"No man is like an island"
(John Donne)

Society consists of many individuals who are similar in many ways, but also extremely different in their aspirations and worldviews, experiences and perceptions of reality. Morality is what unites us, these are those special rules adopted in the human community and defining a certain general view of categories such as good and evil, right and wrong, good and bad.

Morality is defined as norms of behavior in society that have been formed over many centuries and serve for the correct development of a person in it. The term itself comes from the Latin word mores, which means rules accepted in society.

Moral Traits

Morality, which is largely decisive for the regulation of life in society, has several main features. Thus, its fundamental requirements for all members of society are the same, regardless of position. They operate even in situations that are outside the area of ​​responsibility of legal principles and extend to such areas of life as creativity, science, and production.

Norms of public morality, in other words, traditions, are significant in communication between specific individuals and groups of people, allowing them to “speak the same language.” Legal principles are imposed on society, and failure to comply with them carries with it consequences of varying severity. Traditions and moral norms are voluntary; every member of society agrees to them without coercion.

Types of moral standards

For centuries it has been accepted various types. Thus, in primitive society, such a principle as taboo was indisputable. People who were proclaimed as transmitting the will of the gods were strictly regulated as prohibited actions that could threaten the entire society. Violation of them was inevitably followed by the most severe punishment: death or exile, which in most cases was the same thing. The taboo is still preserved in many. Here, as a moral norm, examples are the following: you cannot be on the territory of the temple if the person does not belong to the clergy caste; You cannot have children from your relatives.

Custom

A moral norm is not only generally accepted, as a result of its derivation by some elite, it can also be a custom. It represents a repetitive pattern of actions that is especially important in order to maintain a certain position in society. In Muslim countries, for example, traditions are more revered than other moral norms. Customs based on religious beliefs in Central Asia can cost lives. For us, who are more accustomed to European culture, legislation is an analogue. It has the same impact on us as traditional moral standards have on Muslims. Examples in this case: a ban on drinking alcohol, closed clothing for women. For our Slavic-European society, the customs are to bake pancakes on Maslenitsa and celebrate the New Year with a Christmas tree.

Among moral norms, tradition is also distinguished - a procedure and pattern of behavior that is preserved for a long time, passed on from generation to generation. A kind of traditional moral standards, examples. In this case, these include: celebrating the New Year with a tree and gifts, maybe in a certain place, or going to the bathhouse on New Year’s Eve.

Moral rules

There are also moral rules - those norms of society that a person consciously determines for himself and adheres to this choice, deciding what is acceptable for him. For such a moral norm, examples in this case: give up your seat to pregnant and elderly people, shake your hand to a woman when exiting a vehicle, open the door for a woman.

Functions of morality

One of the functions is evaluation. Morality considers events and actions that take place in society from the point of view of their usefulness or danger to further development, and then gives his verdict. Various types of reality are assessed in terms of good and evil, creating an environment in which each of its manifestations can be assessed both positively and negatively. With the help of this function, a person can understand his place in the world and form his position.

The regulatory function is no less important. Morality actively influences people's consciousness, often acting better than legal restrictions. From childhood, with the help of education, each member of society develops certain views on what can be done and what cannot be done, and this helps him adjust his behavior in such a way that it is useful for himself and for development in general. Moral norms regulate both the internal views of a person, and therefore his behavior, and the interaction between groups of people, allowing them to maintain the established way of life, stability and culture.

The educational function of morality is expressed in the fact that under its influence a person begins to focus not only on his own needs, but also on the needs of the people around him and society as a whole. The individual develops an awareness of the value of the needs of other participants in society, which, in turn, leads to mutual respect. A person enjoys his freedom as long as it does not violate the freedom of other people. similar in different individuals, help them better understand each other and act harmoniously together, positively influencing the development of each of them.

Morality as a result of evolution

The basic moral principles of any time in the existence of society include the need to do good deeds and not cause harm to people, regardless of what position they occupy, what nationality they belong to, or followers of what religion they are.

The principles of norms and morality become necessary as soon as individuals interact. It was the emergence of society that created them. Biologists who focus on the study of evolution say that in nature there is also a principle of mutual utility, which in human society is realized through morality. All animals that live in society are forced to moderate their egoistic needs in order to be more adapted to later life.

Many scientists view morality as a result social evolution human society, being the same natural manifestation. They say that many of the principles of norms and morality, which are fundamental, were formed through natural selection, when only those individuals survived who could interact correctly with others. Thus, as an example, they cite parental love, which expresses the need to protect the offspring from all external dangers in order to ensure the survival of the species, and the ban on incest, which protects the population from degeneration through the mixing of too similar genes, which leads to the appearance of weak children.

Humanism as a basic principle of morality

Humanism is fundamental principle norms of public morality. It refers to the belief that every person has the right to happiness and countless opportunities to realize this right, and that at the core of every society should be the idea that everyone in it has value and is worthy of protection and freedom .

The main one can be expressed in the well-known rule: “treat others the way you want to be treated.” Another person in this principle is seen as deserving the same benefits as any particular person.

Humanism assumes that society must guarantee basic human rights, such as the inviolability of home and correspondence, freedom of religion and choice of place of residence, and the prohibition of forced labor. Society must make efforts to support people who, for one reason or another, are limited in their abilities. The ability to accept such people distinguishes human society, which does not live according to the laws of nature with natural selection, dooming those who are not strong enough to die. Humanism also creates opportunities for human happiness, the pinnacle of which is the realization of one’s knowledge and skills.

Humanism as a source of universal moral norms

Humanism in our time draws society's attention to such universal human problems as the proliferation of nuclear weapons, environmental threats, the need for development and a reduction in production levels. He says that the containment of needs and the involvement of everyone in solving problems that face the entire society can only happen through an increase in the level of consciousness and the development of spirituality. It forms universal human moral norms.

Mercy as a basic principle of morality

Mercy is understood as a person’s readiness to help people in need, to sympathize with them, perceiving their suffering as his own and wanting to alleviate their suffering. Many religions pay close attention to this moral principle, especially Buddhism and Christianity. In order for a person to be merciful, it is necessary that he does not divide people into “us” and “strangers”, so that he sees “his own” in everyone.

Currently, great emphasis is placed on the fact that a person should actively help those who need mercy, and it is important that he not only provides practical assistance, but is also ready to support morally.

Equality as a basic principle of morality

From a moral point of view, equality calls for a person's actions to be evaluated regardless of his social status and wealth, and from a general point of view, for the approach to human actions to be universal. This kind of state of affairs can only exist in a well-developed society that has reached a certain level of economic and cultural development.

Altruism as a basic principle of morality

This moral principle can be expressed in the phrase “Love your neighbor as yourself.” Altruism assumes that a person is able to do something good for another person for free, that this will not be a favor that must be returned, but a selfless impulse. This moral principle is very important in modern society, when life in big cities alienates people from each other and creates the feeling that caring for one’s neighbor without intentionality is impossible.

Morality and law

Law and morality are in close contact, since together they form the rules in society, but they have a number of significant differences. Correlation and morality allows us to identify their differences.

The rules of law are documented and developed by the state as mandatory rules, non-compliance with which inevitably entails liability. The categories of legal and illegal are used as an assessment, and this assessment is objective, built on regulatory documents, such as the constitution and various codes.

Moral norms and principles are more flexible and different people may be perceived differently and may also depend on the situation. They exist in society in the form of rules that are passed on from one person to another and are not documented anywhere. Moral norms are quite subjective, assessment is expressed through the concepts of “right” and “wrong”; their failure to comply in some cases cannot lead to more serious consequences than public censure or simply disapproval. For a person, a violation moral principles may lead to pangs of conscience.

The relationship between the norms of law and morality can be seen in many cases. Thus, the moral principles “thou shalt not kill”, “thou shalt not steal” correspond to the laws prescribed in the Criminal Code, which state that an attempt on human life and property leads to criminal liability and imprisonment. A conflict of principles is also possible when a legal violation - for example, euthanasia, which is prohibited in our country, which is considered as murder of a person - can be justified by moral convictions - the person himself does not want to live, there is no hope for recovery, the disease causes him unbearable pain.

Thus, the difference between legal and moral norms is expressed only in legislation.

Conclusion

Moral norms were born in society in the process of evolution; their appearance is not accidental. They were needed before to support society and protect it from internal conflicts, and they still perform this and other functions, developing and progressing along with society. Moral standards have been and will remain an integral element of a civilized society.

Any science has a certain range of problems, the most complex theoretical and practical questions to which it must seek answers. The main ethical issues include:

• - the problem of criteria of good and evil;
• - the problem of the meaning of life and human purpose;
• - the problem of justice;
• - the problem of what should be.

Basic moral categories

It is possible to identify a number of moral categories that most fully reflect the essence and content of ethics. Among them: moral principles, moral standards, moral behavior, moral consciousness human, moral ideal, good and evil.

Moral principles

Moral principles are basic moral laws, which are a system of values ​​that reinforces a person’s moral responsibilities through moral experience. They are also called virtues. Moral principles are formed in the process of education and together become the basis for the development of a number of moral qualities of an individual (humanity, sense of justice, rationality, etc.).

The ways and means of implementing each moral principle are varied and depend on individual characteristics the person himself, the moral traditions that have developed in society, and the specific life situation. The most comprehensive and widespread principles include the principles of humanity, respect, rationality, courage and honor.

Humanity - This is a set of positive qualities that represent a conscious, kind and selfless attitude towards people around us, all living beings and nature in general. A person differs from an animal in that he has such qualities as reason, conscience, and spirituality. Being an intellectual and spiritual being, in any, even the most difficult, situations, he must remain a person in accordance with the high moral stage of his development.

Humanity consists of everyday actions that reflect a person’s kind attitude towards other people and are manifested in such positive acts as mutual assistance, revenue, service, concession, favor. Humanity is a volitional action of a person based on a deep understanding and acceptance of his inherent moral qualities.

Reverence - This is a respectful attitude not only towards family and friends, but also towards the entire world around us, the ability to treat familiar and unfamiliar people, things and things with gratitude and attention. natural objects and phenomena. Deference is associated with such qualities as politeness, tact, courtesy, benevolence, and sympathy.

Reasonableness - it is an action based on moral experience. It includes concepts such as wisdom and logic. On the one hand, rationality is a quality of a person’s personality, depending on the intelligence given to him from birth, and on the other, ego actions consistent with experience and a system of moral values.

Courage And honor - categories that signify a person’s ability to overcome difficult life circumstances and a state of fear without losing self-esteem and respect from other people. They are closely interrelated and are based on personality traits such as a sense of duty, responsibility and resilience.

Moral principles must be constantly implemented in human behavior to consolidate moral experience.

Moral standards

The cohabitation of individuals in society requires a certain restriction of their freedom, since some human actions can be harmful and even dangerous for society. Moral standards reflect the principles and rules of relationships between people established by society that arise in the process of living together. Relationships of joint activity and mutual assistance between people are built on the basis of moral norms.

Moral norms are a social phenomenon, since they affect the problem of individual behavior in society, representing the requirements that society makes for each individual person. It is society that determines how relationships between its members should be built. Society also evaluates a person's behavior. Quite often, these assessments do not coincide with individual ones: what seems positive for an individual can cause a negative assessment by society, and vice versa, society often forces a person to do something that is contrary to his aspirations and desires.

The fact that moral norms are social in nature has developed historically. After all, a person’s moral consciousness is formed under the influence of his environment, on the basis of moral ideals and moral authorities developed by society. The moral standards of an individual are a symbiosis of social attitudes and personal consciousness.

Moral standards are the basis for society's assessment of human behavior. There are no uniform criteria for such an assessment; they depend on the era, the type of society, on the traditional moral attitudes that have developed in a particular territory, in a particular country, etc. The same actions of people in different times, in different societies can be considered moral and immoral. For example, the barbaric traditions of scalping among the northern Indians or eating the heart of a defeated enemy among the natives of Oceania at one time did not seem immoral, but were considered a manifestation of special valor deserving public respect.

Moral norms in society exist in the form of prohibitions and unspoken instructions. Prohibitions represent those norms of individual behavior that are undesirable for society as a whole. Unspoken, informal instructions give a person freedom to choose the type of behavior within the framework of generally accepted norms. Historically, prohibitions have always preceded regulations.

At one time E.N. Trubetskoy wrote that “Solovyov’s ethics is nothing more than part of his teaching about the “All-One,” criticizing Solovyov for inconsistency in defending the independence of ethics from metaphysical principles. A.F. Losev, in response to the reproach of E.N. Trubetskoy, notes that Solovyov , without abandoning metaphysics, sought to “characterize morality in its pure form... And if morality, as it develops, rises higher and higher until it joins the general unity, this does not mean that morality is thereby already in itself the doctrine of All-Unity."

Solovyov believed that direct moral feeling or the intuitive distinction between good and evil inherent in man is not enough; morality cannot be considered as an instinct. Moral foundations become the starting point from which a person starts, determining the norms of his behavior.

"One should unconditionally accept only that which in itself, in its essence, is good. ... Man, in principle or according to his purpose, is the unconditional internal form for good as unconditional content; everything else is conditional and relative. Good in itself is not conditioned by anything, it conditions everything and is realized through everything. The fact that it is not conditioned by anything constitutes its purity; the fact that it determines everything by itself is its completeness, and the fact that it is realized through everything is its power or effectiveness."

Thus, pointing to natural bases morality, Solovyov at the same time links morality and the very nature of man with the Absolute. A person must be directed upward. This aspiration, this connection with the Absolute does not allow a person to return to the animal state. “Primary, natural morality is nothing more than the reaction of spiritual nature against the suppression and absorption that threatens it by lower forces - carnal lust, selfishness and wild passions.”

In the material nature of man Vl. Solovyov discovers three simple moral feelings. But they cannot, again, be without foundation, or, in other words, they need support, and this support is the unconditional Good of God. God embodies perfect unity. Material nature can enter into perfect connection with the absolute only through us. “The human personality, and therefore every individual person, is the possibility for the realization of unlimited reality, or a special form of infinite content.”

There is no unity in society, nature often triumphs over man, matter dominates the spirit. Moral improvement does not imply blind submission to a higher power, but conscious and free service to the perfect Good. Such a formulation of the question is of a fundamental nature, pointing to free will, autonomy of the individual, on the one hand, and on the other, Solovyov does not accidentally choose from several definitions of the Absolute not God or Good, but perfect Good, thereby emphasizing and defining the main characteristic of the Absolute, which lies in moral sphere and setting goals and meanings.

In addition, moral improvement involves a transition from natural solidarity with one’s own kind to sympathetic and consonant interaction based on love and, thirdly, actual advantage over material nature must “transform into rational dominion over it for ours and for its good.”

For real superiority over material nature, natural moral foundations must be constantly implemented in human behavior. For example, considering the principle of asceticism, which is significant for the Christian religion, Soloviev suggests its relationship with man’s negative attitude towards his animal nature. At the same time, nature is not considered as evil in itself - analyzing a number of philosophical teachings - Vedic, Buddhist, even Gnostic - Solovyov speaks of nature as a good beginning. Asceticism is a manifestation of shame in that area human activity, which can and should be, first of all, spiritual, but is often relegated to the level of the material, “... the process of purely animal life strives to capture the human spirit into its sphere, to subjugate or absorb it.”

Ascetic demands for a way of life grow out of the desire of the spirit to subjugate the demands of the body: “The moral demand for the subordination of the flesh to the spirit meets the opposite actual desire of the flesh to subjugate the spirit, as a result of which the ascetic principle is twofold: it is required, firstly, to protect spiritual life from the capture of the carnal principle and , secondly, to conquer the realm of the flesh, to make animal life only potency or matter of the spirit." In this process, Solovyov identifies three main points - the self-difference of spirit from flesh, the spirit’s real defense of its independence, and the achieved dominance of the spirit over nature. The third stage is a state of spiritual perfection; it cannot be imputed to every person as a duty; thus, Soloviev is not a supporter of absolute, but only relative asceticism: “subordinate the flesh to the spirit, to the extent necessary for its dignity and independence. Having as the final, hoped-for goal To be a complete master of your physical forces and general nature, set your immediate, obligatory goal: not to be, at least, an enslaved servant of rebellious matter, or chaos."

Solovyov’s interpretation of asceticism proceeds, first of all, from the need for self-control of the spirit, non-subordination to carnal passions, and in no way a denial of human corporeality, nor an attitude towards it as something unclean. The restriction, from Solovyov’s point of view, should apply not only to the two most important functions of human physiology, nutrition and reproduction, but also to breathing and sleep. Breath control practices are indeed common as a technique for body control, an example of which is yoga. The tendency to excessive sleep also inclines a person to the carnal side of life - we note, once again, that Soloviev understands asceticism as a limitation, but not self-torture.

Excess nutrition, carnal sin - not the physical act of conception, but precisely “immeasurable and blind attraction”, both in reality and in the imagination - everything that attaches special exclusive importance to the material side of human life to the detriment of the spiritual, must be overcome with the help a reasonable, conscious, voluntary choice of a person, guided by his conscience, guided by shame.

Asceticism, according to Solovyov, is designed to free a person from carnal passions, which are simply shameful. “The predominance of the spirit over the flesh is necessary to preserve the moral dignity of man.” By acting in accordance with one's material nature, by excessing in carnal desires, a person can harm himself. But evil passions - anger, envy, greed - must be eradicated by a person in himself as the worst, since they are directed and can cause harm to other people. This is no longer the area of ​​ascetic, but of altruistic morality. Just as asceticism is based on shame, so altruism is a necessary continuation of pity as a moral foundation.

Soloviev notes that the predominance of the spirit over the flesh can be achieved by a person without giving this act a moral meaning: “... the power of the spirit over the flesh, or willpower, acquired through correct abstinence, can be used for immoral purposes. A strong will can be evil. A person can suppress the lower nature in order to be vain or proud of one’s supreme power; such a victory of the spirit is not good.”

Consequently, asceticism as a moral principle does not contain unconditional good - for moral behavior it is necessary, but not sufficient, although in many religious teachings it was asceticism that was considered the only basis for correct behavior. “There have been and are successful ascetics not only people devoted to spiritual pride, hypocrisy and vanity, but also downright evil, insidious and cruel egoists. Admittedly, such an ascetic is much worse in a moral sense than a simple-minded drunkard and glutton, or a compassionate libertine.” .

Asceticism acquires moral meaning only in conjunction with altruism. Pity, which underlies altruism, connects a person with the world of all living things, while shame separates him from nature. Sympathy and participation in themselves are not the basis of moral behavior; they can also include self-interest, for example, joy together with someone brings pleasure. Pity, on the other hand, is disinterested: “... pity directly prompts us to act in order to save another being from suffering or help him. Such an action can be purely internal, for example, when pity for an enemy keeps me from causing him offense or harm, but even this, in in any case, there is action, not passive state as joy or pleasure. Of course, I can find inner satisfaction in the fact that I did not offend my neighbor, but only after the act of will has been completed."

Pity, regardless of its object, is good feeling. A person is capable of feeling sorry for an enemy or a criminal; this kind of feeling will not be an excuse for a crime, but only a manifestation of a natural moral basis. "... Pity is good; a person who shows this feeling is called kind; the more deeply he experiences it and the more widely he applies it, the more kind he is recognized; a ruthless person, on the contrary, is called evil par excellence."

A person, pitying another, nevertheless clearly realizes that he is not identical to himself, but recognizes the object of his pity as having “the right to existence and possible well-being.” Thus, altruism affirms the principle of equality, the principle of correct relationships between people and living beings in general, justice, when I recognize for others the same feelings and rights that I myself have.

In this, the altruistic principle of morality echoes Vl. Solovyov with the categorical imperative of I. Kant, but does not repeat it: “In perfect inner agreement with the highest will, recognizing for all others the unconditional meaning or value, since they also have the image and likeness of God, take as full a part as possible in your work and general improvement for the sake of the final revelation of the Kingdom of God in the world."

Solovyov distinguishes between the internal essence of morality - the integrity of man, inherent in his nature, as an abiding norm, a formal principle of morality or a moral law of obligation and real manifestations of morality. Asceticism and altruism are precisely those real moral principles that, from Solovyov’s point of view, bring a person closer to the Absolute.

But real manifestations of morality even during the time of Vl. Solovyov, and today are far from perfect. This is due to the fact, according to Vl. Solovyov, that real humanity is “disintegrated humanity.” It is not concentrated and not raised by a single absolute interest in God, “it is scattered in its will between many relative and incoherent interests.” Solovyov warns that “the historical process is a long and difficult transition from bestial humanity to divine humanity.”

Moreover, Good does not have a universal and final realization for us. Virtue is never completely real. However, “the measure of goodness in humanity is generally increasing... in the sense that the average level of generally binding and implementable moral requirements is increasing.” A person can do a lot, but his main role is Vl. Solovyov sees the gathering of the universe as an idea, but in reality only the God-man and the Kingdom of God can gather the universe.

Moral improvement is possible thanks to reasonable freedom. “Morality rests entirely on rational freedom, or moral necessity, and completely excludes from its sphere irrational, unconditional freedom, or arbitrary choice.” And the choice defines the Good “with all the infinity of its positive content and being, therefore this choice is infinitely determined, its necessity was absolute, and there is no arbitrariness in it.”

This law, formulated by Vl. Solovyov, and there is a path to All-Unity. That is why “the moral nature of man is a necessary condition and presupposition of God-manhood,” and “moral life is revealed as a universal and all-embracing task.”

The importance of man as a moral being is fundamental for Vl. Solovyov. God-manhood as a goal cannot be realized without an active personality, morally self-organizing, spiritualizing the “collective man,” organic and inorganic nature. Endowing a person with the natural foundations of morality, which goes back to absolute Good, gives grounds to Vl. Solovyov speaks about the involvement of each member of society in the “absolute completeness of the whole” on the one hand, and on the other (and this is the originality of the philosopher’s approach), insist that the person himself is necessary “for this completeness no less than she is for him.”

It seems important to conclude Vl. Solovyov that the natural foundations of morality, its involvement in the Absolute Good is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for the moral improvement of humanity on the path to All-Unity, since the human personality, possessing the infinity of its content due to involvement in the absolute fullness of God-manhood, nevertheless is only a possibility, not a reality. Today, says Vl. Solovyov, a person is characterized by blind submission to the external circumstances of life, and, above all, submission to a higher power, the Absolute God.

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Humanism (lat. himapis - human) is the principle of worldview (including morality) which is based on the belief in the infinity of human capabilities and his ability to inheritance, the demand for freedom and protection of personal dignity, the idea of ​​a person’s right to happiness and that satisfying his needs and interests should be the ultimate goal of society.

The principle of humanism is based on the idea of ​​respectful attitude towards another person, fixed since ancient times. It is expressed in the golden rule of morality “act towards others in the same way as you would like them to act towards you” and in Kant’s categorical erative "always act in such a way that the maxim of your behavior can become a universal law."

However, the golden rule of morality contains an element of subjectivism, because what any individual person wants in relation to himself is not necessarily what everyone else wants . The categorical imperative looks more universal.

Humanism, represented by its imperative side, acting as a practical normative requirement, undoubtedly comes from the priority of the individual over other values. Therefore, the content of humanism correlates with the idea of ​​personal happiness.

However, the latter is not independent of the happiness of other people and, in general, of the nature of the tasks being solved by society at this stage of its development. After all, true happiness presupposes completeness and emotional richness of life. It can be achieved only in the process of self-realization of the individual, one way or another carried out on the basis of goals and values ​​shared with other people.

It is possible to identify three main meanings of humanism:

1. Guarantees of basic human rights as a condition for preserving the humane foundations of his existence.

2. Support for the weak, going beyond the usual ideas of a given society about justice.

3. Formation of social and moral qualities that allow an individual to achieve self-realization on the basis of public values.

Modern trends in the development of humanistic thought include the attention of scientists, public figures, and all sensible people to the fate of human development "The emergence of global "balanced problems are the real basis for uniting all currently existing forms of real humanism, regardless of differences in worldviews, political, religious and other beliefs." Oizerman T.I. Reflections on real humanism, alienation, utopianism and positivism // Issues of Philosophy 1989 No. 10 P. 65.

In the modern world, the ideas of non-violence have had enormous success, making it possible in practice to liberate many peoples from colonial dependence, to overthrow totalitarian regimes, to invigorate but the opinion is against the proliferation of nuclear weapons, the continuation of underground nuclear testing, etc. The focus of humanistic thought is also on environmental problems, global alternatives associated with a certain reduction in the pace of production development, limiting consumption enia, development of waste-free production. All this is possible only with a high level of moral consciousness of people who are ready to make certain sacrifices for the survival of humanity. Therefore, along with pragmatic, technological, expedient principles, it is intended to establish the cult of mercy, the development of higher spirituality as opposed to gross forms of onism. Hedonism- the principle of morality that prescribes people to strive for earthly joys. Hedonism reduces the entire content of various moral requirements to a common goal - to obtain pleasure and avoid suffering. However, it cannot be considered a scientific principle of ethical theory.

By means of a formal principle it is impossible to resolve specific questions about the humane relationship of one person to another, and real humanism, apparently, represents some ns in a combination of different principles, the degree of combination of the freedom of self-expression of an individual with the requirements for her behavior set by the culture of a given society.

MERCY is compassionate and active love, expressed in readiness to help everyone in need and extending to all people, and ultimately to all living things. The concept of mercy combines two aspects - spiritual-emotional (experiencing someone else’s pain as one’s own) and concrete-practical (impulse for real help): without the first, mercy degenerates into coldness New philanthropy Philanthropy- charity, a specific form of humanism; a set of moral ideas and actions aimed at helping the disadvantaged. , without the second - sentimentality is wasted.

The origins of mercy as a moral principle lie in the Arxaic tribal solidarity, which strictly obligated, at any cost, to rescue a relative from trouble, but excluding “strangers.” True, family solidarity can partially extend to those who are outside the circle of “insiders”, but are somehow connected with it (obligations to the guest, prescribed in the Old Testament wearing to unauthorized persons and “aliens”, etc.).

However, we can talk about mercy only when all the barriers between “ours” and “strangers”, if not in everyday practice, then in idea and in individual heroic moral acts, have been overcome and oe suffering ceases to be only a subject of cold condescension.

Religions such as Buddhism and Christianity were the first to preach mercy. In Christian ethics, a caring attitude towards one's neighbor is defined as mercy and is one of the main virtues. The significant difference between mercy and friendly love-affection is that, according to the commandment of love, it is mediated by the absolute ideal - love of God. Christian love for one's neighbor is not limited to loved ones, it extends to all people, including enemies.

In Soviet ethical science, the concept of mercy for a long time did not receive adequate understanding and evaluation, and was even discarded as unnecessary, not only because it is a bad answer the beginning of the immediate needs of class and political struggle, but also because social transformations were associated with the idea of ​​such a happy order of things in which No one will simply need mercy.

Experience has shown that this is not so. Even if property inequality is pushed aside, loneliness, old age, illness and other suffering will remain that require not only public concern, but also more oh individual mercy. Nowadays, there is a gradual process of full return of the term “mercy” into the vocabulary of our society, and activities aimed at specific assistance to people are being intensified. waiting in mercy.

PABEHCTBO (in morality) - a relationship between people, within which they have the same rights to the development of creative abilities for happiness, respect for their personal dignity. Along with the need for fraternal unity between people, equality is the key idea of ​​morality, historically emerging as an alternative to consanguinity and social alnoy separateness of people, their actual economic and political inequality. The most adequate expression of the principle of equality in morality is the golden rule, from the formulation of which follows the universality (universality) of moral requirements, their spread to all people, regardless of their social status and living conditions, and the universality of moral judgments, which lies in the fact that when assessing the actions of others people proceed from the same grounds as when assessing their own actions.

The idea of ​​equality receives normative expression in the principle of altruism and the corresponding requirements of compassion (pity), mercy, and participation.

As historical experience shows, moral equality can be practically realized only with a certain socio-political and cultural status of people who are characterized by eco nominal and political independence, the possibility of increasing the educational and professional level, spiritual development with the indispensable responsibility of everyone o a member of the society for the results of their activities .

ALTPUISM (from Latin alteg - other) is a moral principle that prescribes compassion for other people, selfless service to them and readiness for self-denial in the name of their good and happiness. The concept of “Altruism” was introduced into moral theory by Comte Comte Auguste (1798-1857), a French philosopher and founder of positivism. who placed this principle at the basis of their ethical system. Comte linked the moral improvement of society with the education in people of a social sense of altruism, which should counteract their selfishness Selfishness - life principle and moral quality, which means giving preference when choosing a line of behavior to one’s own interests over the interests of society and surrounding people. .

As a moral requirement, altruism arises as a reaction and a kind of compensation for the identification of people’s interests, conditioned by private ownership of alienation and promotion to the first plan in the social life of a person the motives of self-interest and acquisition. The golden rule of morality and the Christian commandment “Love your neighbor as yourself” precisely reflect this direction of altruism, its appeal to selfishness to us, a separate individual. At the same time, if the golden rule emphasizes the idea of ​​equality in morality, then the commandment of love is the idea of ​​respect and mercy, treating others as an end in itself.

As a requirement for equality and humanity, altruism is one of the normative foundations of morality and humanism. At the same time, being addressed to the individual as a bearer of private interests, altruism actually necessarily presupposes self-denial, because in conditions of mutual separation of interests Concern for the interests of one's neighbor is possible only if one's own interests are infringed. Specific forms of realization of altruism in behavior are beneficence Beneficence- an action aimed at the benefit of another person or community and realizing a person’s duty in relation to other people, to society. and philanthropy.

Justice is a concept of moral consciousness that expresses not this or that value, good, but their general relationship between themselves and the specific distribution between individuals; the proper order of human society, corresponding to ideas about the essence of man and his inalienable rights. Justice is also a category of legal and socio-political consciousness. Unlike the more abstract concepts of good and evil, with the help of which a moral assessment is given to certain phenomena as a whole, justice characterizes the relationship between several phenomena from the point of view of distribution of good and evil between people.

In particular, the concept of justice includes the relationship between the role of individual people (classes) in the life of society and their social status, between action and retribution (crime and punishment), the quality of people and their rewards, rights and responsibilities. The discrepancy between one and the other is assessed by moral consciousness as injustice. The meaning that people put into the concept of justice seems to them something self-evident, suitable for assessing all conditions of life that they demand to preserve or change.

Justice does not contradict either mercy, kindness, or love. Love includes both of these concepts. A just judge is obliged to punish the criminal, however, moved by love and in accordance with the circumstances, he can at the same time show mercy in order to mitigate the punishment, which must always be humane. For example, a judge should not bully the accused, deprive him of a lawyer, or administer an unfair trial.

PRUDENCE is a quality of character, a principle of action that orients a person (group) towards achieving maximum personal good (happiness).

According to Aristotle, the main task of the prudent (judicious) is to accept right decisions regarding the good and benefit for oneself as a whole - for a good life. With the help of prudence, a person is able to choose the right means for this purpose in a particular situation and implement it in action. Aristotle emphasizes that to be prudent means not just to know, but to be able to act in accordance with knowledge. If scientific and philosophical knowledge deals with extremely general definitions that do not allow justification, then prudence presupposes knowledge not only of the general, but even to a greater extent of the particular, since it deals with making decisions and performing actions in specific (private) circumstances. And a prudent person, as a person capable of making decisions, knows how to achieve the highest possible benefit in a specific action. If wisdom is gained through the mind, then prudence is gained through experience and a special feeling similar to conviction.

Subsequently, I. Kant separated prudence from morality. He showed that the moral law is not determined by any goal external to it. Prudence is aimed at the natural goal - happiness, and a prudent act is only a means for it.

The rehabilitation of prudence in modern moral philosophy involves restoring its meaning as practical wisdom, that is, as the ability to act in the best possible way in specific circumstances. In the best way - it means focusing, if not on a morally sublime, then at least on a morally justified goal.

Prudence is determined by one of the key (along with justice and benevolence) principles of morality. This principle is formulated in the form of the requirement to take equal care of all parts of one's life and not to prefer the immediate good to the greater good that can only be achieved in the future.

LOVE OF PEACE is a principle of morality and politics, based on the recognition of human life as a higher social and moral value and affirming the maintenance and strengthening of peace as an ideal relations between peoples and states. Peacefulness presupposes respect for the personal and national dignity of individual citizens and entire nations, state sovereignty, human rights and people’s rights a significant lifestyle choice.

Peacefulness contributes to the maintenance of social order, mutual understanding between generations, the development of historical and cultural traditions, the interaction of various social groups, ethnicities, nations, ltyp. Peacefulness is opposed by aggressiveness, belligerence, a penchant for violent means of conflict resolution, suspicion and distrust in relations between people, nations, social chemical systems. In the history of morality, peacefulness and aggressiveness, hostility are opposed as two main trends.

PATRIOTISM (Greek pateg - homeland) is a socio-political and moral principle, in a general form expressing a feeling of love for the Motherland, concern for its interests and readiness to defend it from enemies. Patriotism is manifested in pride in the achievements of one’s native country, in bitterness because of its failures and troubles, in respect for its historical past and in caring attitude towards people’s memory, national and cultural traditions.

The moral significance of patriotism is determined by the fact that it is one of the forms of subordination of personal and public interests, unity of man and the Fatherland. But patriotic feelings and ideas only morally elevate a person and a people when they are associated with respect for the peoples of other countries and do not degenerate into the psychology of the nation pure exclusivity and distrust of “outsiders.” This aspect in patriotic consciousness became especially relevant in the last third of the 20th century, when the threat of nuclear self-destruction or environmental catastrophe required a thoughts of patriotism as a principle that commands everyone to contribute to their country’s contribution to the preservation of the planet and the survival of humanity.