mainly grow along river banks; there are very few of them in dark places in the forest. There are lingonberries, junipers, rowan, blueberries and curly lilies.

Exactly weather determine . In the coniferous forest zone, temperate continental climate. Winters are dry and cold, and last on average six months. Short summer warm and humid, with numerous cyclones. As a rule, only one month is allocated for autumn and spring. Conifers are not picky about temperature changes.

Representatives of the animal world feed on moss, lichens, bark and cones. The high forest crown protects animals from the winds, and the branches provide an opportunity to build nests. Typical representatives of the fauna of coniferous forests are the vole, the mountain hare, the weasel, and the chipmunk. Among the large ones one can note the Siberian tiger, brown bear, lynx and elk, and from the forest-tundra zone it comes to coniferous forests reindeer. Eagles and vultures soar in the sky.

Coniferous wood is considered one of the most valuable. Its approximate reserve is 5.8 billion cubic meters. In addition to logging, oil, gold and gas are extracted in the taiga. Coniferous forests of Russia are a huge forest area. It also suffers from uncontrolled deforestation. Rare animals are dying due to negative human activities. There are many nature reserves, but for full restoration of forests it is necessary to properly organize protection and rational use.

Characteristics of broad-leaved forests of Russia

Broadleaf forest/Wikipedia

The territory of broad-leaved forests extends from the western border of Russia to the Ural Mountains. The main tree species are beech, oak, elm, linden, maple and hornbeam. Forests are multi-tiered: the upper tier is replaced by the canopy and undergrowth, which, in turn, are herbaceous plants and forest floor. The soil is covered with mosses. There are areas where lush crowns completely exclude undergrowth. When leaves fall, they decompose and form humus. The soil in the undergrowth is rich in organomineral compounds.

The forests are located in the temperate continental zone. The weather here is much warmer than in the neighboring taiga. Summer lasts four months average temperature during the season is +10°C. This promotes the growth of broad-leaved tree species. The climate is humid and there is a lot of rainfall. The average monthly temperature in January drops to -16ºС. Maximum precipitation occurs in summer; there is no deep snow cover.

The leaves can't survive cold period years, and fall in mid-autumn. A dense cover of foliage, branches and bark protects the ground from excessive evaporation. The soil is rich in microelements and provides trees with everything they need. Fallen leaves for the winter cover the root system, protect it from the cold and stimulate the roots for further growth.

The composition of the animal world in the European part is somewhat different from the Far Eastern forests. Asian lands are covered with thickets of fern, ilmen and linden. Elk live in dense thickets, himalayan bear And Ussurian tiger. Cottonmouth, viper and Amur snake are common reptiles. European broadleaf forests are home to wild boar, elk, deer, wolves, weasels, beavers, muskrats and nutria. Mice, lizards, snakes, moles and hedgehogs also live there. Birds are represented by black grouse, eagle owls, owls, starlings, swallows and larks.

The zone of broad-leaved forests has long been developed by humans, especially in the west of Russia. People had to significantly reduce the green area for grazing, crop production and city construction. Trees are the main raw material for the logging industry. Processing of recyclable materials has been established. The subsoil is rich, and in large rivers There is potential for the development of hydroelectric power.

The forest area is being significantly reduced, while forests are being cut down on the same scale. Due to anthropogenic influence, plants and animals listed in the Red List are becoming extinct. Unscrupulous entrepreneurs are cutting down huge areas of forests. To preserve natural complexes, several nature reserves and national parks were created, but this is not enough. Broadleaf species trees grow relatively quickly. It is necessary to organize the planting of seedlings in the areas of cleared forests, as well as to carefully use the remaining forest areas.

Characteristics of mixed forests in Russia

Mixed forests are located in the regions of the Russian Plain, West Siberian Plain, Amur Region and Primorye. A variety of tree species are found in this area. These forests are characterized by a pronounced layering. Poplars, pines and spruce trees stretch towards the light. Below them rise maples, elms, lindens and oaks. The layer of shrubs is represented by hawthorn, rose hips, raspberries and blackberries. The soil is covered with lichens, mosses and low grasses.

Trees in mixed forests can more easily withstand the severity of the climate than in neighboring broad-leaved forests. The vegetation can withstand frosts down to -30ºС. The amount of precipitation depends on the region. There is more snow in European forests than in the Far East. The maximum amount of precipitation occurs in the warm season. Summers are mild and humid. The climate changes from maritime to continental, from west to east.

Continuous renewal of green mass helps to nourish trees and cleanse the earth of unnecessary substances. Forest inhabitants use resources of all tiers as a food supply. Conifer seeds attract birds, rodents eat nuts, and larvae under the bark provide food for insectivorous birds.

Numerous once-numerous animals were exterminated as a result of uncontrolled hunting. You can also see roe deer and wild boar. The bison and red deer are preserved only in nature reserves. A well-known predator of the mixed forest is the common fox. The badger lives in the European part. Squirrel, mink, dormouse, marten, forest cat, Brown bear are considered common representatives of the fauna of mixed forests. The world of birds is also diverse, especially many woodpeckers, wood grouse, wild pigeons, finches and robins.

Valuable timber reserves are located in the Asian part. Manchurian walnut, Korean cedar, and whole-leaf fir are famous for their strength and resistance to rotting. Eleutherococcus and Schisandra are used for medicinal purposes. Logging activities are carried out in Europe.

Mixed forests have suffered more than others at the hands of man. This has led to a number of environmental problems. The need for agricultural land has led to the deforestation of large parts of the area. Due to the draining of the swamps, it has changed. The growth of human settlements, especially in the west, has caused forest cover to decline by 30%.

Tree foliage recycles perfectly carbon dioxide. Deforestation, which has reached gigantic proportions, has destroyed millions of hectares. Because of this, they accumulate in the atmosphere, creating. Hundreds of animal species and flora disappears from the face of the earth. Happens due to people's fault Forest fires, radically changing the ecosystem. On rare species animals are hunted illegally. Resources are almost depleted; only interaction between the state and citizens can stop the process of destruction of the country's mixed forests.

Characteristics of small-leaved forests in Russia

The zone of small-leaved forests extends from the East European Plain to the Far East. The forests stretch in a narrow strip, at times replacing broad-leaved trees. Small-leaved trees play the role of a second forest, replacing broad-leaved and coniferous trees.

The main forest-forming species are birch, alder and aspen. Their foliage is distinguished by a narrow leaf blade. Trees are undemanding to climate and soil quality. Birch trees are most widespread.

Trees often grow in places where there are fires or deforestation. Alder reproduces by shoots, and aspen by root suckers. Where there were no forests, trees grow by seed. Amazing feature the ability to accumulate moisture is considered. Thickets of alder and birch block the path of fire and prevent it from spreading to noble species.

The fauna is formed under the influence of indigenous trees. A lot of birds. Mammals include hares, lynxes, moose and squirrels. Strips of small-leaved forest alternating with agricultural lands - favorite places for raccoon dogs.

Secondary forests contribute to the restoration of green areas, although complete rehabilitation takes about 180 years. They act as a fire buffer. It remains to be hoped that small-leaved forests will contribute to the reorganization of the country's forest resources.

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Mixed forests are a natural area where a mixture of coniferous and deciduous trees grows (with an admixture of more than 5% of plants of another type). All life forms of vegetation occupy their ecological niches, forming a unique balance. The thicket with a diverse composition of trees is resistant to environmental influences, has a mosaic structure and diverse flora and fauna. If a favorable combination of coniferous and deciduous species has formed in the forest stand, such a diversity of forests can be more productive than a homogeneous one.

Characteristics and features of the natural zone of mixed forests.

There are coniferous-small-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests. The first ones, growing in the taiga regions of Eurasia, do not last long. They precede the change from small-leaved groves to native coniferous forests or broad-leaved oak forests. And coniferous-deciduous thickets are considered sustainable nature education. Such ecosystems develop cyclically, with a temporary predominance of coniferous or a number of deciduous species. Depending on the climate, terrain, soil and hydrological regime, the composition of trees varies. Spruce, pine, fir, oak, beech, linden, maple, ash, aspen, birch and other species in various combinations are often found.

Mixed forests are formed in the temperate climate zone ( temperate continental climate) with a clear change of seasons - relatively hot summer and cold winter. The average annual precipitation here usually reaches 600-700 mm. With insufficient evaporation, excess humidity and swampy areas occur.

Coniferous-deciduous forests grow in North America(in most of Canada, northern USA), in the western part of South America, Eurasia (Europe, Russia, Central Asia), Great Britain, northern Japan. This natural zone in the southern direction gives way to forest-steppe or broad-leaved forest, and to the north it turns into coniferous.

Under mixed forests with a predominant share of deciduous trees, gray and brown forest soils. They are characterized by a higher content of humus than in podzolic taiga varieties. If the main species are coniferous species, then soddy-podzolic soils of low fertility, with high acidity and excess moisture predominate.

In Russia, there is no accurate accounting of the number of mixed forests. On average, they account for up to half of the country's total forest area. They grow all over Western Europe, reaching Vostochnaya, where they border the taiga along a conventional line from St. Petersburg to Nizhny Novgorod. Further to the east, a narrow strip stretches to the Urals.

Broad-leaved and mixed forests make up a significantly smaller percentage of Russia's forest zone than coniferous taiga. In Siberia they are completely absent. Broad-leaved and mixed forests are typical for the European part and the Far Eastern region of the Russian Federation. They are formed by deciduous and coniferous trees. They not only have a mixed composition of forest stands, but are also distinguished by the diversity of the animal world and resistance to negative influences environment, mosaic structure.

Types and layers of mixed forests

There are coniferous-small-leaved and mixed-deciduous forests. The former grow mainly in continental regions. Mixed forests have a clearly visible layering (changes in the composition of the flora depending on height). The uppermost tier consists of tall spruce, pine, and oak trees. Birch, maple, elm, linden, wild pear and apple trees, younger oak trees and others grow somewhat lower. Next come lower trees: mountain ash, viburnum, etc. The next tier is formed by shrubs: viburnum, hazel, hawthorn, rose hips, raspberries and many others. Next come the semi-shrubs. At the very bottom grow grasses, lichens and mosses.

Intermediate and primary forms of coniferous-small-leaved forest

An interesting feature is that mixed-small-leaved massifs are considered only an intermediate stage of formation coniferous forest. However, they can also be indigenous: massifs of stone birch (Kamchatka), birch groves in forest-steppes, aspen bushes and swampy alder forests (southern European part of the Russian Federation). Small-leaved forests are very light. This contributes to the lush growth of grass and its diversity. the broad-leaved type, on the contrary, refers to stable natural formations. It is distributed in the transition zone between taiga and broad-leaved types. grow on plains and in the lowest mountain zone with moderate and humid climatic conditions.

Coniferous-deciduous forests grow in warmer temperate regions. They are distinguished by the diversity and richness of their grass cover. They grow in intermittent stripes from the European part of the Russian Federation to the Far East. Their landscapes are favorable for people. To the south of the taiga there is a zone of mixed forests. They are distributed throughout the entire area of the East European Plain, as well as beyond the Urals (all the way to the Amur region). A continuous zone is not formed.

The approximate border of the European area of deciduous and mixed forests in the north lies at 57° N. w. Above it, oak (one of the key trees) almost completely disappears. The southern one almost touches northern border forest-steppes, where spruce completely disappears. This zone is a triangle-shaped area, two of whose peaks are in Russia (Ekaterinburg, St. Petersburg), and the third in Ukraine (Kyiv). That is, as you move away from the main zone to the north, broad-leaved and mixed forests gradually leave the watershed areas. They prefer river valleys that are warmer and protected from icy winds with exposure to carbonate rocks. Along them, forests of broad-leaved and mixed types gradually reach the taiga in small tracts.

The East European Plain mainly has low-lying and flat terrain, with only occasional hills. Here are the sources, basins and watersheds of the largest Russian rivers: Dnieper, Volga, Western Dvina. On their floodplains, meadows alternate with forests and arable lands. In some regions there are lowlands, due to the close proximity groundwater, as well as limited drainage, are extremely swampy in places. There are also areas with sandy soils where pine trees grow. Berry bushes and herbs grow in swamps and clearings. This area is most suitable for coniferous-deciduous forests.

Human influence

Broad-leaved and mixed forests have been subject to various impacts from people for a long time. Therefore, many massifs have changed greatly: the indigenous vegetation is either completely destroyed, or partially or completely replaced by secondary rocks. Nowadays, the remnants of broad-leaved forests that have survived under severe anthropogenic pressure have a different structure of changes in the flora. Some species, having lost their place in indigenous communities, grow in anthropogenically disturbed habitats or have taken intrazonal positions.

Climate

The climate of mixed forests is quite mild. It is characterized by relatively warm winters (on average from 0 to -16°C) and long summers (16-24°C) compared to the taiga zone. The average annual precipitation is 500-1000 mm. It everywhere exceeds evaporation, which is a feature of the clearly expressed leaching water regime. Mixed forests have such characteristic feature, How high level development of grass cover. Their biomass averages 2-3 thousand c/ha. The level of litter also exceeds the biomass of the taiga, however, due to the higher activity of microorganisms, the destruction organic matter goes much faster. Therefore, mixed forests have a smaller thickness and a higher level of litter decomposition than taiga coniferous forests.

Soils of mixed forests

The soils of mixed forests are diverse. The cover has a rather variegated structure. On the territory of the East European Plain, the most common type is sod-podzolic soil. It is a southern variety of classic podzolic soils and is formed only in the presence of soil-forming rocks of the loamy type. Sod-podzolic soil has the same profile and similar structure. It differs from podzolic in the smaller mass of the litter (up to 5 cm), as well as in the greater thickness of all horizons. And these are not the only differences. Soddy-podzolic soils have a more pronounced humus horizon A1, which is located under the litter. Its appearance differs from a similar layer of podzolic soils. The upper part contains the rhizomes of the grass cover and forms the turf. The horizon can be painted in various shades of gray and has a loose structure. The thickness of the layer is 5-20 cm, the proportion of humus is up to 4%. The upper part of the profile of these soils has an acidic reaction. As you go deeper, it becomes even smaller.

Soils of mixed-deciduous forests

Gray forest soils of mixed-deciduous forests are formed in inland regions. In Russia they are distributed from the European part to Transbaikalia. In such soils, precipitation penetrates to great depths. However, groundwater horizons are often very deep. Therefore, soaking the soil to their level is typical only in heavily moistened areas.

Mixed forest soils are better suited for agriculture than taiga soils. In the southern regions of the European part of the Russian Federation, arable lands account for up to 45% of the area. Closer to the north and taiga, the share of arable land gradually decreases. Farming in these regions is difficult due to severe leaching, swampiness and bouldering of the soil. To obtain good harvests, a lot of fertilizer is required.

General characteristics of fauna and flora

The plants and animals of the mixed forest are very diverse. In terms of species richness of flora and fauna, they are comparable only to tropical jungles and are home to many predators and herbivores. Here, squirrels and other living creatures make their home on tall trees, birds make nests on the crowns, hares and foxes make burrows at the roots, and beavers live near the rivers. Species diversity mixed zone very large. Both the inhabitants of the taiga and deciduous forests, as well as the inhabitants of the forest-steppes, feel comfortable here. Some are awake all year round, while others hibernate for the winter. Plants have a symbiotic relationship. Many herbivores feed on a variety of berries, of which mixed forests so many.

Mixed-small-leaved forests consist of approximately 90% coniferous and small-leaved tree species. There are not many broad-leaved varieties. Along with coniferous trees, aspens, birches, alders, willows, and poplars grow in them. There are more birch forests in this type of massif. As a rule, they are secondary - that is, they grow in forest fires, clearings and clearings, and old unused arable land. In open habitats, such forests regenerate well and in the first years the expansion of their areas contributes to

Coniferous-deciduous forests mainly consist of spruce, linden, pine, oak, elm, elm, maple, and in the southwestern regions of the Russian Federation - beech, ash and hornbeam. The same trees, but of local varieties, grow in the Far Eastern region along with grapes and vines. In many ways, the composition and structure of the forest stand of coniferous-broad-leaved forests depends on climatic conditions, topography and soil-hydrological regime of a particular region. In the North Caucasus, oak, spruce, maple, fir and other species predominate. But the most diverse in composition are the Far Eastern forests of the coniferous-broad-leaved type. They are educated cedar pine, whitebark fir, Ayan spruce, several Manchurian ash, Mongolian oak, Amur linden and the above-mentioned native vegetation species.

Species diversity of the animal world

Of the large herbivores, mixed forests are inhabited by elk, bison, wild boar, roe deer and sika deer (the species was introduced and adapted). Rodents present forest squirrels, martens, stoats, beavers, chipmunks, otters, mice, badgers, minks, black ferrets. Mixed forests abound with a large number of bird species. The following are many of them, but not all: oriole, nuthatch, siskin, fieldfare, goshawk, hazel grouse, bullfinch, nightingale, cuckoo, hoopoe, gray crane, goldfinch, woodpecker, black grouse, chaffinch. More or less large predators represented by wolves, lynxes and foxes. Mixed forests are also home to hares (hares and hare), lizards, hedgehogs, snakes, frogs and brown bears.

Mushrooms and berries

Berries are represented by blueberries, raspberries, lingonberries, cranberries, blackberries, bird cherry, strawberries, stoneberries, elderberries, rowan berries, viburnum, rose hips, and hawthorn. In forests of this type there are a lot of edible mushrooms: boletuses, porcini mushrooms, valui, chanterelles, russula, honey mushrooms, milk mushrooms, boletus, boletus, various rows, boletus mushrooms, moss mushrooms, saffron milk caps and others. Some of the most dangerous poisonous macromycetes are fly agarics and toadstools.

Shrubs

The mixed forests of Russia abound in shrubs. The undergrowth layer is unusually developed. Oak tracts are characterized by the presence of hazel, euonymus, forest honeysuckle, and in northern zone- buckthorn brittle. Rose hips grow on the edges and in open forests. In forests of the coniferous-broad-leaved type, there are also liana-like plants: fence grass, climbing hops, bittersweet nightshade.

Herbs

The grasses of mixed forests (especially the coniferous-broad-leaved type) have a large species diversity, as well as a complex vertical structure. The most typical and widely represented category is mesophilic nemoral plants. Among them, representatives of oak forest broad grass stand out. These are plants in which the leaf blade has a significant width. These include: perennial woodweed, common gooseberry, obscure lungwort, May lily of the valley, hairy sedge, yellow green grass, lanceolate chickweed, nomad (black and spring), amazing violet. Cereals are represented by bluegrass, giant fescue, forest reed grass, short-legged pinnate grass, spreading boron and some others. The flat leaves of these plants are an adaptation option to the specific phytoenvironment of coniferous-deciduous forests.

In addition to the above-mentioned perennial species, these tracts also contain grasses of the ephemeroid group. They postpone their growing season to spring, when the lighting is maximum. After the snow melts, it is the ephemeroids that form a beautifully blooming carpet of yellow anemones and goose onions, purple corydalis and lilac-bluish woodles. These plants go through their life cycle in a couple of weeks, and when the leaves of the trees bloom, their above-ground parts die off over time. They experience an unfavorable period under a layer of soil in the form of tubers, bulbs and rhizomes.

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The mixed forest zone is located south of the taiga, mainly on the Russian Plain. This zone is the most widespread in overseas Europe, beyond its borders there are only peninsulas Southern Europe, where the vegetation is predominantly subtropical, and most of Scandinavia is mainly taiga. Entirely in the zone of mixed forests are Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, bordering Russia, and partially Ukraine. In Russia, the area it occupies gradually narrows to the east. Mixed forests extend beyond the Urals only in a narrow strip in Western Siberia; there are none in Eastern Siberia; mixed forests appear again in the south of the Far East.

In the area where mixed forests are distributed, the climate is milder than in the taiga: mixed forests are located to the south. It is not as continental as in the taiga. In winter there are severe frosts, but forty degrees is already a rarity.

July temperatures with amazing constancy stay within the range of 17-19°, January temperatures steadily fall from +2 to -15°, taking with them the annual average from 10 to 1°. From this we can conclude that the narrowing of the zone of mixed forests to the east is associated not with summer temperatures, which are almost unchanged, but with winter ones. For this type of vegetation -5 °C is the limit.

Mixed forests, as their name suggests, consist of deciduous and coniferous trees. In addition to coniferous and deciduous trees, which are also found in the taiga, the mixed forest zone is characterized by broad-leaved trees - oak, linden, maple, ash and others. Broad-leaved trees are not as frost-resistant as taiga trees, and that is why there are almost no mixed forests in Siberia. Sometimes, to the south of mixed forests, an independent zone of broad-leaved forests is identified, but this is hardly worth doing, because it also contains areas of coniferous and birch forests.

The climate of the mixed forest zone allows Agriculture, so forests have been cut down in many places, and fields are in their place. In relation to this zone, the expressive term “forest landscape” is now used. The appearance of the zone also changed the industry - it is in this zone that the most industrially developed territories are located; therefore mixed forests, unlike arctic deserts, tundra and taiga, are no longer a natural, but a natural-anthropogenic zone.

The fauna of mixed forests is similar in composition to the fauna of the taiga, but since mixed forests are much more inhabited by humans, it is greatly impoverished; there are few animals left.

In the central part European Russia within the Russian Plain, mainly in the zone of mixed forests, but also going somewhat to the south, is the Central Russian Upland. To the north is the Valdai Upland. Between them, forming a transverse ridge of east-northeast strike, is the Smolensk-Moscow Upland.

In mixed forests, on the Valdai Hills, the Volga begins to flow. The Dnieper also originates there, which then flows through the territory of Belarus and Ukraine and flows into the Black Sea.

Volga is the most big river European Russia and all of Europe. It flows into the Caspian Sea. The length of the river is more than three and a half thousand kilometers (it is considered 3531 km, but here, as for other rivers, a slight measurement error is possible). The total fall of the river is about 240 m.

From its source approximately to Kazan, the Volga flows in a general latitudinal direction - from west to east, and then turns south and flows in a meridional direction.

Large tributaries of the Volga are the Oka (right) and Kama (left). The Oka originates on the Central Russian Upland, the Kama - on one of the hills of the Cis-Urals. At the confluence of the Oka and the Volga stands the city of Nizhny Novgorod, somewhat higher than the confluence of the Kama - Kazan.

The Volga is blocked by the dams of many hydroelectric power plants and now represents a cascade of reservoirs, between which there are no or almost no sections of unchanged riverbed. There are no reservoirs only below the dam of the Volzhskaya Hydroelectric Power Station named after. XXII Congress of the CPSU (Volgograd). A large number of reservoirs makes the Volga regime regulated, that is, water flows become more uniform; however, in some places large spring floods are possible, which we hear about on radio and television almost every spring.