What is polyethylene waste, its processing and disposal. Polyethylene processing: equipment, technology LDPE processing technology

Polyethylene recycling various types is important for ecology and industry, but we must not forget that the process of processing household and industrial polyethylene components is largely different (this is due to differences in technical specifications). Sometimes recyclable materials, namely polyethylene, may have some characteristics that do not meet the required parameters. It is also quite significant that plasticization has an extremely positive effect on increasing the quality of the material.

Features of polyethylene recycling

Polyethylene has a wide range of applications, which undoubtedly includes its use as packaging. It is important to take into account that the service life of such packaging is very long, as well as the impact on it of a variety of weather factors:

Action different temperatures, as well as their sudden change;
- exposure to direct sunlight;
- exposed to contamination.

A process such as polyethylene recycling is not much different from obtaining primary materials. But a change in the process still takes place, and therefore the number of processing cycles is also different.

Technologies for processing polyethylene waste

Today, the most advanced method of processing polyethylene is the replacement of wooden materials with intermediate ones. During the process, a special degree of purification of secondary materials is required (as an example, containers for fuel and lubricants can be cited).

At the same time, it is very popular to use recycled materials for the manufacture of various containers. They are either made entirely from recycled materials, or virgin material is added during the manufacturing process. Such containers are very actively used by a variety of companies.

An alternative method for processing polyethylene components, which is based on the use of irrigation pipes, is also very actively used. The diameter of such pipes can exceed 600 mm. Polyethylene can be processed using the application method. An important factor is that the quality of the resulting material becomes lower. But such materials are also in demand; for example, panels for garbage cans are made from them.

Equipment for polyethylene processing

Recyclable materials must be processed into granules; agglomerates are optimally used for this. This is a special one, which consists of several modules. It is worth noting that to work with plastic bottles, you can connect an appropriate module that will wash and crush them.

Polyethylene processing is carried out on equipment that has a number of advantages that simplify the ongoing work process:

Very high productivity and efficiency, very successfully combined with small dimensions;
- the loading hole is located at a fairly low level, which allows you to do without auxiliary devices (ladders, platforms, etc.);
- equipped with an easily removable housing, which increases ease of repair and maintenance;

Aerodynamic swirlers allow even the smallest and thinnest recycled materials to be processed;
- all vital components and mechanisms are perfectly protected from the ingress of working mass, as well as dust and dirt;
- reliable insulation from moisture.

Using recycled polyethylene materials to produce new household and industrial products is more appropriate than using only primary raw materials. Products made from recycled polyethylene products, which are the result of polyethylene recycling, cost significantly less than products made from virgin materials.

For some reason, many people have the opinion that polyethylene is only suitable for the manufacture of packaging products. Actually this is not true. Polyethylene is used in various spheres of human activity and is a universal material. Polyethylene can be recycled several times. A profitable activity is the purchase of polyethylene waste. Recyclables purchasing companies work closely with businesses. The population also actively participates in replenishing the raw material base.

The basis for all types of polyethylene is one chemical monomer. However, the finished products differ greatly in their qualities and properties. The reason lies in the fact that macromolecules have different geometric shapes and the ability to form crystals.

There are three types of polyethylene, which differ in the way they are polymerized.

Polyethylene high pressure produced at a temperature of 180° C and a pressure of 1500-3000 atmospheres. This production method allows us to obtain a low-density product that is quite soft and elastic. High pressure polyethylenes contain branched macromolecules.

Medium pressure polyethylene is produced at a temperature of 120-150 °C and a pressure of 30-40 atmospheres. The process requires a diluent and metal oxide catalysts.

Polyethylene low pressure obtained by polymerization using an organic solvent. The temperature should be less than 80 ° C, and the pressure should be low, about 5 atmospheres. An organometallic complex is used as a catalyst. The processes involve an ionic mechanism.

Polyethylene, obtained using low or medium pressure, has a linear molecular structure, a high degree of crystallization, and is a rigid material. Polyethylene is a frost-resistant material and can be used at temperatures down to -60° C. There are brands that preserve beneficial features at even lower temperatures. A saturated hydrocarbon, it is not susceptible to the influence of aggressive environments and organic liquids.

In industry, polyethylenes are produced in the form of granules, sheets and blocks. Next, using the method of casting under very high pressure, the so-called extrusion, softened polymers are squeezed out through the nozzles of a spitz machine, and after further blowing, various products are made from the material.

Polyethylene is intended for the production of seamless pipes, electrical wire insulation and film, which is widely used for product packaging. Partitions and greenhouses for Agriculture, buckets, basins, bottles.

Polyethylene has dielectric properties, which determines its use as an insulating material for cables in television, radar, telephone lines communications. These are the reasons why it is so important to recycle polyethylene.

To reduce costs and reduce costs for the production of polymer products, commodity producers are increasingly practicing the use of recycled high-density polyethylene ( PVD granules). Recycled polyethylene recyclables produce first-class and very profitable granular material, which in terms of quality characteristics is not inferior to raw materials from virgin polyethylene. Each secondary LDPE granule has a low density and has the same branched molecular structure as before processing.

Currently, the production of secondary granules from LDPE waste, helps solve the whole complex environmental problems for the recycling of polymers, and also allows you to significantly reduce the costs of producing products from high-pressure polymers.

Technological processing cycles. Equipment used.

LDPE granules are produced by polymerization of ethylene under high pressure (150-300 mPa). The various methods for processing LDPE waste are based on chemical mechanisms coordination and interaction of recycled polyethylene with added modifying additives. Technologically, the technique consists of the following stages:

• Collection of raw materials and their sorting. Recycled material is distributed by grade and separated from sand, dirt, metal, tape, and other foreign matter and debris.
• Washing and drying waste in washing and drying complexes. When washing secondary LDPE, special reagents and chemicals can be added to the pre-washing unit to remove complex contaminants (petroleum products, grease, oil) from raw materials. Mini-flotation and metal separation operations can be performed.
• Before being sent to the drying chamber, the raw material is sent to a centrifuge to separate excess moisture and remaining solid fractions. To avoid the formation of various types of defects (swells, cavities, pores) at this stage of processing, the polymer drying process will be carried out at high humidity; Grinding and crushing. For plastic materials, cutting and abrasion methods are used; brittle recycled polyethylene
• pre-crushed by a cut or blow, crushed. To carry out these technical processes, knife crushers (dicers), hammer and rotary types of crushers, and jet mills are used; Direct processing of prepared LDPE, obtaining agglomerate.
• In the agglomerator, as a result of thermal action (friction against the body), recycled polyethylene is heated to the plasticization temperature and sintered, after which it is sharply cooled and separated into individual balls (pellets). Agglomerators can perform both individual stages of processing recycled LDPE and a full cycle of polymer regeneration, including all the above-mentioned stages. The resulting agglomerate can be used for the production of finished products;

In the process of producing recycled high-density polyethylene, you should pay attention to the density of the material; the consumer characteristics of the finished products significantly depend on it.

An increase in its indicators leads not only to an increase in the hardness and strength of the material, resistance to aggressive environments, but also at the same time makes it less impact-resistant and easily permeable to gases.

Special characteristics of granules and agglomerate

• The resulting secondary LDPE is characterized by:
• perfect dielectric abilities;
• lack of absorption of moisture, steam and maintaining a constant mass of granules; resistance to a wide variety of chemical substances
• As a result, the storage and transportation process does not require the creation of special conditions;
• odorless and completely inert. Products made from recycled LDPE granules are characterized by the almost complete absence of the chemical smell of plastic;
• high bulk density;

resistance to ultra-low temperatures.

• Application of recycled granules For casting: thin-walled and large-sized products, fittings, auto parts, bottles, consumer containers for non-.
• food products
• For the production of: irrigation, drip irrigation, pressure and polyethylene pipes, corrugated hoses, geomembranes, foam products, non-woven materials and threads, cable insulation, low-quality films. For the production of: roofing felt, polymer-sand tiles, heat-shrinkable, greenhouse, covering, insulating films, household items, housings and components for electrical appliances and refrigerators, building materials

, containers for liquid and bulk chemicals, furniture plastic. Improving methods for processing LDPE waste leads to the creation of completely new, universal materials. Today, cross-linked polyethylene is in demand and in high demand. It has improved physical properties

and a wide range of applications. Thanks to modern technologies , produced from high-quality polyethylene waste secondary PVD

, in its physical and mechanical properties and purity is close to the primary product. It is also important that from the point of view of environmental friendliness and economic feasibility, recycled polyethylene is very beneficial as an inexpensive and accessible material for industrial production. tagPlaceholder Tags:

Our life is unthinkable without plastic. The number of packaged goods is increasing not exponentially, but by orders of magnitude. That is, tens of times. Polyethylene is the most widely used of all types of plastics. Russia alone uses 1.65 – 1.75 million tons annually. Of these, more than half (almost 56%) are packaging and film, that is, products with a service life of several days. After that, it goes to a landfill.

Growing solid waste landfills are raising the issue of waste recycling. They are trying to solve it all over the world, including Russia.

How dangerous is polymer film waste?

Plastic waste is tenacious: it takes centuries to decompose.

Under natural conditions, films are destroyed in 80-100 years, polyethylene foam waste - 200, PET bottles - 400-500 years.

Their accumulation prevents the soil from breathing and is dangerous for animals. The “islands” made of plastic drifting across the World Ocean are depressing. Polymers eat Marine life– and it returns to people.

Traditional methods of disposal are incineration or burial. They are considered the fastest, most economical, but from an environmental point of view they are catastrophic. The toxically dangerous dioxins formed in this case enter the atmosphere, water, and soil. This affects the quality of air, water, and food.

Main types of polymer film waste and where they come from

Recycled polymer raw materials - film - these are products and industrial waste from low-density polyethylene (LDPE), polypropylene, and other materials that have lost their consumer properties, but have retained their physical properties.

Sources of replenishment of film waste:

1. Food packaging(HDPE waste, liners).
2. Packaging of industrial goods(polyethylene foam, LDPE and HDPE waste, liners for big bags).
3. Agricultural film(unusable material such as greenhouse coverings, bags for fertilizers and similar products).
4. Technical packaging film(waste LDPE film, stretch).
5. Technological waste(trimmings, substandard).

Groups 1-4 are consumer waste, the most numerous of which is the first. The fifth group is industrial waste. The most insignificant category, because engineers and technologists try to minimize waste. And if they appear, they are processed at the same enterprise.

Methods for processing polyethylene waste in Russia

Film waste retains its original technological conditions and is therefore valuable as a raw material for reuse.

What is recycled

On the Russian market of secondary raw materials, industrial and consumer waste LDPE and HDPE are considered suitable for recycling.
Most industrial waste is clean, homogeneous, and is the least hassle to deal with.

Important! Consumption waste, that is, used packaging, is more difficult and expensive to recycle, but the costs are recouped in large volumes.

Raw materials are supplied for processing in two ways:

• from stores, businesses, and other commercial sources;
• from consumer waste.

Stretch film waste is collected separately.

Recycling problems

The headache for recyclers is consumer waste. They always get dirty when they come into contact with the “filling” (usually food). In addition, LDPE films with printing or color are more often found in such waste.

Household film waste

Pollution is divided into internal and surface. For example, HDPE waste in the form of packaging of halva, butter, meat, and other products. Crumbs, grains, and traces of fat remain on the surface. Some of it is absorbed by the packaging. Even if the material has gone through all stages of washing, an odor may remain after processing. And ingrained residues can change the properties of the new film.
Surface contaminants are removed by washing. Here the material is carefully processed with water under pressure (friction washers). The dry cleaning method is used, but even advanced equipment is ineffective against sticky contaminants.

Film waste recycling technology

The most common method of processing polyethylene waste in Russia and the world is mechanical recycling.

It consists of the following steps:

1. Rough waste sorting. There is a separation (usually manually) by type, color, shape, size of plastic.
2. Pre-wash. The raw materials are washed from external dirt, foreign components are removed.
3. Grinding. Its degree depends on the characteristics of future products. Knife crushers transform raw materials into an amorphous mass with particles of 0.25-0.95 cm. The cryogenic method is considered innovative. As a result of freezing, crumbs of 0.06 - 0.19 cm are obtained.
4. Mixture separation. Vibrating sieves and other methods are used, the most popular being flotation. The polymer mixture is poured with water with the addition of caustic soda, due to which heavy impurities are separated.
5. Final wash. The ground film is fed into a continuous washing apparatus, where it is finally freed from dust and dirt.
6. Drying. Primary drying of raw materials occurs in a centrifuge, final (up to 0.25%) - in a drying unit.
7. Agglomeration (granulation). The prepared raw materials are sent to the granulator. Here it melts, thickens, and mixes with additives or impurities. Homogenization occurs, creating conditions for obtaining a regranulate of a given recipe.
8. Final product. Granules suitable for the production of new products or materials according to specified parameters. They are obtained by feeding a molten homogenized mixture to a screw extruder.

The combination of processes depends on the conditions of the feedstock and the type of equipment. Thus, grinding can include one or two stages; relatively clean raw materials (not from garbage) go through one wash.

PET film waste is sorted, crushed into flakes (flex), and washed. The paper stickers are removed in a centrifuge. Wash again, dry, package. Sometimes granulation is used.

Where to recycle film waste

You can get rid of packaging and other film waste in different ways:

1. The easiest way is to throw it in the trash. It’s good if there are special containers near the house or nearby for separate collection garbage. But not everyone can boast of this big cities, in Russia this direction is just developing.
2. If there is no special container, a package with plastic waste left near the usual one. There will be people willing to hand over raw materials to the right place.
3. Take it to a recycling collection point.
4. Contact the specialized company directly.
5. View advertisements on the Internet.

What does the price of admission depend on?

The price for waste collection depends on the following parameters:

• cost per kg;
• quantity of raw materials;
• degree of contamination;
• the need for production procedures.

That is, you can get different money for the same waste. Therefore, when going to the collection point, you should prepare: clean the waste from foreign impurities (shavings, dirt, including food), sort it by color, type, and put it in separate bags. If some of the LDPE waste has colored film, it is separated from single-color films; plain film is separated from foamed polyethylene, etc.

Special attention to PET bottles:

1. According to Russian standards, PET waste must be sorted by color: dark (brown, black), green and blue, transparent and uncolored.
2. Containers are accepted clean, dried, without paint on the surface.
3. Vegetable oil containers are not accepted everywhere.

Important! Containers sorted by color, pressed, without labels, lids and rings are more expensive.

Average cost of LDPE waste

Depending on the quantity, type, condition of raw materials (including PET), its readiness for delivery as polyethylene waste

you can get 11.9 – 25.9 rubles/kg.

Wholesale quantities of inserts for big bags are ready to be purchased for 15-35 rubles. per kg.

What products are made from waste films?

Recycled film waste does not differ in characteristics from the virgin material. From them the same range of products is obtained:

• bags, garbage bags, cling film;
• shrink films;
• inner layer of juice bags;
• packaging of pasteurized products;

The purpose of the product depends on the source of secondary raw materials:

• Uncontaminated waste film and polyethylene and its products obtained from commercial sources become new film for all types of packaging, including food;
• Polyethylene waste in the form of film, received from waste sorting complexes, serves as raw material for injection molded products. They can only be used to make garbage bags;
• Waste PP (polypropylene) film is used in the production of food packaging;
• LDPE stretch waste is in demand as an additive to building materials.

Products made from recycled PET film:

• synthetic fibers (fabrics, pillows);
• bandages;
• PET containers.

Lids become disposable tableware, office accessories (file folders, paper clips, pens), etc.

Important! Recycle plastic bottles It is not recommended to use it on your own: it is dangerous to health. It is better to build a business by selling them as recyclable materials.

From plastic waste in Russia they get rid of it the old fashioned way: by burying and expanding solid waste landfills. But there is progress: both legislation and people’s psychology are changing. The production of lines and individual units for processing such waste has been established. Purchasing LDPE waste and processing it is a profitable and noble business. Projects are attractive for business. And people who hand over packaging and bottles for recycling receive not only material benefits. Perhaps more important is the feeling of moral satisfaction that, thanks to you, the planet has become a little cleaner.

Annual consumption of polyethylene in Russia is about 1.7 million tons.

A significant share of the polymer is used for manufacturing goods with a limited service life, that is, being sources of waste.

Consequently, from year to year the issue of recycling this raw material becomes more acute.

Polyethylene is of great interest to the recycling business for several reasons:

• this niche is relatively free;
• a large number of waste is available raw materials and scalability of production;
• low cost will ensure demand for secondary products.

Polyethylene is a product of the polymerization of ethylene (C 2 H 4) - an unsaturated gaseous hydrocarbon, the first in the olefin series.

The compound is practically never found in nature, and in industry it is obtained by cracking high-molecular components of oil, dehydrogenation of ethane, and dehydration of ethyl alcohol.

The polymerization process involves the destruction of one of the bonds in the H 2 C=CH 2 molecule and the joining of the monomer -H 2 C-CH 2 - into a non-cyclic chain. The process is influenced by temperature, pressure and the type of catalyst used.

IN industrial scale synthesize four types of polyethylene, differing in structure and properties:

1. PVD(high-density polyethylene) is a transparent and elastic material with low tensile strength. The substance molecule has a large number of side branches that do not allow the creation of a crystalline structure. At a temperature of 103 – 110 °C, the polymer becomes liquid and has high fluidity. LDPE is used for production packaging materials: films, containers and bags.
2. HDPE(low-pressure polyethylene) – more durable and rigid compared to LDPE. Polymer threads have a linear structure with a small amount branches, thanks to which room temperature about 80% of the substance is in crystalline state. The melting point is 125 – 132 °C. HDPE is resistant to most chemicals. It is used to make garbage bags, containers for oils, acids, solvents, and non-pressure pipes.
3. PSD(medium pressure polyethylene) – a mixture of HDPE and PSD. The material combines the advantages of both types of polymers and is used in the production of films, bags, blown thick-walled containers.
4. LPVD(linear high-density polyethylene) – elastic and soft material with high resistance to tears, punctures and other types of destruction. Due to their dyeability, most of these polymers are used to produce stretch films, multilayers and laminates.

IN last years Another type of polyethylene is widely used in Russia - PEX, or cross-linked polyethylene. It is obtained from HDPE.

Under the influence of reagents or ionizing radiation is happening abstraction of hydrogen atoms from polymer chains, and free bonds in carbon immediately interact with each other.

The result is a three-dimensional network with a pronounced crystalline structure.

The material is different high temperature melting and has “shape memory”.

It is made from:

• water pipes;
• cable insulation;
• heat shrink materials.

Recycling technologies

In Russia, two technologies for processing polyethylene are most widely used: the production of secondary granules and pyrolysis.

The first involves the return of the polymer to production, and the second involves the production of energetically valuable gases and liquids that can be used as heating fuel, as well as in the production of other types of organic compounds.

Thermo-mechanical – production of granules

Thermo-mechanical recycling is the production of granules from polyethylene waste. Technology does not allow converting HDPE into LDPE and vice versa.

The structure and molecular weight of the polymer are specified during its synthesis and remain unchanged.

However, to give the secondary material the required technological properties - rigidity, plasticity or fluidity when heated - LDPE is added to HDPE and vice versa.

The production of granules from polyethylene waste is carried out according to the following algorithm:

1. Collection and sorting. The degree of readiness for processing depends on the size, composition, degree of preservation and contamination of the raw materials. Waste is sorted mechanically and manually.
2. Grinding. On high-performance lines, crushing to the desired fraction is carried out in two stages: using shredders and crushers. A hydrocyclone or flotation bath is installed between them to separate solid and heavy particles.
3. Flushing. Generally, industrial and commercial waste is cleaner than household waste and in some cases it is not washed. Milk containers, on the other hand, may require double rinsing.
4. Drying. The crushed and washed raw materials enter a centrifuge, where excess moisture is removed from it, and then into a thermal drying chamber.
5. Agglomeration. The process takes place under pressure and at elevated temperatures and involves partial melting and sintering of polyethylene into pellets.
6. Granulation. In the granulator, the polymer is heated to the melting temperature, purified from solid and liquid impurities, and degassed. The mixture is also mixed and its composition is averaged. The mass under pressure passes through holes - molding dies. The melt streams are cooled by water and compressed air, after which they are cut into finished granules.

In modern lines for processing LDPE and HDPE, plastic compactors are used instead of agglomerators.

In the devices, raw materials are pressed by rollers through matrices with holes of given diameters, and heating occurs due to the action of friction forces.

Plastic compactors work with wet raw materials. This eliminates the need for a second drying stage. When configured correctly technological process raw materials are not completely melted, which has a positive effect on the quality of the secondary granule.

Recycling of polyethylene is accompanied by partial destruction of polymer chains.

Under the influence of temperature, the bonds in them weaken and can break with active stirring.

In addition, the polymer is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen.

As a result, the chains are shortened and lowered mechanical properties granulates.

To reduce destruction, experts recommend setting up the processing process so that the raw materials are subjected to minimal thermal and mechanical loads. The destruction of the polymer can also be slowed down using special stabilizer additives that bind free radicals.

Thermochemical - pyrolysis

Multilayer films, including those with metallization, cross-linked polyethylene and waste severe degree of degradation It is difficult to process into secondary granules in commercial plants. They are subjected to thermal decomposition in pyrolysis plants.

The products of polyethylene pyrolysis differ high quality and environmental safety, since the raw materials do not contain sulfur, phosphorus, or nitrogen compounds.

Thermal decomposition occurs in three stages:

1. Splitting off lateral branches.
2. Cracking of the main carbon chain.
3. Decomposition of carbon residues.

Most researchers believe that the mechanism of pyrolysis is a random chain reaction.

The products of the first two stages are:

• flammable gases;
• heavy waxes;
• resin.

At the third stage heavy hydrocarbon fractions decompose into lighter ones.

A large proportion of gaseous products belong to the olefin series (ethylene, propylene, etc.). The products also contain cyclic compounds - benzene, toluene.

Some processes produce hydrogen and methane. In addition to gaseous products resulting from polyethylene pyrolysis obtain liquid and condensable fractions, rich in aliphatic hydrocarbons.

The decomposition process and the composition of its products depend on the degree of branching of polyethylene, its average molecular weight, temperature and type of reactor, catalyst used.

Installations used in industrial processing produce 40–70% gas and 30–60% pyrolysis oils.

In laboratory conditions at the reactor continuous action with aluminosilicate catalyst 80% of the gasoline fraction was obtained(C 5 –C 12). The proportion of gases generally increases with increasing temperature in the reactor.

Features of processing cross-linked polyethylene

The largest sources of cross-linked polyethylene are waste cable insulation and sanitary pressure pipes.

In addition to pyrolysis decomposition, it is processed using the following technologies:

1. Grinding into powder and use as a filler in the production of LDPE and HDPE granules.
2. Hot cutting with partial oxidation. Crushing at elevated temperatures leads to the rupture of carbon bonds between chains and an increase in the fluidity of the material.
3. Hydrolysis and alcoholysis. Water and alcohol can break the crosslink. The resulting product is no different from synthesized polyethylene.
4. Ultrasonic treatment. The energy of high-frequency pulses allows destroy the three-dimensional structure PEX and leave the main polymer chains unchanged.

The use of cross-linked polyethylene waste can be found in the production of pipes for cable ducts, low-voltage insulation and many household products.

Use of recycled granules in the production of finished products

If you follow processing technology, use high-quality equipment and take a responsible approach to the sorting process, the secondary granule is practically not inferior in quality to the primary one.

In the manufacture of final products, it can partially or completely replace synthesized polyethylene.

Components

The production uses recycled HDPE, LDPE, LDPE granules, as well as mixed compositions.

The following can be used as additives:

• PEX powder;
• polypropylene;
• rubbers and other elastomers.

Technological processes

Production includes the following processes:

1. Extrusion. The technology consists of pressing the melt through a forming head that sets the cross-section finished products. This method produces window profiles, films, pipes, and other products of measured and unmeasured lengths.
2. Injection molding. The technology consists of pouring the melt into a mold with subsequent cooling and allows for the production of serial piece products. The equipment – ​​injection molding machine – is capable of casting hollow, foamed and reinforced products of complex configuration.

What products can be made from recycled materials?

The table shows which products and additives are created from different types recycled polyethylene:

How can you recycle material at home?

Unfortunately, recycling polyethylene at home with zero investment is impossible.

However, there are offers on the market from Russian and foreign manufacturers mini equipment, which can be installed in a garage or in a country house.

To start it is not necessary to organize a full cycle at once processing. Many enterprises purchase crushed polyethylene of various brands.

There are resources promoting homemade equipment for polymer processing. Dave Hakkens - author of the PreciousPlastic project - on his website provides drawings of such devices and gives video tutorials. Its technologies and recycling equipment make it possible to create finished goods at home.

Video on the topic

For more information on recycling bags, watch this video:

Conclusion

Polyethylene recycling is a tempting niche to start your own business. But it is worth considering that the payback period for industrial equipment declared by manufacturers is 1.5 – 2 years. In practice this is only possible in conditions of “ideal” raw materials and established sales.

Before you decide to open, it is worth calculating all costs based on real conditions.

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