Phonetics, graphics, sounds and letters, their relationships. Summary of a lesson in the Russian language on the topic "phonetic units"

SUBJECT OF PHONETICS.

BASIC PHONETIC UNITS

PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of language. Phonetics is a specific system included in common system language. This is a sublevel of the general language system, inextricably linked with the entire system, since the basic units of language are words, morphemes, phrases, sentences that represent more high levels, - are signs. Indeed, in addition to the semantic side - designated (values), they all have a material side that is accessible to the senses - denoting(sounds and their combinations). There is a conditional (not natural, not natural) connection between the signified and the signifier. Yes, word dream has a material expression - it is a combination of five sounds that serves to express meaning “something created by the imagination, mentally imagined.” The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of language.

Phonetics task – study of methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream. You can study phonetics for different purposes and using different methods. Depending on this, general phonetics, descriptive phonetics, comparative phonetics, historical phonetics, and experimental phonetics are distinguished.

General phonetics Based on the material of various languages, he examines theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, syllable structure, and the relationship of the sound system of a language to its grammatical system.

Descriptive phonetics explores sound structure specific language V synchronous plan, i.e. on modern stage language development.

Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.

Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over a more or less long period of time, studies changes in the phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.

Experimental phonetics is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language using instrumental methods.

Thus, phonetics of modern Russian language– this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage of language development, in at the moment time.

All phonetic units of language - phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.

Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a complete utterance in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase does not always coincide with a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, then the same phenomenon is still considered from different points of view. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.

Intonation – a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intraphrase pauses, general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagms.

Syntagma – combining two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I In the evening. See you I tomorrow evening. In these sentences, syntagms are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term “syntagma” is understood differently by scientists. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, distinguishes syntagma from speech tact as an intonationally formed semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence

Speech tact – part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by incompleteness intonation (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / let us bow to our fatherland / in Russian / at our feet. (D. Kedrin).

Phonetic word - part of a speech beat (if the phrase is divided into beats) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical understanding of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. Most often, significant words are highlighted in separate bars. Since some words are not stressed, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, auxiliary parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words may also be unstressed:

. Words that do not have stress and are adjacent to other words are called clitics . Depending on the place they occupy in relation to the word with stress, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. Proclitics called unstressed words, standing in front of the shock to which they are adjacent: , enclitics - unstressed words that come after the stressed word to which they are adjacent:, . Proclitics and enclitics are usually function words, but an enclitic can also be a significant word when a preposition or particle takes on the stress: By ´ water[by the way].

Syllable - part of a beat or phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a connection of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see section “Syllable division. Types of syllables”).

Sound - the smallest unit of speech produced in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit distinguished during the sequential division of speech.

Sound(phoneme) – the smallest unit of language; subject of study in phonetics.

Letter– a sign used to convey the sound of speech in writing; subject of study in graphics.

When studying phonetics, a special notation is used to distinguish between letters and sounds and to more accurately convey sounding speech. transcription. Sounds are recorded according to spelling standards modern literary language. Transcribed speech separate sound are indicated in square brackets. Familiar [ ́] above the sound a stressed vowel is indicated. Familiar [’] after a consonant, its softness is indicated. For example, the word mowing is transcribed as [kaz'ba].

Characteristics of sounds

All sounds are divided into vowels and consonants.

Vowel sounds can be stressed or unstressed.

Consonant sounds are classified according to two main criteria:

• by voicedness/voicelessness – voiced(paired and unpaired) and deaf(paired and unpaired);
• by hardness/softness – hard(paired and unpaired) and soft(paired and unpaired).

Consonant sounds consist of noise (voiceless consonants) or noise and voice (voiced consonants).

Voiced consonants: [b], [b'], [c], [v'], [g], [g'], [d], [d'], [zh], [z], [z' ], [th'], [l], [l'], [m], [m'], [n], [n'], [r], [r'].

Voiceless consonants: [k], [k'], [p], [p'], [s], [s'], [t], [t'], [f], [f'], [x ], [x'], [ts], [h'], [w], [w'].

Voiced and voiceless consonants can be paired or unpaired.

Paired consonants in terms of voiceness and deafness form 11 pairs: [b] – [p], [v] – [f], [g] – [k], [d] – [t], [zh] – [sh], [z] – [s], [b'] – [p'], [c'] – [f'], [g'] – [k'], [d'] – [t'], [z '] - [With'].

The remaining consonants do not have a voiced-voiceless pair. Voiced unpaired consonants: [y’], [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’]. Voiceless unpaired consonants: [x], [x’], [ts], [ch’], [sch’].

Based on the participation of the middle part of the tongue in the pronunciation of a consonant, sounds are divided into hard and soft consonants.

Hard consonants are formed without the participation of the middle part of the tongue. These are consonants: [b], [v], [g], [d], [g], [z], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], [r] , [s], [t], [f], [x], [ts], [w].

Soft consonants are formed with the participation of the middle part of the tongue. These are the consonants: [b'], [v'], [g'], [d'], [z'], [y'], [k'], [l'], [m'], [n '], [p'], [p'], [s'], [t'], [f'], [x'], [h'], [w'].

Paired consonants in terms of hardness and softness form 15 pairs: [b] – [b'], [v] – [v'], [g] – [g’], [d] – [d’], [z] – [z'], [l] - [l'], [m] - [m'], [n] - [n'], [p] - [p'], [p] - [p'], [f] - [f'], [k] - [k'], [t] - [t'], [s] - [s'], [x] - [x'].

Hard unpaired consonants: [zh], [sh], [ts].

Soft unpaired consonants: [th’], [h’], [sch’].

Russian alphabet

To indicate speech sounds in writing, letters are used, each of which has its own name. All letters of the Russian language located in in a certain order, form the alphabet, or alphabet.

Letter	Name	Letter	Name	Letter	Name
A a	A	K k	ka	X x	Ha
B b	bae	L l	ale	Ts ts	tse
In in	ve	Mm	Em	H h	what
G g	ge	N n	en	Sh sh	sha
D d	de	Oh oh	O	sch sch	now
Her	e	P p	pe	ъ	solid sign
Her	e	R r	er	s	s
F	zhe	With with	es	b	soft sign
Z z	ze	T t	te	Uh uh	uh
And and	And	U y	at	Yu Yu	yu
Thy	and short	F f	ef	I I	I

There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet:

• 10 vowel letters (“a”, “e”, “e”, “i”, “o”, “u”, “y”, “e”, “yu”, “ya”), the main function of which is designation vowel sounds;
• 21 consonant letters (“b”, “v”, “g”, “d”, “zh”, “z”, “y”, “k”, “l”, “m”, “n”, “p” "", "r", "s", "t", "f", "x", "ts", "ch", "sh", "sch"), the main function of which is to designate consonant sounds;
• 2 letters that do not indicate a sound (“ъ”, “ь”).

Letters are uppercase (capital, large) and lowercase (small).

Correlation of letters and sounds

The same letter can represent different sounds, for example:

• the letter “ya” can denote the sounds [á], [y'á] under stress (five [p'at'], pits [y'ama], zealous [r'y'any'], button accordion [bai'an] ); sound close to [i] or [e]; [y'i] or [y'e] without emphasis (nickel [p'itak], sexton [d'y'ich'ok]);
• the letter “a” without stress after the consonants “ch”, “sch” denotes a sound close to [i] or [e] (spare [pasch’id’it’]);
• the letter “i” after “zh”, “sh”, “ts” denotes the sound [s] (wide [shirók’iy’]);
• the letter “d” can denote the sounds [d], [d'], [t], [t']: give [dat'], buzz [gud'at], rod [rot], uncle [d'at'ka ].

The quantitative ratio of sounds and letters denoting them can be different:

1. The letters “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” designate 2 sounds: [й’] and one of the vowel sounds - in following cases:

• at the beginning of the word (el [y'el], hedgehog [y'osh], south [y'uk], yard [y'art]),
• after a vowel (fighter [bai'ets], sings [pay'ot], union [say'us], bayan [bai'an]),
• after the separating “ъ” and “ь” (ate [s’y’el], drinks [p’y’ot], loach [v’y’un], zealous [r’y’any’]).

In other cases, the letters “e”, “e”, “yu”, “ya” are used to designate one of the vowel sounds and indicate the softness of the previous soft paired consonant (sel [s'el], ice [l'ot", hatch [ l'uk], kneaded [m'al]). The letter “e” in borrowed words may not indicate the softness of a consonant, for example: thesis [tez’is].

2. The letter “and” denotes 2 sounds after the separating “b”: [y’i] (whose [ch’y’í]). In other cases, the letter “and” is used to denote [and] and to indicate the softness of the previous soft paired consonant (tir [t’ir]).

3. In some cases, several letters can denote one sound, for example, the combination “sch” means [sch’] (happiness [sch’as’t’y’e]).

4. In some combinations, a consonant letter may not indicate a sound (such a consonant is called unpronounceable), for example, the letter “v” in the word hello [hello’] is not pronounced.

5. The letters “hard sign” and “soft sign” do not indicate sounds. For example, the word nonsense has four letters (“ch”, “u”, “sh”, “b”), but three sounds ([ch’], [ú], [sh]).

Phonetics subject

The subject of phonetics is the sound means of language: sounds, stress, intonation.

Phonetics task- study and description of the sound system of a language at this stage of its development.

Basic phonetic units and means

All phonetics units are divided into segmental And supersegmental.

· Segmental units- units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beats), phonetic phrases (syntagms).

o Phonetic phrase- a segment of speech that represents an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.

o Phonetic word (rhythmic structure)- part of a phrase united by one verbal stress.

o Syllable- the smallest unit of a speech chain.

o Sound- minimal phonetic unit.

· Supersegmental units(intonation means) - units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).

o Accent- highlighting in speech a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.

o Tone- rhythmic and melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.

o Pace- speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segmental units spoken per unit of time.

o Duration- sounding time of a speech segment.

The sound side of speech is a very complex and multifaceted phenomenon. The sound of speech is formed directly in the human speech apparatus, which consists of five main parts:

· breathing apparatus,

· larynx,

· supernasal tube, which includes the oral and nasal cavity,

organs of pronunciation

· brain - nervous system.

The respiratory apparatus is the chest, thoraco-abdominal cavity, lungs and windpipe. Each of components the breathing apparatus performs its inherent functions.

The larynx is a tube of cartilage connected to each other by short elastic muscular ligaments. The vocal cords are attached to the cartilages that form the larynx and, due to their mobility, change the degree of tension.

The organs of pronunciation are located in the oral cavity, i.e. organs whose work ensures the final high-quality finishing of each speech sound. These organs are usually divided into active ones (lips, tongue, vocal cords, lower jaw) and passive (teeth, uvula, palate, upper jaw).

Vowel sounds can be in strong and weak positions.

· Strong position - a position under stress, in which the sound is pronounced clearly, for a long time, with greater strength and does not require verification, for example: city, land, greatness.

· In a weak position (without stress), the sound is pronounced indistinctly, briefly, with less force and requires verification, for example: head, forest, teacher.

All six vowel sounds are distinguished under stress.
In an unstressed position, instead of [a], [o], [z], other vowel sounds are pronounced in the same part of the word. So, instead of [o], a slightly weakened sound [a] - [wad]a is pronounced, instead of [e] and [a] in unstressed syllables pronounced [ie] - a sound intermediate between [i] and [e], for example: [m "iesta], [ch"iesy], [p"iet"brka], [s*ielo].

The alternation of strong and weak positions of vowel sounds in the same part of a word is called positional alternation of sounds.

The pronunciation of vowel sounds depends on the syllable in which they are located in relation to the stressed one.

· In the first pre-stressed syllable, vowel sounds change less, for example: st[o]l - st[a]la.

· In the remaining unstressed syllables, the vowels change more, and some do not differ at all and in pronunciation approach zero sound, for example^: transported - [p''riev'6s], gardener - [s'davot], water carrier - [v'adavbs] (here ъ к ь indicate an unclear sound, zero sound).

The alternation of vowel sounds in strong and weak positions is not reflected in writing, for example: to be surprised is a miracle; in the unstressed position, the letter is written that denotes the stressed sound in this root: to be surprised means “to meet with a marvel (miracle).”

This is the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, providing for uniform spelling of significant parts of a word - root, prefix, suffix, ending, regardless of position.

The designation of unstressed vowels, verified by stress, is subject to the morphological principle.

1. Basic classification of world languages
Currently, there are from 3 to 5 thousand languages ​​on earth. The difference is associated with the difference in dialects and languages, secondly with the definition of the area and scope of use, and thirdly with the assessment of the “vitality” of the language.
The multiplicity of languages ​​necessitates classification. In modern linguistics, 4 classifications have been developed:
1) Areal (geographical)
2) Functional
3) Typological (morphological)
4) Genealogical
The first is based on the study language card peace. Describes the boundaries of distribution.
The second is based on the study of the functions and areas of language use (cultural, diplomatic, language of education, etc.)
The most important are the typological and genealogical classifications.

Language families,

I. The Indo-European family of languages ​​is the largest. 1 billion 600 million carriers.

II. Altai family. 76 million speakers.
III. Ural languages.
IV. Caucasian family. (Georgian, Abkhazian, Chechen, Kabardian)
V. Chinese-Tibetan family
VI. Afroasiatic family (Semitohamite family)

Speech sounds are studied in a branch of linguistics called phonetics.

All speech sounds are divided into two groups: vowels and consonants.

There are 36 consonant sounds in the Russian language.

Consonant sounds of the Russian language are those sounds during the formation of which the air encounters some kind of obstacle in the oral cavity; they consist of voice and noise or only noise.

In the first case, voiced consonants are formed, in the second - voiceless consonants.

Most often, voiced and voiceless consonants form pairs based on voicedness-voicelessness: [b] - [p], [v] - [f], [g] - [k], [d] - [t], [zh] - [ w], [h] - [s].

However, some consonants are only voiceless: [x], [ts], [ch"], [sh] or only voiced: [l], [m], [n], [r], [G].

There are also hard and soft consonants. Most of them form pairs: [b] - [b"], [c] - [c"], [d] - [g"], [d] - [d"], [z] - [z"] , [k] - [k"], [l] - [l"], [m] - [m*], [n] - [n*], [p] - [p"], [r] - [p"], [s] - [s"], [t] - [t"], [f] - [f"], [x] - [x"].

Hard consonants [zh], [sh], [ts] and soft consonants [h"], [t"] do not have paired sounds.

In a word, consonant sounds can occupy different positions, that is, the location of the sound among other sounds in the word.

· A position in which the sound does not change is strong. For a consonant sound, this is the position before the vowel (weak), sonorant (true), before [v] and [v*] (twist). All other positions are weak for consonants.
At the same time, the consonant sound changes: the voiced sound in front of the deaf becomes voiceless: hem - [patshyt"]; the deaf before the voiced becomes voiced: request - [prbz"ba]; the voiced one is deafened at the end of the word: oak - [dup]; no sound is pronounced: holiday - [praz"n"ik]; hard before soft can become soft: power - [vlas"t"].

The Indo-European family of languages ​​is the largest. 1 billion 600 million carriers.
1) Indo-Iranian branch.
a) Indian group (Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Punjabi)
b) Iranian group (Persian, Pashto, Forsi, Ossetian)
2) Romano-Germanic branch. The specialties of this branch are Greek and Arabic languages.
a) Romanesque (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Provençal, Romanian)
b) German group

North Germanic subgroup (Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic)

West German subgroup (German, English, Dutch)
c) Celtic group (Irish, Scottish, Welsh).

3) Balto-Slavic branch of languages
a) Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian)
b) Slavic group

West Slavic subgroup (Polish, Chechen, Slovak)

Southern subgroup (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Serbian, Croatian)

East Slavic subgroup (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian).

Place of the Russian language in the genealogical classification: The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family of languages, the Balto-Slavic branch, the East Slavic subgroup.

Speech sound- a sound formed by the human pronunciation apparatus for the purpose of linguistic communication (the pronunciation apparatus includes: pharynx, oral cavity with tongue, lungs, nasal cavity, lips, teeth).

Related information.