Methods for determining range to targets:

Direct measurement of the terrain in pairs of steps.

First, the lesson leader should help each cadet determine the size of his step. To do this, the teacher marks a 100-meter segment with flags on level ground and orders the students to walk it two to three times, in a normal step, counting each time under the right or left foot, how many pairs of steps are obtained.

Let’s assume that with three measurements the cadets obtained 66,67,68 pairs of steps. The arithmetic mean of these numbers is 67 pairs of steps.

Therefore, the length of one pair of steps of this cadet will be 100:67 = 1.5 m.

After this, the teacher moves on to teaching cadets how to measure distances by direct measurements. To do this, he points to one of the students an object and orders him to measure the distance to it in steps. The next student is given a different object, etc. In this case, each student must act independently and take measurements both when moving to the object and back.

This method determining the range to a target (object) is used under certain conditions - outside of contact with the enemy and when there is time.

By eye over sections of terrain:

When determining the range from segments of terrain, it is necessary to mentally set aside some familiar range, which is firmly entrenched in visual memory, from oneself to the target (it should be borne in mind that as the range increases, the apparent value of the segment in the future is constantly reduced).

From landmarks (local items):

If a target is detected near a local object (landmark), the range to which is known, then when determining the range to the target it is necessary to take into account its distance from the local object (landmark).

According to the degree of visibility and apparent size of objects:

When determining the range by the degree of visibility and the apparent size of the target, it is necessary to compare the visible size of the target with the visible dimensions of this target imprinted in memory at certain ranges.

Calculation method (using the thousandth formula):

┌───────────────┐

│ B x 1000 │

│ D = ──────── │

└───────────────┘

An enemy tank with a height of 2.8 m is visible at an angle of 0-05. Determine the distance to the target (D).

Solution: D = ────────── = 560 m.

Using the covering value of 0 2 sighting devices of small arms.

To determine the covering value of the sighting device, the formula is used:

┌────────────┐

│ D x R │

│ K= ────── │

└────────────┘

K - covering value of the sighting device;

D - range to the target (100 M area is taken);

P is the size of the sighting device;

d is the distance from the eye to the sighting device.

Example: - calculate the covering value of the AK-74 front sight;

100000mm x 2mm

K= ─────────────── = 303.3 mm or 30 cm.

Thus, the covering value of the AK-74 front sight at a distance of 100 m will be equal to 30 cm.

At other ranges, the covering value of the AK-74 front sight will be greater than that obtained by as many times as the range to the target is greater than 100 M.

For example, at D=300 M - K=90 cm; at D=400 M - K=1.2 M, etc. Thus, knowing the size of the target, you can determine the range to it:

Target width - 50 cm, target Target width - 1 m, target

half-closed by the front sight completely closed by the front sight

(i.e. the front sight is closed to the example- (i.e. the front sight is closed to the

but - 25 cm), since measured 3 times 30 cm)

K=30cm by D=100M, then in the corresponding range

In this case, the range to the target will be equal to:

target - approximately 100 m. D = 3 x 100 = 300 m.

In the same way, using this formula, you can calculate the covering value of any sighting device of various samples small arms, substituting only the corresponding values.

According to the rangefinder scale of aiming devices:

The range on the rangefinder scale is determined only to those targets whose height corresponds to the number indicated under the horizontal line of the rangefinder scale. In addition, it must be taken into account that the range to the target can be determined only when the target is completely visible in height, otherwise the measured range will be overestimated.

Comparing the speeds of light and sound.

The bottom line is that first we see the flash of a shot (the speed of light = 300,000 km/sec, i.e. almost instantly), and then we hear the sound. Speed ​​of sound propagation in air = 340 m/s. For example, we noticed a shot from a recoilless rifle, mentally calculate how long it will take for the sound of this shot to reach (for example, 2 seconds), respectively, the range to the target will be equal to:

D = 340m/s x 2s = 680 m.

According to the map.

Having determined the standing point and position of the target, knowing the scale of the map, you can determine the distance to the target.

Methods for determining the direction and speed of a target:

The direction of movement of the target is determined by eye by its heading angle (the angle between the directions of movement of the target and the direction of fire).

It could be:

Frontal - from 0° to 30° (180°-150°);

Flank - from 60° to 120°;

Oblique - from 30° to 60° (120° - 150°).

The speed of the target's movement is determined visually by eye based on external signs and the method of movement of the target. It is generally accepted:

The speed of a walking target is 1.5 - 2 m/s;

The speed of a running target is 2 - 3 m/s;

Tanks in cooperation with infantry - 5 - 6 km/h;

Tanks when attacking the front line of defense - 10 - 15 km/h;

Motorcycle - 15 - 20 km/h;

Equipment afloat when crossing a water obstacle - 6 - 8 km/h.

3. Purpose, performance characteristics, general structure, procedure for partial disassembly and reassembly after partial disassembly of the PM 9 mm MAKAROV PISTOL (PM)

The 9-mm Makarov pistol (Fig. 5.1) is a personal weapon of attack and defense, designed to defeat the enemy at short distances.

Rice. 5.1. General view of the 9 mm Makarov pistol

SECTION 4. PRACTICAL SNIPER SHOOTING BALLISTICS

Even a very accurate shooter who knows how to perfectly camouflage himself will never become a sniper if he does not study, perhaps, the most important section of sniper skill, namely, practical ballistics, tables and calculations for shooting. Anyone who has always been shooting only at the shooting range, at standard measured distances, begins to “miss”, shooting even at an open range at targets that appear at arbitrary distances, not to mention shooting at moving and suddenly appearing targets. If there is even a slight breeze, uncontrollable misses begin. When shooting in the mountains, on different heights, from top to bottom or from bottom to top, the bullets do not land where the shooter wants them. A shooter who has zeroed his rifle early in the morning begins to make miss after miss at noon on a summer day. There are still many circumstances in which endless inexplicable mistakes occur, and quite gross and uncontrollable ones. This is how those who neglect sniper tables and ballistic calculations shoot.

Shooting distances accepted in general military practice are unusual for sports shooters. Distances up to 200 meters are considered short, distances up to 600 meters are considered close, distances up to 1000 meters are considered medium, and distances up to 2000 meters are considered long distances. Real sniper shooting distances are up to 1200 meters. Even from a very good rifle, hitting a tall target at a longer distance is problematic. A flying bullet is a physical body in motion, subject to the laws of physics and mathematics. Various factors acting on the bullet are constantly trying to divert it past the target. When conducting a real battle, a sniper is forced to take into account many objective reasons that affect the accuracy of shooting. They cannot be neglected. The various forces that move a bullet away from its target are real and must be taken into account. You need to know about this, just as you need to know sniper ballistic tables, and also be able to quickly make the necessary correction ballistic calculations. Otherwise, unjustified mistakes are inevitable. Every miss works against the sniper. The target must be hit with one single shot. The factor of hitting a target with the first shot is almost more important than hitting the target in general. A normal and self-respecting target will immediately disappear and will not appear in this place again. And if something appears in that place, it will be a bait set by the enemy. In addition, hitting a target with the first shot puts pressure on the enemy’s psyche and demoralizes him. A miss, among other things, unmasks the sniper's position more than hitting the target, because the enemy's attention is not switched to the effect of the sniper hit. Therefore, every shot must be prepared and calculated.

The mention of tables and the need to count almost on the go causes outright boredom and irresistible laziness for many, often discouraging the desire to become a sniper altogether. But without knowing the basics of ballistics, even an excellent shooter cannot become a sniper.

DETERMINING INITIAL DATA FOR SHOOTING. THE CONCEPT OF THOUSANDTH

To hit a target, it is necessary to select the installation of sighting devices, the initial data for which are:

Vertical - distance to the target with corrections for air temperature, longitudinal wind, atmospheric pressure, target elevation angle and type of ammunition (light or heavy bullet);

Horizontal - the horizontal position of the target relative to the aiming point and horizontal corrections for derivation, side wind and frontal movement of the target.

Both types of corrections - vertical and horizontal - are very important. Accuracy in determining distances to a target is critical to hitting it. The greater the firing range, the greater it should be. But for novice shooters at distances up to 600 meters of shooting at a tall target, correct horizontal aiming is of greater importance (because the real combat target - a person - is disproportionately larger in height than in width). In addition, having become attached to the system of horizontal corrections and learning to correctly determine the distance to the target, it will be easier for novice snipers to then work with sniper tables.

So, about the horizontal aiming of weapons. For successful preparation Based on the initial data of a specific shot, introducing horizontal corrections and determining the range, the sniper should clearly understand the concept of the so-called thousandth. The thousandth is a unit of measurement of distances along the horizon. The thousandth itself is a very good and practical invention, which is the calculation basis in the international small arms and artillery practice of the armies of all countries of the world. The concept of a thousandth is used to introduce horizontal corrections, adjust fire horizontally when firing from small arms and artillery systems, as well as to determine distances and ranges to targets.

How is this thousandth formed? Conventionally, the horizon around us, instead of the usual 360°, is divided into 6000 equal parts. The angle covering 1/6000 of the horizon is called one six-thousandth, or simply one thousandth. This relative value was not chosen by chance. The above-mentioned one thousandth is a constant, unchangeable angular value tied to the metric system of measurements. At any distance from the shooter to the target, this same one thousandth is one thousandth of this distance, deployed near the target along the front (Diagram 50). At a distance of 100 meters from the shooter, one thousandth along the horizon occupies a distance of 10 cm, at 200 m - 20 cm, at 300 m - 30 cm, at 400 m - 40 cm, and so on. At a distance of 1 km, one thousandth is equal to 1 meter.

Scheme 50. One thousandth of the distance, deployed along the front

Thousands are written and read accordingly as follows:

one thousandth - 0.01 - zero, zero one;

six thousandths - 0.06 - zero, zero six;

25 thousandths - 0.25 - zero, twenty-five;

130 thousandths - 1.30 - one, thirty;

1500 thousandths - 15.00 - fifteen, zero zero.

Measuring angles in thousandths can be done with the goniometer circle of an artillery compass, the reticle of binoculars and periscopes, the lateral correction scale and the flywheel dials of a sniper scope, as well as improvised objects. The compass has a scale on a circle, divided into large divisions of 1-00 and small divisions of 0-20. Binoculars and periscopes have reticles divided into large divisions of 0-10 (ten thousandths) and small divisions of 0.05 (five thousandths). Machine gun and sniper sights have divisions of 0.01 (one thousandth).

DETERMINING DISTANCES BY THE ANGULAR VALUE OF LOCAL OBJECTS (USING THOUSANDTHS)

To determine firing distances using this method, it is necessary to know exactly in advance the width or height of the object (target) to which the distance is determined, determine the angular value of this object in thousandths using available optical instruments, and then calculate the distance using the formula

D = (H x 1000)/U

where D is the distance to the target;

1000 is a constant, unchangeable mathematical value that is always present in this formula;

Y is the angular magnitude of the target, that is, to put it simply, how many one-thousandth divisions on the scale of an optical sight or other device will the target occupy;

B is the metric (that is, in meters) known width or height of the target.

When determining the distance in this way, you need to know or imagine the linear dimensions of the target, its width or height. The linear data (sizes) of objects and targets (in meters) in infantry combined arms practice are accepted as follows (Table 6).

Table 6

For example, you need to determine the distance to the target (chest or height target), which fits into two small side segments of the scale of the PSO-1 optical sight, or is equal to the thickness of the aiming stump of the PU sight, or is equal to the thickness of the front sight of an open rifle sight. The width of the chest or height of the target (full-length infantryman), as can be seen from the table. 6, is equal to 0.5 m. According to all measurements of the above sighting devices (see below), the target is covered by an angle of 2 thousandths. Hence:

D=(0.5 x 1000)/2=250m.

But the width of a live target may be different. Therefore, a sniper usually measures the width of the shoulders at different times of the year (by clothing) and only then accepts it as a constant value. It is necessary to measure and know the basic dimensions of the human figure, the linear dimensions of the main military equipment, vehicles and everything that can be “attached” to on the side occupied by the enemy. And at the same time, all this should be viewed critically. Despite laser rangefinders, the determination of ranges in combat practice of the armies of all countries is carried out according to the above formula. Everyone knows about it and everyone uses it, and therefore they try to mislead the enemy. There have been numerous cases when telegraph poles were secretly increased by 0.5 m at night - during the day this gave the enemy an error in calculating the range of 50-70 meters of shortfall.

ANGULAR VALUES IN THOUSANDTHS OF AVAILABLE ITEMS AND DEVICES

To measure the angular values ​​of targets in thousandths, the most commonly used objects are used, which in combat practice are often at hand. Such objects and means are parts of open sights, sighting threads, marks, reticles optical sights and other optical instruments, as well as everyday items that are always available to a soldier - cartridges, matches, ordinary scale metric rulers (diagrams 51-55).

Scheme 51 Measurements in thousandths of parts of an open rifle sight

As mentioned earlier, the width of the front sight covers an angle of 2 thousandths in the projection onto the target. The height of the front sight covers 3 thousandths. The base of the sight - the width of the slot - covers 6 thousandths.

Diagram 52. Angular values ​​of the aiming threads of the optical sight PU, PE and PB

As mentioned earlier, the width of the aiming stump covers an angle of 2 thousandths in the projection onto the target. The horizontal threads cover the angles in their thickness by 2 thousandths. The base of the sight A - the distance between the threads - covers 7 thousandths

Diagram 53 Measurements in thousandths of the reticle of an optical sight, PSO-1:

A - main square for shooting up to 1000 m,

B - three additional squares for shooting at distances of 1100, 1200, 1300 m;

B - the width of the lateral correction scale from 10 to 10 thousandths corresponds to 0-20 (twenty thousandths),

G - from the center (main square) right-left to the number 10 corresponds to 0.10 (ten thousandths) The height of the extreme vertical mark at the number 10 is 0.02 (two thousandths);

D - the distance between two small divisions is 0.01-1 (one thousandth), the height of one small mark on the lateral correction scale is 0.01 (one thousandth),

E - numbers on the rangefinder scale 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 correspond to distances of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 m,

F - the number 1.7 shows that at this level of the height scale the average human height is 170 cm

Diagram 54. Measurements in thousandths of the reticle of binoculars and periscope

From a small risk to a large risk (short distances), an angle of 0.05 (five thousandths) is covered;

from large risk to large risk, an angle of 0.10 (ten thousandths) is covered.

The height of the small risk is 2.5 thousandths.

The height of the large risk is 5 thousandths.

Cross bars - 5 thousandths.

When using improvised means to determine angular values, they are placed at a distance of 50 cm from the eye. This distance has been verified over many decades. At a distance of 50 cm from the eye, the rifle cartridge and matches close the angles indicated in diagram 55 in projection onto the target.

1 centimeter of an ordinary scale ruler (better if it is made of transparent material) at a distance of 50 cm from the eye covers an angle of 20 thousandths; 1 millimeter, respectively, 2 thousandths (diagram 56).

Prudent shooters determine in advance a goniometric distance of 50 cm for possible determination of distances based on the angular values ​​of available objects. Usually for this purpose they measure 50 cm on the rifle and mark it.

EXAMPLES OF DETERMINING RANGE BY ANGULAR VALUE

Once again, let’s return to the already solved problem: the chest target fit into two small segments of the horizontal adjustment scale of the PSO-1 sight. Determine the distance.

Solution. The target width is 0.5 m (infantryman), one scale segment is 1 thousandth (diagram 57).

D = (0.5 x 1000)/2 = 250 m.

Therefore, if a target (infantryman) fits into two segments of the PSO-1 sight scale, the distance to it is 250, if in one segment it is 500 m, in half a segment it is 1000 m.

Diagram 57. PSO-1 sight:

1 division = 1 thousandth

REMEMBER! This problem produced a ready-made solution applicable in combat. Don't forget! The goal in one segment is a distance of 500 m, in two segments - 250 m, in half a segment - 1000 m.

Task. Using an open sight, determine the distance to the target if the target is completely covered in width by the front sight.

Solution. The width of the front sight (see earlier) is 2 thousandths, the width of the target (infantryman) is 0.5 m (diagram 58).

D = (0.5 x 1000)/2 = 250 m.

Therefore, if the target’s width is equal to the width of the front sight, the distance is 250 m; if the target is half the width of the front sight, the distance is 500 m. This is also a ready-made solution, and it’s worth remembering (to save time in battle).

Task. Using an open sight, determine the firing distance at a running infantryman whose height is equal to the height of the front sight.

Solution. The height of the front sight (see earlier) is 3 thousandths. The height of a crouched infantryman running across is 1.5 m (Diagram 59).

D =(1.5 x 1000)/3 = 500 m

Therefore, if the running infantryman’s height is twice the height of the front sight, the distance to him will be 250 m. If it is two times less, it will be 1000 m. This is also a ready-made solution, and it must be remembered.

To determine distances to the target when shooting with PU, PE and PB sights, you should remember the following ready-made solutions.

Task. The running infantryman is covered by the leveling thread of the PU sight (2 thousandths) to the knees (0.5 m) (diagram 60).

Solution:

D =(0.5 x 1000)/2 = 250 m

Task. The running infantryman is covered with a leveling thread to the waist (0.8 m) (Diagram 61).

Solution

D =(0.8 x 1000)/2 = 400 m

Task. The running infantryman is covered with a leveling thread up to the shoulders (1.2 m) (Diagram 62).

Solution:

D =(1.2 x 1000)/2 = 600 m

Task. The running infantryman is completely covered by the leveling thread (1.5 m) (diagram 63).

Solution:

D =(1.5 x 1000)/2 = 750 m

DETERMINATION OF RANGE ON THE BASE OF OPTICAL SIGHTS PU, PE, PB

The distance between the leveling threads of the PU, PE, PB sights is called the sight base (A in diagram 52). When projected onto the target, the sight base covers an angle of 7 thousandths (0.07) (Diagram 52). This measurement was not chosen by chance. Using a simple formula based on the base of the sight, you can very accurately, with confidence plus or minus 10 meters, determine the distance to targets. The calculation formula is as follows:

D = (target width (cm) x number of targets in the database)/7 x 10

Example. A chest target of a known width of 50 cm is placed three times in the base of the sight.

D = (50 x 3 x 10)/7 = 210 m

According to the half-base, the distance is determined by the same formula, but in the numerator instead of 10 there should be the number 100, and in the denominator - the number 35 instead of 7.

Example. A “moving figure” (width 50 cm) is placed once into the half-base of the optical sight.

D = (50 x 1 x 100)/35 = 143 m (rounded 150 m).

To determine the distance along the thickness of the side leveling threads, use the same formula, but the number 20 is substituted in its denominator. Task. Two “head figures” 30 cm wide are placed within the thickness of the thread. Determine the distance. Solution:

D = (100 x 2 x 30)/20 = 300 m

Attention! This is also a ready-made solution.

DETERMINING THE RANGE BY BINOCULATOR AND PERISCOPE GRID

Task. The fleeing infantryman fit into half of the small division of the horizontal scale. This half division is 2.5 thousandths, the width of the infantryman is 0.5 m (diagram 64, position A). Solution:

D =(0.5 x 1000)/2.5 = 200 m

Scheme 64 Task. The running infantryman fits vertically between the dash and the cross, which corresponds to 5 thousandths. The height of the infantryman is 150 cm (diagram 64, position B). Solution:

D =(1.5 x 1000)/5 = 300 m

QUICKLY DETERMINING THE DISTANCE TO THE TARGET WITH THE RANGE SCALE OF THE PSO-1 SIGHT

The PSO-1 optical sniper sight has a distance determination scale tied to the average human height of 170 cm. Try on a person’s height from the lower horizon of the scale to the upper one, and the number under which he will completely fit will mean the approximate range, ±50 meters.

Example. A full-length infantryman fits completely under the number 4. Therefore, the distance is 400 meters (diagram 65).

More accurately, using this scale, the distance can be calculated, again using the above range formula, if the exact height of the target is known. Let's say the target height is 180 cm and it is placed under the number 4. Then, according to the range formula

D =(1.8 x 1000)/4 = 450 m

The distance according to the range formula can be determined using available means, holding them, as mentioned above, at a distance of 50 cm from the eye. For example, a rifle cartridge bullet will cover 15 thousandths along the front with such retention. Let's say a bullet completely covers a GAZ-53 medium-duty truck, the approximate length of which is 6 meters. Using a well-known formula, we calculate

D =(6 x 1000)/15 = 400 m

Determining the distance using the grid of binoculars and periscopes is not done so often and gives results with large errors.

Example. A two-story destroyed house without an attic (6 m according to Table 6) was covered with two large binocular grid divisions (20 thousandths).

D =(6 x 1000)/20 = 300 m

To quickly determine distances to live targets in modern mobile combat, it is useful to determine in advance and learn from the ready-made solutions of this manual the ratio of target sizes to the angular value of certain parts of sighting devices, angular measurements of the reticles of optical sights, observation devices and improvised means, for example, the width of the leveling thread of a particular sniper scope, depth of the open sight slot, front sight height, etc. You should be aware that this manual provides average data on the dimensions of sighting devices. Despite careful adjustment to a common standard, weapons and optical sights were and are produced in different factories, at different times, by different people and on different equipment. Rifles of the same type may have, although insignificant, deviations in the dimensions of the width and height of the front sight, the width and depth of the open sight slot; PU, PE, PB sights very often have different base sizes, and even modern PSO-1 sights sometimes, for inexplicable reasons, do not match their reticles. Therefore, everything described above must be strictly verified during training shooting, shooting with a specific scope. A sniper should compile his own “collection” of linear dimensions of real objects located on real landscapes of specific places of combat events.

EYE DETERMINATION OF DISTANCES WHEN TIME IS PRESENT

The main way to determine distances in maneuverable combat when there is a shortage of time was, is, and will continue to be for a long time, a trained eye. The skill of quickly and accurately determining distance by eye can only be acquired as a result of sustained constant training by any available means, using every opportunity.

Auxiliary methods: direct measurement of the terrain (control - checking training in determining distances by eye); determining distances by angular values ​​(see earlier) of objects and targets and determining distances on a map.

You can determine the distance by eye by the degree of visibility and apparent size of objects or targets, by sections of terrain that are well imprinted in memory, or by a combination of both methods.

To determine distances based on the degree of visibility and apparent size of objects or targets, the eye measurer should have his own (individual) memo, which should indicate how various objects and targets are visible to him at different distances. You need to have your own reminder, adjusted to your vision, because different people have different visual acuity and degree of perception.

Below is an approximate memo compiled for an eye meter with normal vision with favorable conditions weather and lighting.

You can distinguish a person’s facial features: eyes, nose, mouth, hands, details of equipment and weapons are visible. On the building you can see individual bricks, carved and stucco decorations, and crumbling plaster. On the trees you can see the shape and color of the leaves, the bark of the trunk. Individual threads of the wire fence are visible. Protruding parts of infantry weapons are visible.

When determining distances based on the degree of visibility of objects, it must be borne in mind that the accuracy of determining distances, in addition to visual acuity, also depends on the size and clarity of the outline of objects, their color compared to the surrounding background, the illumination of objects and the transparency of the air. So, for example:

Small objects (bushes, stones, hillocks, individual figures) seem further away than large objects located at the same distance (forest, mountain, populated area, column of troops);

Objects of bright color (white, orange) seem closer than dark objects (blue, black, brown);

At night, strongly and brightly lit objects will appear closer to dim and dimly lit objects. This is especially true for light-colored items;

A monotonous, one-color background of the area (meadow, arable land, snow) highlights and, as it were, brings closer the objects located on it if they are colored differently, and a variegated, multi-colored background of the area, on the contrary, masks and, as it were, removes them;

On a cloudy day, in rain, at dusk, in fog, all distances seem to be increased, and on a bright, sunny day, on the contrary, they are shortened;

Objects that are brightly lit, with a prominent color, objects located below are visually perceived closer at 1/8 of the real distance;

In mountainous areas, the terrain is especially deceptive - everything creates the illusion of proximity, everything comes closer, and much closer. Sometimes it seems that some mountain or rock is 800 meters away, but in reality it takes two hours to walk to it. The picture is similar in the steppe and in a very wide field. Therefore, at distances of 500 meters and beyond, you need to check the map, where the distance is carefully measured and verified;

In a city with multi-story buildings, all distances seem shorter by about 1/8, especially when shooting from top to bottom, at target elevation angles of more than 15°. On the contrary, when shooting from bottom to top at the same elevation angles, the target distances seem longer, also by 1/8 of the real ones. A similar picture is observed in the mountains.

Taking into account all these features, the eye measurer must be able to make appropriate adjustments when determining distances.

Determining distances from sections of terrain imprinted in the memory of the eye measurer is applicable only on more or less flat terrain. Such a segment can be any familiar distance with which the eye measurer often had to deal and which is therefore firmly entrenched in his visual memory, for example, a segment of 100, 200, 400 meters.

This segment must be mentally (with the eye) placed into the depth of the measured distance as many times as it fits. The following should be taken into account:

That as the distance increases, the apparent size of the segment gradually decreases;

That depressions (ravines, hollows, rivers, etc.) crossing the determined distance, if they are not visible or not completely visible to the measurer, conceal the distance.

To clarify and facilitate the visual determination of distances, the following techniques can be used:

Comparison of the determined distance with another, known or measured in advance, even if it lies in a different direction, for example, with the measured distance to certain landmarks;

Mentally dividing a distance into several equal segments (parts) in order to more accurately determine the length of one of them and then multiply the resulting value by the number of segments;

Determining the distance by several eye measurers in order to take the average from the results obtained;

for example, one eye measurer determined the distance to be 700 meters, and another - 600, the average will be 650 meters.

Measuring distances by direct measurements in steps should be done in pairs, under the left or right foot, taking a pair of steps on average as one and a half meters (measurement adopted by the charter).

Example. When measuring the distance, 260 pairs of steps were obtained, therefore the distance is 400 meters (260 x 1.5).

To more accurately determine distances using the above method, the measurer must know the size of his individual step. To do this, calmly, without straining, walk at a marching pace a pre-measured distance of 100 meters and at the same time count the number of steps or pairs of steps on it. Do this several times, derive the arithmetic average and then use it in practice.

THE PHENOMENON OF DERIVATION

Due to the simultaneous impact on the bullet rotational movement, giving it a stable position in flight, and air resistance tending to tip the bullet head back, the axis of the bullet deviates from the direction of flight in the direction of rotation. As a result of this, the bullet encounters air resistance on more than one side and therefore deviates from the firing plane more and more in the direction of rotation. This deflection of a rotating bullet away from the firing plane is called derivation. It's quite complicated physical process. Derivation increases disproportionately to the flight distance of the bullet, as a result of which the latter takes more and more to the side and its trajectory in plan is a curved line (Diagram 66, Table 7). When the barrel is cut to the right, the derivation takes the bullet to the right, and when the barrel is cut to the left, to the left.

Scheme 66. Derivation

Table 7

At firing distances up to 300 meters inclusive, derivation has no practical significance. This is especially typical for the SVD rifle, in which the PSO-1 optical sight is specially shifted to the left by 1.5 cm. The barrel is slightly turned to the left and the bullets go slightly (1 cm) to the left. This is not of fundamental importance. At a distance of 300 meters, the force of derivation returns the bullets to the aiming point, that is, in the center. And already at a distance of 400 meters, the bullets begin to move thoroughly to the right, therefore, in order not to turn the horizontal flywheel, aim at the enemy’s left (away from you) eye (Diagram 67). Derivation will move the bullet 3-4 cm to the right, and it will hit the enemy on the bridge of the nose. At a distance of 500 meters, aim at the left (from you) side of the enemy’s head between the eye and ear (diagram 68) - this will be approximately 6-7 cm. At a distance of 600 meters, aim at the left (from you) side of the enemy’s head (diagram 69) . Derivation will move the bullet to the right by 11-12 cm. At a distance of 700 meters, take the visible gap between the aiming point and the left edge of the head, somewhere above the center of the shoulder strap on the enemy’s shoulder (diagram 70). At 800 meters - adjust the horizontal corrections by 0.3 thousandths using the flywheel (move the reticle to the right, move the middle point of impact to the left), at 900 meters - 0.5 thousandths, at 1000 meters - 0.6 thousandths.

The higher the target elevation angle, the less derivation. The barrels of different types of weapons have different rifling pitches, therefore, the derivation will also be different.

It should be taken into account that heavy bullets are deflected less by derivation, and the greater the weight of a bullet of the same caliber, the smaller the deflection will be. Thus, heavy bullets of sports cartridges of 7.62 caliber weighing 13.4 g are deflected 1.5 times less than light bullets, and at a distance of 1000 m and beyond - 2 times less.

BULLET FLIGHT TRAJECTORY AND ITS ELEMENTS

A sniper must know how the bullet he fires flies and what happens to it in flight. This manual describes the elements of the trajectory of a rifle bullet and weapon aiming, necessary for a sniper in practical work (Diagram 71).

Diagram 71. Elements of aiming and trajectory of small arms

The trajectory is the line of flight of a bullet in the air. The straight line representing the continuation of the bore axis before the shot is fired is called the shot line. The straight line representing the continuation of the axis of the bore at the moment of firing is called the throwing line.

If there is an angle of departure, the bullet is ejected from the barrel not along the line of the shot, but along the throwing line.

A bullet ejected from the bore with a certain initial speed when moving in the air is subject to the action of two forces: gravity and air resistance. The action of the first is directed downward: it causes the bullet to continuously descend from the throwing line. The action of the second is directed towards the movement of the bullet: it causes it to continuously lose its flight speed. As a result of this, a bullet ejected from the bore does not fly along a straight line of throwing, but along a curved, unevenly curved line located below the line of throwing.

The beginning of the trajectory is the departure point (the muzzle of the barrel).

The horizontal plane passing through the departure point is called the weapon horizon

The vertical plane passing through the point of departure along the line of the shot (throwing) is called the shooting plane.

To throw a bullet to any point on the horizon of the weapon, it is necessary to direct the throwing line above the horizon.

The angle made by the line of fire and the horizon of the weapon is called the elevation angle.

The horizontal distance from the point of departure to the point of impact (tabular) is called the horizontal or sighting range

The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of incidence (tabular).

The highest point of the trajectory above the horizon is called the top of the trajectory. The top divides the trajectory into two unequal branches, the branch from the departure point to the top, longer and more sloping, is called the ascending branch of the trajectory, the branch from the top to the fall point, shorter and steeper, is called the descending branch of the trajectory

The distance from the horizon of the weapon to the top of the trajectory (in a specific section of it) is called the height of the trajectory.

The point at which the weapon is aimed is called the aiming point.

The line running from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot and the top of the front sight (the optical axis of the optical sight) is called the line of sight.

The angle formed by the aiming line and the shooting line is called the aiming angle. This aiming angle is obtained by setting the sighting device in height according to the firing range.

When the target is located at the same height as the weapon, the aiming line coincides with the horizon of the weapon, and the aiming angle coincides with the elevation angle. When the target is located above or below the horizon of the weapon, an angle is formed between the aiming line and the horizon of the weapon, called the target elevation angle. The target's elevation angle is considered positive when the target is above the weapon's horizon, and negative when the target is below. The target elevation angle and the aiming angle together make up the elevation angle.

The elevation angle at which the greatest horizontal range is obtained is called the angle of greatest (maximum) range. The maximum maximum range angle for 7.62 mm rifle bullets is 30°.

The space (distance along the aiming line), over which the downward branch of the trajectory does not exceed the target height, is called the target space.

The impact area depends on:

From the height of the target (the higher the target, the higher it will be);

From the slope of the trajectory (the steeper the trajectory, the longer it will be).

A shot in which the trajectory does not rise above the line of sight above the target throughout sighting range, is called a straight shot. Used when repelling an enemy attack.

A shot in which the trajectory does not rise above the aiming line or is associated with it is called a direct hunting shot (sniper). This is an old English concept. The range of a direct hunting shot depends on the height of the sights and the initial speed of the bullet. The range of such a shot usually does not exceed 200-250 meters. A direct hunting shot is used in street and forest battles when it is necessary to constantly maneuver.

NATURAL DISPERSION OF SHOTS. CENTER OF IMPACT

When firing from the same fully serviceable weapon, with the most careful observance of the accuracy and uniformity of each shot, each bullet, due to a number of random reasons, flies along its own trajectory, different from the others.

This phenomenon is called natural dispersion (spread) of shots.

Why does dispersion occur? From a number of reasons, the effect of which cannot be taken into account in advance when aiming. For example, no matter how accurately cartridges are manufactured, there will always be some variation in the mass and quality of the powder charge, primer composition, shape and weight of bullets and cartridges, quality of bullet fastening in the cartridge case, etc. This diversity leads to fluctuations in the initial bullet speed, and the shape of the trajectory depends on the initial speed. The diversity in the shape and linear dimensions of bullets leads to fluctuations in air resistance, on which the shape of the trajectory also depends. Of great importance for dispersion is the quality of the weapon, the cleanliness of the processing of the barrel bore and its safety, the quality of assembly and debugging of the weapon. In addition, with each shot there will be some aiming inaccuracy, a variety of air disturbances, etc. It is impossible to take into account all the reasons influencing dispersion. For each shot, it is impossible to predict by what amount and where the bullet will deviate from its intended point of impact.

The location of each individual shot is random and uncertain, so the holes on the vertical surface being hit occupy a certain area, which is called the dispersion area.

On the dispersion area you can always find a point that will be average in relation to all the holes. This point is called the midpoint of impact. abbreviated as STP (diagram 72).

Diagram 72. Determination of the average point of impact

The dispersion of shots (the points where the bullet meets the target) is considered on the vertical plane as vertical and lateral dispersion.

Mutually perpendicular lines drawn on a vertical plane so that on both sides of each of them there are the same number of holes are called dispersion axes - vertical and horizontal (Diagram 72).

The point of intersection of the dispersion axes with a sufficiently large number of shots determines the position of the midpoint of impact.

The dispersion of bullets obeys a certain dispersion law, which is expressed as follows:

The dispersion area is always limited by a certain limit and has the shape of an ellipse (oval), elongated from top to bottom (Diagram 73);

The holes are located symmetrically relative to the STP (dispersion center), that is, for every deviation from the STP in one direction there is an approximately equal deviation in the opposite direction;

The holes are located unevenly: the closer to the midpoint of impact (the center of dispersion), the denser, the further from the center, the rarer;

The size of the dispersion area is directly dependent on the firing range.

Scheme 73. Dispersion pattern

The smaller the dispersion ellipse, the better the accuracy of the weapon’s engagement is considered. Accuracy of combat is the main indicator of the quality of a sniper rifle. There is a constant struggle for it by selecting the most dense barrels, selecting ammunition for heap firing, testing this ammunition on selected barrels and balancing debugging of weapons (see further Section 8 “Theory of Weapons and Ammunition”). In sports and sniper practice, a strict concept of shooting accuracy is accepted, which is determined by the amount of actual dispersion of shots when firing from a particular system or a specific type of weapon. For small-caliber weapons, dispersion is determined at a distance of 50 meters, for sniper weapons of 7.62 mm caliber - 100 meters. If the instructions say that the spread of the SVD rifle corresponds to 8x7, this means that at a distance of 100 meters the spread of the weapon on a vertical target should be included in an ellipse measuring 8 cm vertically and 7 cm horizontally, and no more. If the spread exceeds these table data, the weapon is rejected - it is unsuitable for accurate sniper shooting. The tighter the barrel strike, the better the quality of the weapon. The accuracy of the barrel of the same SVD rifle may be better than that indicated in the tabulated standards. In many ways, the accuracy of a particular barrel depends on the quality of its manufacture, the quality of the ammunition and their correct selection for a specific barrel. Therefore, it is not uncommon to achieve accuracy of fire from an SVD rifle of 4x3 cm and even 3x2. Some samples of sporting-target weapons provide accuracy of combat at 100 m, almost bullet to bullet.

Firing accuracy is determined by aligning the STP (scattering center) with the intended aiming point on the target. Accuracy depends on the accuracy of the battle and on the skill of the shooter - how correctly he can perform the techniques of working with a weapon when shooting, on how trained he is and how correctly he has installed the sighting devices.

TABLES OF EXCESS OF AVERAGE TRAJECTORIES

The main corrections constantly made when shooting are for range. The main sniper table is a table of exceeding average trajectories for a specific weapon system from which the sniper fires (Table 8-12). The table contains data on the excess of the bullet's flight path above the weapon's horizon line at various firing distances at various sight settings. Let's consider the practical interpretation of such a table for the SVD rifle (Table 8).

Table 8

Exceeding the average trajectories when shooting from an SVD rifle (in cm) - the main sniper table when shooting with "sniper" cartridges and cartridges with a "silver nose" bullet (with steel core)

NOTE Dashes are data that have no practical significance.

At a distance of 300 meters, sight 3 is highlighted in a square and the excess of the trajectory by 100 meters is 14 cm. This is sighting data.

At a distance of 200 meters, sight 2 is highlighted with squares and the excess of the trajectory at 100 meters is 5 cm and at 150 meters is 4 cm. This is data for combining the aiming lines of optical and open sights and for shooting without rearranging the sight at close distances.

At a distance of 600 meters, scope 6 is highlighted, from this distance the sniper fires a direct shot at the attacking infantry.

Data with a minus after 0 means a decrease in the trajectory after the range of the installed sight.

Let's say the shooting distance is 300 meters. As you know, sight “3” is installed at this distance. At the same time, the rifle barrel rises slightly, the aiming angle increases - the bullet needs to be “thrown up” a little, otherwise under the influence of gravity it will not reach 300 meters and will fall closer. At the same time, at the highest point of the trajectory in the middle of the distance - 150 meters - the bullet rises above the horizon of the weapon by 18 cm (see Table 8 and Diagram 74). At a distance of 100 meters, the excess will be 14 cm (remember this point - it is very important when zeroing a weapon), at 200 meters the excess will be 17 cm. When shooting at 200 meters and scope “2”, the highest excess of the bullet will be at a distance of 100 meters - 5 cm, at 150 meters - 4 cm (see Table 8 and Diagram 76). But beyond the distances of the installed sight, the bullet will sharply go down - with a scope “3” at a distance of 350 meters, the bullet will sharply go down from the aiming line immediately by 18 cm. (see Table 8). With a sight “2” at a distance of 250 m, the bullet will immediately drop by 11 cm. In Table 8, the value 0 indicates that if the weapon is properly sighted and the shooting distance corresponds to the installed sight, the bullet hits the center of the target. , that is, at the very point of aiming. long distances the decrease in trajectories and STP below the aiming point will be even greater. For example, the sight is set to “4”, but at a distance of 450 meters the bullet will go below the aiming line by 43 cm (!), with the sight set to “6” and the actual shooting distance is 700 meters, the decrease will be already 130 cm.

Diagram 74. Explanation of table. 8.

Sight 3, firing distance 300 meters. Zeroing a rifle at 100 meters

Table 9

Shooting from a three-line rifle model 1891-1930.

Vbeginning light bullet 865 m/s

Table 10

Shooting from a SVT rifle (Tokarev)

Vbeginning light bullet 840 m/s

Table 11

Shooting from a three-line carbine model 1907-1938-1944.

Vbeginning bullets - 820 m/s

Table 12

Small caliber rifle shooting

Accordingly, at closer distances an excess of the STP will be observed. So, with a sight “4” at a real shooting distance of 350 meters, the bullet will pass above the aiming point by 20 cm. With a sight “5” at a real distance of 450 meters, the bullet will pass above the aiming point by 28 cm. If the sight is installed incorrectly or the distance to the target is incorrectly determined goals will inevitably miss. This is why the average trajectory table is considered the main sniper table. It is extremely important for a sniper to know the exact distance to the target, plus or minus 10 meters, no more and no less, and even then this tolerance of 10 meters will give a vertical spread at distances of 500-600 meters of 5-8 cm up/down. If possible, you should memorize the table of exceeding the average trajectories for the weapon from which you have to shoot, or stick it on the rifle stock. Ballistic characteristics for firing from various rifles with various ammunition are presented in table. 13-15.

Table 13

Table of the excess of average trajectories over the line of sight of a light bullet of the 1908 model when fired from an SVD rifle.

Vbeginning 840 m/s

When firing a light bullet of the 1908 model at distances exceeding 1100 meters, its natural dispersion exceeds the size of the silhouette of a tall target, so sniper shooting with this ammunition at long distances becomes meaningless.

Table 14

Summary table of the excess of the average trajectory above the aiming line when firing a 1930 model (heavy) bullet from rifles and machine guns

NOTE. The minus sign means a decrease in the trajectory relative to the aiming line.

Self-loading carbine SKS (Simonova), as well as hunting rifles"Arhar" (a hunting analogue of the SKS), "Saiga" and "Vepr", firing 7.62x39 cartridges of the 1943 model, have the same barrel length, 520 mm, and the same ballistic data given in table. 15.

Table 15

Summary ballistic table for the SKS carbine

Vbeginning bullets 735 m/s

NOTE The maximum flight range of a bullet is 2000 m. The bullet retains its destructive power up to 1500 m.

PRACTICAL "BINDING" TO THE GOAL

When shooting at distances over 400 meters, it is better to zero the rifle so that the STP is five centimeters above the aiming point. Why is this done? As already mentioned, the main target of a sniper is a head approximately 25 cm in diameter. And at a great distance it is difficult to take the aiming point strictly in the center of this target, because the target merges with the “blackness” of the main square or aiming stump. Therefore, shooters try to shoot “under the lower edge of the target” in order to see this target and control it and so that the square or stump does not cover it.

But in any case, it is desirable to have some kind of “anchor” of the aiming point, a place to which this point can be anchored (remember that the aiming point is the top of the main square). Such a natural reference is the line of the horizon or trench, from which the head protrudes. Let's say that the head sticks out enough to look through binoculars, somewhere almost on the line of the mouth and nose. Aiming along the line of the trench under the head, with a targeted point of impact 5 cm above the aiming point (in this case above the line of the trench), the sniper hits the enemy in the bridge of the nose.

Knowing well the table of excesses of average trajectories, you can successfully shoot at a distant target, aiming at the target with the aiming point referenced to the horizon. If the distance to the target is 1 kilometer, there is no point in thinking about hitting the head. But if the enemy at such a distance feels safe and walks around at full height, this should be taken advantage of. At a distance of 1 kilometer, it is difficult to attach the aiming point to any place on the target’s silhouette - everything becomes blurred and “blurred”. But the horizon line under the enemy’s feet is clearly visible. Attach the aiming square to it and aim at the enemy’s heels, set the sight at 1 km and a little higher (add 1/4 division). The bullet will pass about a meter above the ground (and the aiming point) and hit the target. Now this technique is considered worthy of virtuosos, and back in the 70s it was part of the training program for combined arms snipers

STRAIGHT SHOT IN PRACTICAL APPLICATION

As already mentioned, a direct shot is one in which the trajectory of the bullet does not rise above the target over the entire firing distance. The range of a direct shot from a rifle depends on the target height and is determined from tables of exceeding average trajectories by comparing the target height with the height of the table trajectory. The phenomenon of a direct shot is used in mobile maneuverable combat operations when there is a shortage of time, when you need to move all the time, there is no time to turn the flywheels and set the sight at range.

A direct shot in defense when repelling an attack by an advancing enemy usually has a range of 600 meters with a “6” sight and the aiming point is always at the enemy’s heels. Why is this so? The average height of an infantryman running across in an attack is 150 cm. In reality, he is distinguishable by 600 meters. Using the table of exceeding average trajectories, we find its most suitable height, not exceeding the height of the target at a distance of 600 meters. It will be equal in the middle (top) of the trajectory at a distance of 300 meters - 120 cm with a scope “6”; at 400 meters with the same sight “6” - 110 cm; at 500 meters with a sight "6" - 74 cm (diagram 75).

Diagram 75. Direct shot

Therefore, aiming at the feet of an advancing infantryman with a “6” scope, starting from a distance of 600 meters and closer as he approaches, you can shoot without moving the scope. The enemy will be hit first in the legs, then in the stomach, chest, and head. Upon reaching a distance of 300 meters (the top of the trajectory), the enemy will be hit in the chest, head, stomach and again in the legs.

The method of shooting with a direct shot is convenient in defense, when repelling an enemy attack, when there is no time to set the sight at constantly changing firing distances, and it does not matter where the enemy will be hit (there will be a lot of opponents coming at you to attack), it is important that he does not reach you arrived.

In this case, aiming at the head is an unnecessary luxury. It is more important to shoot more often so that the enemy’s attack quickly succumbs. If you really want to “hook” the enemy “abruptly”, keep in mind the following: at a distance of 600 meters the bullet will fall at the aiming point, that is, at the heels, and therefore at this distance you need to aim higher, somewhere in the area of ​​​​the knees or above, in the waist if you want to hit the center. But closer, at 500 meters, you need to shoot at the heels - the trajectory itself will lead the bullet where it needs to be. At a close distance, 100 meters, the bullet will also go down (see Table 8: the excess at such a distance will be 53 cm), so you also need to aim above the knees and below the buckle to hit the chest. But at all other distances, from 500 to 100 meters, as the attacking enemy approaches, the aiming point must be taken only along the horizon, “along the heels,” without changing the height of the sight.

During offensive operations, when firing a light bullet from rifles, a direct shot results in:

On an entrenched target (height 30 cm) with a “3 1/2” sight or a constant “P” at a distance of up to 350 meters;

At an open target (height 50 cm) with a “4” sight at a distance of up to 400 meters;

At a running target (height 1.5 m) with a “6” sight at a distance of up to 600 meters.

At the above distances with the above sight settings, shooting is carried out by selecting an aiming point along the horizon of the ground surface at the target level without changing the sight setting when the distance changes “closer to the enemy.”

DIRECT "HUNTING" SHOT IN THE CITY

As already mentioned, direct "hunting" sniper shot is one in which the trajectory of the bullet does not rise above the aiming line or is associated with it.

The bottom line is this: the installation height of optical sights above the bore of a weapon is on average 7 cm. Let us turn to diagram 76 and again to the table of excess of average trajectories. As you can see, at a distance of 200 meters and sight “2” the greatest excesses of the trajectory, 5 cm at a distance of 100 meters and 4 cm at 150 meters, practically coincide with the aiming line - the optical axis of the optical sight. The height of the aiming line at the middle of a distance of 200 meters is 3.5 cm. There is a practical coincidence of the bullet trajectory and the aiming line. The difference of 1.5 cm can be neglected. At a distance of 150 meters, the height of the trajectory is 4 cm, and the height of the optical axis of the sight above the horizon of the weapon is 17-18 mm; the difference in height is 3 cm, which also does not play a practical role.

76. Direct "hunting" shot in the city.

1 - optical sight;

2 - weapon barrel

At a distance of 80 meters from the shooter, the height of the bullet trajectory will be 3 cm, and the height of the aiming line will be 5 cm, the same difference of 2 cm is not decisive. The bullet will land only 2 cm below the aiming point. The vertical dispersion of bullets of 2 cm is so small that it is of no fundamental importance. Therefore, when shooting with the “2” division of the optical sight, starting from a distance of 80 meters and up to 200 meters, aim at the bridge of the enemy’s nose - you will hit there ±2/3 cm higher and lower throughout this distance. At 200 meters the bullet will hit exactly the aiming point. And even further, at a distance of up to 250 meters, aim with the same scope “2” at the enemy’s “top”, at the upper cut of the cap - the bullet drops sharply after 200 meters of distance. At 250 meters, aiming this way, you will hit 11 cm lower - on the forehead or bridge of the nose.

The method described above is very convenient and practical in active street battles, when the distances in the city are approximately 150-250 meters and everything is done on the run, on the move, quickly, and there is no time to turn the flywheel and set the sight to the range.

SHOOTING IN THE CITY ACCORDING TO LANDSCAPE

Distances in the city visually seem shorter by about 1/8. Therefore, distances for accurate shooting are verified by shooting at the main visible landmarks.

For example, by eye the distance to a brick wall located on the enemy’s side was determined to be 400 meters. The sniper, shooting at any visible and noticeable spot on this wall with a “4” scope, noted that the bullet hit 3 bricks below the aiming point, that is, about 20 cm.

According to the table of exceeding average trajectories, we find: with a scope “4”, a hit at 400 meters is at “0” (that is, in the center), and at 450 meters - 28 cm below. Therefore, the distance in a real case will be approximately 430-440 meters. The sight is set to "4" and 1/3 divisions.

DEPENDENCE OF THE TRAJECTORY ON ATMOSPHERIC FIRING CONDITIONS

The trajectory of a bullet is influenced not only by the force of gravity. The trajectory range largely depends on air density, which in turn varies on temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity.

The following are accepted as normal starting (tabular) data:

Atmospheric pressure is 750 mm, corresponding to a terrain height above sea level of 110 m;

Air temperature +15°С;

Air humidity 50%;

Complete absence of wind.

Deviations of shooting conditions from the table (normal), changing the effect of air resistance, change the shape of the trajectory, lengthening or shortening it. An increase in air temperature during hot weather reduces its density and noticeably increases the trajectory, and vice versa, in cold weather the air density increases noticeably and the bullets travel much lower. In both cases, it is necessary to change the aiming angles with a temperature difference of 10 degrees. Correction data for weather conditions are given in table. 16 and 17.

Table 16

Summary table of correction data for meteorological conditions and derivation for shooting from an SVD rifle

Table 17

Simplified temperature correction method

NOTE. Up to a distance of 500 meters, temperature and longitudinal wind can be neglected; after 500 meters, the influence of these factors is so great that it has to be taken into account.

Example. Air temperature -25°C, firing distance 600 meters. Install the correct sight.

Solution. The difference between the existing temperature (-25°C) and the table temperature (+15°C minus -25°C) is 40°C. The downward deflection of the bullet according to the table at a distance of 600 meters for every 10°C decrease in temperature is 12 cm (!). Consequently, the downward deflection of the bullet will be 12 cm x 4 (the number of tens) equal to 48 cm. Estimating from the table of excesses of average trajectories, we will see that the bullet will not reach the target 50 meters. Therefore, the sight must be set to “6” and raised another 1/2 division. Attention! This problem gives a standard solution to a standard situation. So remember! When the air temperature in winter is -25°C in the middle climatic zone of Russia, the sight is set to “6 1/2” (for direct shooting).

A simplified practical method for introducing corrections for air temperature (from the SVD rifle manual)

The influence of air temperature on the range of a bullet when firing at targets at distances up to 500 meters can be ignored, since at these distances its influence is insignificant.

When shooting at distances of 500 meters or more, the influence of air temperature on the range of a bullet must be taken into account, increasing the scope in cold weather and decreasing it in cold weather. hot weather, guided by practical table 18.

Table 18

CORRECTIONS FOR ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. SHOOTING IN THE MOUNTAINS

Changes in altitude and, consequently, changes in atmospheric pressure make themselves felt when shooting in the mountains. Amendments are required here. With a significant increase in terrain above sea level, atmospheric pressure (and air density) decreases significantly, and the trajectory (and flight) range of the bullet increases. An increase (decrease) in the terrain for every 100 meters decreases (increases) the pressure mercury by 8 mm.

In reality, changes in atmospheric pressure have to be taken into account when shooting at an altitude of 500 meters above sea level and above. Correction data in tables 17, 18 are given for a pressure difference of 10 mm from the normal table one. Calculation principle: the number of hundreds of meters above the normal, tabular, height of 110 meters is established. The pressure of 8 mm is multiplied by the resulting number of hundreds. Then the tabular data is multiplied by the number of tens.

Example. Altitude 1500 meters, firing range 600 meters determine the correction in the sight.

Solution. According to the summary table of corrections for weather conditions, we find: at a distance of 600 meters, the correction for the height of the trajectory for every 10 mm of mercury will be +3 cm in excess of the trajectory. The elevation of the terrain above the normal table height is: 1500 m - 110 m = 1390 m, rounded to 14 hundred. The number of tens of millimeters of mercury will be 112:10 =11. Exceeding the trajectory by 3 cm for every ten millimeters of mercury, multiplied by 11 tens, will result in an excess of 33 cm. This is a miss. Using the table of excesses for the SVD rifle, we find the closest value to a distance of 600 meters - this will be an excess of 74 cm at a distance of 500 meters.

Therefore, if you set the scope to “5 1/2” divisions, the bullet will hit the aiming point with a slight excess of 4 cm, which does not exceed the dispersion value of the barrel (74 cm: 2 = 37 cm, this corresponds to an excess of the trajectory at a distance of 550 meters - carefully see the table of exceeding the average trajectories for the SVD rifle).

A simplified practical method for introducing corrections in the mountains (from the manual for the SVD rifle)

In the mountains, when shooting at distances over 700 meters, if the terrain altitude above sea level exceeds 2000 meters, the sight corresponding to the range to the target should be reduced by one division due to the reduced air density; if the terrain altitude above sea level is less than 2000 meters, do not reduce the sight, but select the aiming point at the lower edge of the target.

Changes in air humidity have a negligible effect on its density and trajectory shape, and therefore are not taken into account when shooting. However, it should be borne in mind that above an open water surface (wide river, lake, sea) the air has increased humidity and a significantly lower temperature, as a result of which its density becomes noticeably greater and at distances of 300-400 meters already affects the trajectory. This phenomenon is especially evident in summer time early in the morning.

Therefore, in such cases, when shooting across a wide body of water, it is necessary to take an additional adjustment for height. Its size is equal to the correction for derivation, but, of course, vertically.

In addition, it is advisable to shoot in such conditions with a heavy bullet of the 1930 model or a heavy bullet from a sports cartridge. Heavy bullets work better in dense air at long ranges. Do not forget that at shooting distances up to 400 meters above a body of water, a heavy bullet will pass on average 1-2 cm below the established tabular trajectory, and after the line of 400-450 meters it will go 1-2 cm above the tabulated data.

CORRECTIONS FOR TARGET ELIZATION ANGLE

When the target is located above or below the weapon horizon, an angle is formed between the aiming line and the weapon horizon, called the target elevation angle. The latter is considered positive when the target is above the weapon's horizon (Figure 77), and negative when the target is below. Corrections for target elevation angle are determined using a summary table common to rifles and machine guns (Table 19).

Scheme 77. Formation of a positive target elevation angle

Task. Determine the correction for the target elevation angle +40° when shooting in the mountains at a distance of 400 meters.

Solution. Using the table of corrections for the target elevation angle, we find:

the bullet will fall 50 meters closer to the target, therefore, a “4 1/2” division sight is installed.

There are also simplified tables of corrections for target elevation angle. They are different for light and heavy bullets. Attention! When shooting from an SVD sniper rifle with “sniper” cartridges and cartridges with “silver nose” bullets, simultaneously follow the table. 20 for the 1908 model bullet.

Table 19

Correction data for target elevation angle for firing from an SVD rifle and a company machine gun

Correction with a plus sign - bullets fly over the target at the distance indicated in the table

Correction with a "minus" sign - the bullets fall short of reaching the target by the distance indicated in the table

A simplified practical method for correcting the target elevation angle when shooting in the mountains (from the SVD rifle manual)

If, when shooting, the target is above or below the sniper, and the elevation angle of the target is;

15-30°, then the aiming point at distances over 700 meters should be chosen at the lower edge of the target;

30-45°, then the sight corresponding to the range to the target must be reduced by one division at distances over 700 meters and by half a division at distances from -400 to 700 meters;

45-60°, then the sight corresponding to the range to the target must be reduced by two divisions at ranges over 700 meters and by one division at distances from 400 to 700 meters.

SHOOTING IN THE MOUNTAINS WITH AMMUNITION FROM PREVIOUS YEARS OF PRODUCTION (BATTLE CHART OF MOUNTAIN RIFLE UNITS)

When shooting in the mountains, the range of a bullet increases compared to shooting on flat terrain due to a decrease in air density depending on the altitude above sea level. To take into account the influence of air density and make adjustments to the sight installation when firing in the mountains, you should be guided by the table. 20.

Table 20

NOTE. The table shows approximate figures. When shooting, it is necessary to monitor the fall of bullets and the results of fire and make the necessary adjustments accordingly.

The change in the flight range of a bullet when shooting in the mountains is also influenced by significant elevation angles of the target. Corrections for the influence of target elevation angles should be made based on table. 21, 22.

Table 21

For a heavy bullet of the 1930 model.

Table 22

For a light bullet of the 1908 model.

CORRECTIONS FOR WIND

Side wind causes significant deviations of the bullet from the firing plane. Eat catchphrase: “The gun shoots, the wind carries the bullets.” The wind blows the bullets away from the target quite noticeably. For example, at a real sniper distance of 400 meters, even a light wind blows the bullet to the side by 23-25 ​​cm. When shooting at the head (and generally the sniper has to shoot at the head sticking out of cover), this is already a clear miss. Complete calm is not a very common occurrence, and when sniping, the wind has to be taken into account even at short shooting distances.

For wind speed in shooting and artillery practice. accepted: light wind - 2-2.5 m/s; moderate (average) - 4-6 m/s; strong-8-12m/s.

Wind corrections are set according to the table of corrections for moderate side winds blowing at an angle of 90° to the shooting plane. In this table, as is customary in all shooting tables in world practice, the correction data is set specifically for a moderate side wind - 4-6 m/s. This is standard tabular data, and all ballistic calculations should be based on this wind speed.

All tabular correction data are multiplied by half in case of strong wind, and divided in half in case of weak wind.

When the wind blows at any acute angle (60°, 45°, 30°) to the shooting plane, the correction should be taken half as much as when there is a side wind (at an angle of 90°).

Example. Set the lateral displacement of the bullet in a strictly moderate side wind at a distance of 300 meters. We look at the lateral corrections section of the table. 23. We find: the firing range is 300 meters, nearby we find the displacement of the bullet from the target - 26 cm. If the wind is weak, we divide the tabular data in half - the displacement will be equal to 13 cm. If this weak wind blows at an acute angle of 45-35°, the displacement in this case it will be 13 cm: 2 = 6 cm. Here you should add or subtract 1-2 cm of correction for bullet derivation, which can be neglected when shooting from an SVD rifle at a distance of 300 meters. When introducing corrections for wind, follow the table. 23-25.

Table 23

Corrections for moderate side wind (velocity 4-6 m/s) at an angle of 90° for a 7.62 mm rifle

Table 24

Corrections for moderate side wind (velocity 4-6 m/s) at an angle of 90° for a 5.6 mm small-caliber rifle

Table 25

Wind corrections for the SVD rifle (from the SVD rifle manual) ( full table)

ATTENTION! In case of a strong side wind (8-12 m/s) without urgent need, it is better to refrain from shooting and not unmask yourself once again. At distances of 300 meters and stronger, the wind blows unevenly and gusts, so the quality of shooting in such conditions will be difficult to predict.

Wind gusts also have different speeds depending on the terrain, and accurate calculation of wind corrections in very rough terrain is impossible or unlikely. If you really need to shoot in strong winds or on very rough terrain, shoot with a tracer bullet, although the shooting accuracy of the latter leaves much to be desired. Shoot, but not at the target, but at some object located at the same distance as the target and away from it, so as not to scare away an important target. Using the PSO-1 optical sight (that’s what’s good about it) you can see how many scale divisions of the lateral correction scale the luminous bullet has moved to, and then aim at the desired target, “landing” it on the scale division where the luminous tracer fell

The aiming point is moved from the middle of the target. When making adjustments to the installation of the side handwheel, aim at its middle

The following signs can be used to determine wind strength (Diagram 78).

Light wind

The flag deviates slightly from the staff.

The smoke from the chimney is slightly deflected.

The scarf sways and flutters slightly.

The grass is swaying.

Branches and leaves sway on the bushes.

The branches sway on the trees and the leaves rustle.

Moderate wind

The flag is kept unfurled and fluttering.

The smoke from the chimney is deflected and drawn out without bursting.

The scarf flutters.

The grass bends towards the ground.

The bushes are swaying.

Thin branches on the trees bend and leaves sway violently.

Strong wind

The flag unfurls noisily and is held horizontally.

The smoke from the chimney is sharply deflected and bursts.

The handkerchief is torn from his hands.

The grass spreads across the ground.

The bushes are kept tilted.

Tree branches sway and large branches bend.

Diagram 78. Wind speed

It is very important to correctly determine the distance to the target, but to correctly determine the wind strength is even more important. With a correctly determined distance to the target, there is no doubt that the shooting will be accurate and the shooter will hit the center with minor deviations of the bullet up and down, because its trajectory is quite accurately subordinated to the table of exceeding average trajectories. The wind blows with an unpredictable, and at different distances to the target, by force. Therefore, to train shooting taking into account the wind, even at a standard training distance of 300 meters, a knowledgeable instructor will definitely place a weather vane near the target - a stick stuck in the ground with a nylon stocking tied to it (this is the most wind-sensitive material). The instructor will place another similar weather vane in the middle of the shooting distance. In combat conditions, the sniper places such weather vanes himself, or scouts do it at his request. To make corrections for wind, use the table. 26, 27, 28.

Table 26

A simplified method for determining the amount of correction for the effect of a moderate crosswind blowing at an angle of 90° when shooting from a 7.62 mm rifle (only for moderate winds and only at the specified distances)

Table 27

Wind corrections for shooting from a small-bore rifle (full table)

The aiming point is placed in the direction from which the wind is blowing.

The aiming point offset may not necessarily be measured in centimeters. It is easier and more practical to carry out such a count in figures (thousandths), making such a count from the middle of the figure

When correcting for crosswinds at longer distances (over 400 meters), the effect must be taken into account.

Example Determine the lateral correction for shooting from an SVD rifle at a distance of 500 meters with a wind of 4 m/s blowing from the right at an angle of 45°.

Solution The tabulated correction for wind is 72 cm vegeo oblique therefore, 722 = 36 cm Correction for derivation - 7 cm Therefore, 36 cm (left) - 7 cm (right) = 29 cm left Rounded 30 cm at a distance of 600 meters is equal to half a thousandth. This is half a tick or one click of the drum to move the STP to the right. At the same time, aim at the enemy's right eye - you will hit the bridge of the nose.

A simplified way to remember wind corrections (from the SVD rifle manual)

To make it easier to memorize corrections for a moderate side wind blowing at an angle of 90°, in divisions of the scale of the side handwheel (sight reticle), you need to divide the sight number corresponding to the distance to the target, divide when shooting at distances up to 500 meters - by a constant number 4, and when shooting over long distances - 3

Example Determine the correction for a strong side wind blowing at an acute angle to the direction of fire, in divisions of the side handwheel scale, if the distance to the target is 600 meters (sight "6")

Solution 6(sight)/3(constant number) = 2

The longitudinal wind speeds up or slows down the flight of the bullet, and therefore it falls either above or below the target. But this phenomenon practically manifests itself at distances of 400 meters and further and is noticeable only in strong winds - 10 m/s. For moderate and weak longitudinal winds, tabular data ( see summary ballistic table 16, column “Longitudinal wind”) are respectively divided into 2 and 4. If the wind is blowing towards you, the tabular data is subtracted from the height of the trajectory, if the wind is corresponding, they are added to the height of the trajectory

Table 28

Simplified wind corrections of 4 m/s when firing ammunition from previous years of manufacture (from an SVD rifle)

From the table 28 it can be seen that heavy bullets with a higher lateral load and more advanced ballistic shapes are much less blown away by the wind and are less susceptible to deflection during derivation (corrections are rounded to 1/2 thousandths).

SHOOTING AT MOVING TARGETS

This is the most difficult element of sniper practice. In addition to the ability to make accurate ballistic calculations, successful shooting requires solid shooting skills with a moving rifle. When shooting at a moving target, shots must be directed not at the target, but ahead of its movement, calculating the time during which the target will move forward and the bullet will reach the target line, where they will meet. This shift in the direction of fire is called lead.

The shooter, having taken the required lead, moves the weapon (aiming line) in the direction of movement of the target and in front of it according to its speed and fires a shot without stopping the arms of the weapon (Diagram 79).

Lead is taken into account by setting the aiming point in target figures, in meters, in thousandths, or by installing the side flywheel according to the table. 29.

Table 29

Calculation table for making adjustments to the sight or pre-empting a target moving in the flank frontal direction (for SVD, SVT and three-line rifles)

When flanking (frontal) movement of the target, the lead in meters is equal to the speed of the target's movement multiplied by the time of flight of the bullet to the target in seconds (see the main sniper table).

Example. Determine the lead at a distance of 400 meters against a target moving along the front (a motorcycle with a sidecar) at a speed of 25 km/h.

Solution. Using Table 30, we find the time the bullet approaches the target at a distance of 400 meters - 0.59 s. During this time the motorcycle travels 4 meters. At 400 meters, 4 meters cover the front by 10 thousandths, that is, 10 divisions of the lateral correction scale. Therefore, you can either enter a correction by rotating the side flywheel, turning it 10 divisions (as we remember, 1 full division of the flywheel scale is equal to 1 thousandth, or 40 cm along the front at such a distance), or simply aim at the target with the extreme lateral mark of the lateral correction scale (this will be exactly 10 divisions or 4 meters along the front at a distance of 400 meters).

For convenience, the lead can also be taken in terms of the number of figures. The width of the figure of a running, crouched infantryman is taken to be 0.5 meters. It should be remembered that the lead point in figures, centimeters or thousandths is counted from the middle of the target figure, that is, these same 0.5 meters are counted not from the edge of the figure, but from the “buckle on the stomach”.

Example. Firing range 600 meters. Target speed 3 m/s (infantryman running to attack). Flanking movement. The standard width of the figure is 50 cm. Find the lead.

Solution. 3 m/s = 300 cm

300 ± 50 = 6 figures (schemes 80, 81).

Scheme 81. The same picture in an optical sight

The author of this manual will forever remember the practical technique of shooting at running targets, once shown to him by an old front-line sniper. When shooting at a “runner”, which was moving at a standard speed for a running infantryman of 3 m/s at a standard combat shooting range distance of 300 meters, the old instructor set the scope “5” and tied it to the lower front edge of the target with the upper corner of the leveling thread (2 in diagram 82 ). The bullet hit at the level of the target's waist, at a height of 70 cm. There were no misses. Later, the author calculated the ballistics using the above method - everything coincided! It is not easy to anchor to the center of the running figure, but since it is tilted forward, this is not necessary. The old instructor tied the aiming point along the horizon on which the target was moving, and it was easier for him to do all this. Of course, he shot with a leash, leading the rifle continuously along the line of movement of the target, and fired a shot without stopping the leashes of the weapon. As an old front-line soldier said, this technique has been worked out for decades, and in a combat situation of mobile combat it cannot be done better.

The most common mistake is when a shooter, while pointing the rifle at extreme point lead, switches attention to pulling the trigger and, unnoticed by himself, stops the weapon. Naturally, the result is a miss, since the shot was fired from a weapon that was stationary. In this case, it is necessary to take a lead 2-4 times greater than the calculated one. If you are not confident in yourself, if possible, wait for the moment when the target moves towards you or away from you and, relative to your position, becomes motionless along the front for some moment, then shoot. With this type of shooting, zeroing in with a tracer bullet is excluded - the tracer is visible not only to you, but also to the enemy. Another thing is a parachutist. While he is in the air, he has nowhere to go. To anticipate moving targets, follow the table. 30, 31, 32.

Scheme 82. Practical “tying” to a moving target:

2 - “binding” to the horizon of the target’s movement;

3 - rifle movement. Distance 300 m, sight "5"

Table 30

Shooting at moving targets. Time for a bullet to reach the target, s

Table 31

Shooting from a small-caliber rifle at moving targets. Target movement during flight when moving at an angle of 90°

Table 32

Shooting from an SVD rifle at moving targets (from the SVD rifle manual) (full table)

Removing the aiming point or installing the rear sight (protractor, side flywheel of the optical sight) to obtain the necessary lead is determined depending on the angle of movement of the target: when the target moves at an angle of 90° - the full amount of lead; at an angle of 60° - 0.9 lead, at an angle of 45° - 0.7 lead; at an angle of 30° - 0.5 lead.

During live firing in maneuverable mobile combat, it is impossible to determine the exact angle of movement of the target; therefore, the lead is taken almost completely when the target moves at an angle close to a straight line (90°-60°) (diagram 83), and half at sharper angles (oblique movement) (diagram 84).

The aiming point for moving running targets is usually carried out in visible sizes (figures, targets).

Example. To obtain a lead of 2 m when shooting at 500 m at running targets, set the aiming point: when moving

Targets at an angle close to a straight line - by 4 figures, when the target moves at an acute angle - by 2 figures, taking the width of the figure as 0.5 m.

To obtain lead by installing a rear sight, the linear lead value is converted into an angular value based on the distance to the target.

Example. To obtain a lead of 2 m when firing from a distance of 500 meters at a target running at an angle close to a straight line, set the rear sight to “4” (2/0.5); for a target running at an acute angle - “2”.

A simplified method of preemption (from the manual for the SVD rifle)

When the target moves at a speed different from that indicated in the table, the lead should be increased (decreased) in proportion to the change in the speed of the target.

Move the aiming point away from the middle of the target. When making adjustments to the installation of the side handwheel, aim at the middle of the target. To make it easier to memorize the leads in divisions of the side handwheel scale (sight reticle) for the flanking movement of the target at a speed of 3 m/s at a distance of up to 600 meters, assume that the lead is equal to 4.5 thousandths, at shorter distances (about 300 meters) - 2, at large (800 meters) - 6 thousandths.

Below is a simplified method of shooting at moving targets from machine guns and rifles with ammunition from previous years of production (Infantry Combat Regulations).

To hit pedestrian and mounted targets moving at an angle to the shooting plane, you should take lateral lead in the direction of the target’s movement, guided by table. 33.

Table 33

Lateral leads in thousandths when the target moves at an angle of 90°

NOTES. 1. Amendments are rounded to 1/2 thousandths.

2. When moving a walking target at a step, take half as much lead as when moving along a running target; when moving an equestrian target at a walk, the lead is taken twice as much, and when moving at a gallop, twice as much as when moving at a trot.

3. When the target moves at an acute angle to the direction of fire, take half the lead than when moving at an angle of 90°.

The speed of movement of targets in combat conditions is taken to be:

An infantryman running to attack - 3 m/s, 10 km/h;

A sharply running infantryman - 4 m/s, 13 km/h;

An infantryman running with all his might - 4.5 m/s, 15 km/h;

Cyclist - 4.5 m/s, 15 km/h;

Cross-country motorcycle - 6 m/s, 20 km/h;

Starting car - 6 m/s, 20 km/h;

The cruising speed of a car on the highway is 18 m/s, 60 km/h;

Parachutist - 6 m/s, 20 km/h

SHOOTING AT AIR TARGETS

Shooting from small arms at air targets - airplanes, helicopters and parachutists (without anti-aircraft sights) - is carried out at a distance of 500 meters (no more) with a scope of "3". Installing the "3" sight at high target elevation angles (the parachutist, as you know, is high) ensures at these distances an average trajectory that does not exceed the vertical limits in height.

When shooting at an airplane or helicopter diving at the shooter and approaching the target, when the aiming line and the direction of the bullet's flight coincide with the course of the airplane (helicopter), lead is not required.

In all other directions of flight of an aircraft (helicopter), it is necessary to take a lead depending on the speed of its flight and the flight time of the bullet.

The linear value of the lead is indicated in the table. 34.

When shooting at airplanes (helicopters), lead is usually taken in the visible dimensions of the target's fuselage (hull). Leads in the fuselages are taken regardless of the direction of flight of the target.

To determine the lead, the tabulated linear lead value should be divided by the known length of the target.

Table 34

Example. Determine the lead in the fuselages for a helicopter with a length of 12 m and a speed of 150 km/h. Solution The lead (rounded) is equal to:

For 100 m - 1 fuselage (16.5 12);

For 200 m - 3 fuselages (37.5 12);

For 300 m - 5 fuselages (60.12), for 400 m - 7 fuselages (85-12);

For 500 m - 10 fuselages (114:12).

Leads against descending parachutists are determined on the general basis of shooting at moving targets, depending on the target's descent speed (6 m/s) and the bullet's flight time.

When shooting, lead is taken in the direction of the parachutist's descent in his visible dimensions (vertical figures) in height (1.5 m).

The sight at ranges up to 500 meters is set to “3”. The aiming point is at the legs.

A practical way to determine lead when shooting at parachutists is the number of hundreds of meters to the target minus two.

Example. The range to the parachutist is 400 meters. The lead is 4 - 2 = 2 pieces.

Therefore (see diagrams 85, 86).

For 100 m - 1/2 figure;

For 200 m - 1 figure.

For 300 m - 1 1/2 figures;

For 400 m - 2 figures;

For 500 m - 3 figures.

Shooting at aerial targets is carried out only with a mobile rifle! The shot is fired without stopping the leashes of the weapon!

As already mentioned, in the air the parachutist has nowhere to go. Therefore, targeting it with tracer bullets and taking a lead by the actual number of figures is an elementary matter. How many body lengths of the parachutist will the tracer pass above him and to the side (if the parachutist is blown away by the wind), the same amount of lead should be taken under the parachutist and, if necessary, to the side. A sniper should always have tracer ammunition.

SNIPER FIRE IN SPECIAL CONDITIONS

Shooting at dusk, at night, in conditions of limited visibility at stationary, emerging and moving targets is carried out at distances of no more than 450 meters and, as a rule, with a “3” sight.

In this case, aiming is carried out at a distance of up to 300 meters in the middle of the target (Diagram 87), and at greater distances - in its upper part.

When the target (terrain) is illuminated for a short time, fire must be carried out with a “4” sight, aiming at the lower edge of the target (Diagram 88).

If the range to the target is more than 400 meters, then the aiming point should be selected at the top of the target.

The greatest flight range of the stars of the lighting cartridge (rocket launcher) is obtained at a throwing angle of about 50° (Diagram 89).

Shooting at night at a target that detects itself by infrared radiation is carried out with the sight set to “4” and with the luminescent screen turned on.

When observing enemy infrared spotlights through the sight, a glow appears on the screen in the form of a round greenish spot. The fire opens at the moment when the spot is above the square of the sight reticle (Diagram 90).

Shooting at a target that reveals itself by flashes of shots is carried out with the sight set to “4” and with the sight reticle lighting turned on (Diagram 91).

ADJUSTING FIRE AT NIGHT

To adjust fire at night and target designation, cartridges with tracer bullets are used. The best results are achieved with night vision sights and the PSO-1 sight. They not only allow you to see the target, but also increase the accuracy of aiming and hitting the target.

When shooting with night sights and tracer bullets, it is necessary to change the shooting location more often and turn on infrared illumination equipment less often. Aim at a distance of 300 meters with a sight “3” at the target (diagram 87); at long distances - 450 meters (with the same sight "3") - at the top of the target.

Attention! Night sniper fire at unilluminated, less obvious targets at distances over 450 meters is ineffective. The above values ​​of sights “3” and “4” are used to calculate the target’s height in conditions of its non-obviousness and low visibility (refer to the table for exceeding average trajectories).

Attention! At night, you should not look continuously through night vision devices (sights). Continuous observation through a night vision device (sight) for 2-3 minutes sharply and permanently reduces visual acuity. If necessary, this should be done for 30-40 seconds, no more, with an interval of 1-2 minutes.

Attention! When working with a night sight (device), before taking it away from your eye, the sight (device) must be turned off. If you don’t do this, the internal light of the device will illuminate the shooter’s face with a yellow-green light, and in the dark it will look very bright and obvious to the enemy sniper from the adjacent side. This moment has killed more than one soldier. On night vision scopes of the latest models, rubber eyecups are specially provided for this purpose, which, when pressed with the eye socket, “open”, and when the eye socket is removed (squeezed out), they “close.”

With good, sharp and trained night vision, targets are clearly visible through conventional optical sights in deep twilight and even in the dark. The PSO-1 sight with coated optics and an illuminated reticle is especially good for this. Shooting at illuminated targets - burning cigarettes, headlights, lantern lights, etc. - works very well and easily in cases where during the day the distances to the main landmarks are clearly known and measured, near which these targets may appear at night: dugouts, guard nests machine gunners, "oblique" communication passages, etc.

MAKING A FIRE CARD

The sniper should, if possible, memorize the sniper tables for his personal weapon. You also need to remember the calculation methods. You need to be able to do them mentally and very quickly, without taking your eyes off the goal. The target will not wait until the sniper makes all the necessary calculations, makes adjustments to the sight, sets the aiming wheels and takes careful aim. The target will do its job and disappear.

Therefore, the sniper must enter the position with a pre-prepared shot.

This means that even before entering the position, the sniper must deeply think through the scenario of the upcoming sniper work and possible scenarios for the development of events, determine and know the following:

The distance from your positions (main, reserve and “jump” positions to the main landmarks on the enemy side and the distance between these landmarks);

The terrain on the map in comparison with visual perception;

The direction and speed of the prevailing wind in the area;

Places of possible appearance of targets and distances to them;

Possible directions and speeds of movement of the intended targets;

Derivation at various distances with reference to any visible landmarks of a specific area;

Target elevation angle;

Meteorological conditions (air temperature, altitude above sea level, etc.);

If it is intended to fire soon after the completion of data preparation, corrections for the influence of cross wind should be included in the initial settings of the lateral correction flywheel scale, recording these settings in the fire card with amendments made to them for the existing strength and direction of the wind;

If the time of opening fire is unknown, then enter on the card the initial amendments to the settings of the lateral corrections flywheel for a moderate side wind (4 m/s), blowing at an angle of 90° to the direction of fire, in order to be able to quickly use them when making corrections for wind of any strength and directions when a target suddenly appears and quickly disappears (data on moderate wind can be quickly multiplied or divided by 2);

Record the initial sight corrections with corrections made for temperature, and in the mountains - for air density and target elevation angles;

Fire at a target moving in the firing plane with a sight setting that corresponds not to the distance at which the target is detected, but to the one at which the target may be at the moment of opening fire (immediately take range lead). To do this, when firing at a walking target, the side sight is set smaller (more) by 1-2 divisions, and when firing at a motorized target - by 2-3 divisions, depending on the speed of its movement. As the target advances, the sight alignment is adjusted to match the change in distance to the target.

All necessary calculations for identified and proposed targets are made before entering the position. This allows, in case of sudden changes in the battle situation and the sudden appearance of targets near known and already calculated landmarks, to quickly introduce corrections during the shooting.

The sniper must roughly and primitively draw this entire situation on a piece of paper (or even better, cardboard - it does not wrinkle) (Diagram 92). This is called making a fire card. On this card, next to the measurements of distances to targets and landmarks, the sniper immediately writes down the numbers for installing the sights - the result of ready-made calculations. If the need arises to shoot at a particular target, the sniper sets the sight according to these numbers, calculated in advance. This saves time on the battlefield.

Scheme 92. Approximate fire card.

Legend: 1 - the main position of the sniper in the neutral zone; 2, 3 - spare positions; 4 - retreat position; 5 - possible positions of enemy snipers; 6 - linear positions of the enemy

ATTENTION! It is prohibited to put any markings behind your back or on your territory!

German snipers compiled similar fire cards, but with more precise reference to firing distances (Diagram 93).

Diagram 93. German sniper fire card with distance circles to intended targets and landmarks marked on it

The neutral zone, as well as the enemy’s front line, is the sniper’s zone of interest, his working economy, and he must know where and what “nail” is “hammered” here. A real sniper uses every opportunity to determine the distances to possible targets and make the necessary calculations before the battle. When preparing the initial data for shooting, the sniper must consult with observers, reconnaissance officers and the immediate commander, making sure to inform them of the results of his own observations and tactical conclusions. The process must be checked against the map. But even with the existing fire map, you still can’t do without calculations in sniper practice. They are produced for each specific case, according to different tables, often overlapping each other.

Why and why all this is needed was very clearly and intelligibly outlined by the writer V. Kozhevnikov in the story “Higher Rifle Education” (abbreviated).

“...I wanted to smoke, but there were no matches. Stopping next to a soldier who was anxiously sorting out rifle cartridges in the moonlight, he asked for a light.

What are you doing with the cartridges?

“I’m sorting,” said the fighter and, raising his fist with the clamped cartridge to his ear, he shook it. I put the cartridge aside.

What is this, spoiled?

There is such a suspicion. I'm a picky person, a little dent or a bullet fits poorly, I can't accept it...

Well, why don’t you rest?

There is no peace. This will be my first time in an assault in my specialty. Previously, everything was done from ambush, with an assistant.

With what assistant?

With a student. He was observing. And at this time I was resting my eyes. Previously, I worked alone, so eye fatigue set in at the end of the shift, even though I ate carrots. Carrots contain a vitamin that is beneficial for the eyes. I experienced it myself.

Are you a sniper?

Exactly. A fighter with a higher shooting education. Others think like this: take aim, pull the trigger - and the fascist is ready. No, a cultural approach is required here. Excuse me, can you shoot a fascist between the eyes eight hundred meters away? Can you imagine the science for this? So I'll tell you. First, be able to determine that he is eight hundred meters away from you, and not six hundred or seven hundred and fifty. This requires a sharp eye. Calculate the range from the angles - geometry is needed.

The bullet, when flying, rotates from left to right and deflects to the right. At six hundred meters it deviates by 12 centimeters, and at eight hundred it deviates by 29. Know this figure and keep the front sight in line. What if there is a strong side wind, what happens? Place the aiming point on two figures. But there may be different circumstances. And the wind and the Fritz are running - and even in different sides... There is such addition and subtraction - your head will swell. And you only have three seconds. Professor, even he will sweat.

Did you read in the division newspaper how I fought a duel with the famous German sniper? How did he sit in the horse carcass and how did the assistant hit the German at the same time as me in order to attract fire to himself? And most importantly, it is not said why I dumped the fascist.

And I left because I turned out to be more cultured than him, surpassed him in second arithmetic, even though he graduated from a special school in Berlin with honors.

I was lying in ambush on Mius. I was hunting for Krauts across the river. And it wasn’t a hunt, but a disgrace: in three days I didn’t reduce a single one, Shame! You know, I re-shooted the rifle, ate half a kilogram of carrots, and turned to the captain for advice. All in vain - undershoot! At night I swam naked across the river with a rope to check the distance. It didn't help. Then I wrote a letter to sniper Chekulaev. So what do you think? Telegram: “Through a water obstacle you need to take a greater elevation angle, since cold air and humidity reduce the trajectory.”

"... I say thank you to the sniper who accompanied us. I crawled to the pillbox with a tol. And in front of me there were trenches with German machine gunners. They bowed their heads and fired. Blind fire is not an obstacle for me. Now, if one of them raises his head and takes a look, then Of course I'm finished.

And then one stood up, raised his machine gun, looked straight into his eyes and bam - he sat down dead. I crawl further. Another one jumped up, but he also had a splash from his head. And it became clear to me how Kondratyuk (the sniper) saved me with his well-aimed bullet. Then Kondratyuk was lent to other bombers. Just a guardian angel, not a person. But we didn’t leave him unattended either. The machine gunner followed him like a general. And the machine gunners were ordered to cover if something happened.”

"...he stayed on the mountain. He explained to us that in the mountains the air is special, transparent. They say that when you fire through a gorge, deception occurs in the distance to the aiming point. He is now checking how the sight was installed: correctly or not. He has numbers are needed. He teaches the guys sniper work. Everything needs an explanation. So he examines it for a mental report.”

PRACTICAL SIGHTING OF A SNIPER RIFLE

Zeroing a weapon under an optical sight is a painstaking process that requires time and patience. In any case, the rifle first has to be sighted under an open sight. To immediately “catch” the target and save time, ammunition and nervous energy, use the following practical method.

The rifle is clamped in a sighting machine (or simply secured with a clamp to something massive) and with the bolt removed, it is aimed along the barrel bore at a target located at a distance of 100 meters from the shooter. If the design of the receiver does not allow you to look inside the barrel, an oblong fragment of a mirror is used for this purpose. The target should be visible strictly in the middle of the round field of the barrel bore, along its axis (1 in diagram 94). Without disrupting this aiming and constantly checking with it, they install an open sight, adjusting the height of the front sight (by screwing it in or out, or changing the front sights by numbers, or processing them with a file) and shifting it horizontally. The open sight is mounted so that its aiming point is in the center of the same target with the sight setting "1" (2 in diagram 94). Constantly checking with these two aiming points, the threads or the aiming reticle of the optical sight are brought to the same aiming point in the center of the target (3 in Diagram 94). At the end of this process, the STP will be located near this aiming point, common to both open and telescopic sights. For hunting purposes this is quite enough.

But this is not enough for sniper practice. For a sniper, such zeroing is only a preliminary “binding” of the weapon to the target. Why? Because as a result of such “linking,” the optical sight may turn out to be oriented toward the target not by the center of the visual field, but by its edge (Diagram 95). In the above zeroing diagram 94, the final result is ideally presented when the target is in the middle of the visual field of the sight and the center of the aiming crosshair is also there.

Scheme 94. Linking an optical sight to a target:

1 - target in the lumen of the barrel;

2 - the same target in open sight;

3 - the same target in an optical sight;

4 - optical sight bracket

Why do you need the center of the crosshair to be in the center of the visual field, and not somewhere on the edge? Because, firstly, the clarity of the target image in the center of the visual field will be much higher than at the edges. Secondly, if the crosshair is located in the center of the field, you can turn the adjustments in any direction and move the aiming crosshair to where you need it. For an illustration, look at diagram 95. When shooting at a moving target, in order to get ahead, you need to give an adjustment (in this case) to the right “2” so that the barrel of the weapon also goes to the right and the bullet meets the target with anticipation. To do this, the threads must be moved to the left, but since they are already there, there is nowhere to move them to the left.

Therefore, in the sniper version, the sight is aimed at the required aiming point when zeroing with the aiming threads (reticle) already positioned in the center of the visual field.

Zeroing a rifle with an optical sight for purely sniper purposes is carried out in accordance with the statutory provisions, namely

I stage of shooting- after “roughly” linking the weapon to the target, the rifle is sighted on a black sighting square measuring 25x35 cm with an open sight “3” so that the average point of impact is 14 cm above the aiming point for the SVD rifle and 17 cm for the three-line rifle ( see table of excess of average trajectories and diagram 96). A weapon sighted in this way with scope “I” at a distance of 100 meters will hit the aiming point strictly in the center, and at a distance of 300 meters with scope “3” it will also hit exactly at the aiming point “in the center.”

Stage II of shooting- the rifle is fixed in a sighting machine or in anything to make it immobile. Using an open sight in a fixed state, the weapon is aimed at the lower section of the sighting square (see diagram 96, stage 1 of sighting). An optical sight with an aiming crosshair pre-positioned in the center of the visual field and a bracket adjustment mechanism is positioned so that with the aiming square and stump it is aimed strictly at the aiming point of the open sight (Diagram 97). We repeat, the optical sight is brought to the target by an optical square (stump) located in the center of the visual field, that is, the sighting device “moves” the sight body itself without touching the flywheels. This process is painstaking, since during the movements of the sighting gun the weapon is lost, albeit slightly, from aiming with an open sight. Therefore, the sighter periodically looks into the open sight and corrects the correctness of its aiming.

If, with a well-aimed open sight with an aiming point under the bleed, the rifle hits 14 cm higher from the aiming point, then with an optical sight aimed at the same aiming point at the same distance, the result of hits will be the same.

After the aiming points of the open and optical sights are visually aligned with the same aiming - under the edge of the aiming square, the sighter checks the fulfillment of the above with three combat shots, aiming under the edge of the aiming square with an optical sight.

As a rule, at a distance of 100 meters, the average point of impact is obtained at the desired height of 14 cm (for an SVD rifle) from the aiming point. Sometimes, very rarely, it is necessary to make minor adjustments with the flywheels. If everything turned out correctly, with or without adjustments, after checking, establish the correct position of the lateral correction flywheel scale and the remote flywheel. In a combat situation, the flywheels of the sight have to be constantly turned, making various adjustments for height, wind, a running target, etc. And each time one or another division of the flywheel scale must indicate the correct amount of the correction taken. Therefore, trying not to move the flywheel, Using a screwdriver, unscrew the fixing locking screws (7, 2 in photo 152) of the remote vertical flywheel, while the scale (dial) of the vertical adjustment flywheel is “released” and can rotate independently of the flywheel. Without moving the flywheel, rotate the scale and set the number “3” opposite the control mark. With this you will install the sight "3" Why this way? Remember - with a sight "3" at a distance of 100 meters you hit with an excess (according to the table of excesses of average trajectories) 14 cm above the aiming point, therefore, with the same sight "3" at a distance of 300 meters you will hit exactly in the center - that the point where they were aiming. The ballistics of the sighting process is presented in Diagram 96.

After the sight "3" is set, slowly and carefully "tighten" the locking screws. Now, if you need to shoot at 100 meters, set the sight to "1" and aim at the center - that's where you'll get. If you need to shoot at 400 meters, set the scope to “4” and also aim at the center. Same thing at other distances.

When the horizontal position of the point of impact satisfies you (not to the right, not to the left, but where it should be), loosen the locking screws of the lateral correction flywheel and set the scale (dial) of this flywheel against the control lateral mark to “0”. Then carefully “tighten” the retaining screws. It will be better and more convenient for you if you loosen these screws in advance, even before zeroing.

The above-described process of zeroing an SVD rifle is the same for all types of optical sights. When zeroing other rifles or carbines, you should keep in mind that the excess of average trajectories at a distance of 100 meters is different for different weapon systems. Therefore, this manual provides tables of excesses of average trajectories for long-barreled small arms systems released to the public for free sale.

For sighting, squares (rectangles of black paper measuring 25x35 cm), standard general-purpose sighting targets are used, on which lines of bending (shortening) of the lower edge are marked for specific types of weapons - machine guns, machine guns, sniper rifles. With the specified fold line of the sighting target for a sniper rifle, the distance from the bottom edge to the center will be equal to 14 cm. More or less trained shooters use black round pistol sports targets No. 4 with a black circle diameter of 25 cm for sighting. In any case, sighting is carried out on the initial distances of 100 meters with bleed aiming and scope “3”.

ATTENTION! The cartridges for the same weapon are not the same. Manufactured in different factories, at different times, from different materials, they, although slightly, differ from each other in trajectory height. Therefore, the rifle must be shot with one batch of absolutely identical cartridges. This gives a compact, stable, and most importantly, uniform battle in height. The weapon must be re-sighted for different batches of cartridges - batches of cartridges vary in trajectory height.

You cannot shoot a weapon with a “rabble” of random cartridges of different batches, markings, years of manufacture and different purposes. Even when firing a machine gun with a "rabble" of randomly selected cartridges, unpredictable increased dispersion is observed.

The tables for exceeding average trajectories are compiled based on the average ballistic qualities of ammunition and are given for a general orientation “reference.” The barrels of weapons of the same systems, despite all the care in manufacturing, also turn out to be unequal: one barrel will “take” higher, the other lower.

Therefore, do not be surprised if you find discrepancies between the actual hits in range and the numbers on the distance handwheel scale. Such things make themselves felt at distances of over 400 meters, and with a heaped barrel it’s not scary. Make the appropriate marks on the distance scale and continue shooting.

Even very prepared and trained shooters have different weights, heights, arm lengths, and most importantly, perceptions of reality. Therefore, shooters with different “estatures” will shoot from the same rifle noticeably differently. If you get your hands on an SVD rifle that has already been shot by someone, you can very easily and quickly shoot it “for yourself.” Let’s say, when shooting at a distance of 100 meters with three cartridges, you hit 5 cm to the left and higher from the desired point. Knowing that at this distance one click (half a division) of the side flywheel is 0.5 thousandths, or 5 cm, turn the flywheel clockwise by half a division (one click) - “pull” the bullet into your palm for the desired 5 cm. Vertical remote flywheel turn counterclockwise by half a division - “lower” the bullet from the palm 5 cm down. If this scope has a ratchet, it will be one click. Check with three shots what happened. If necessary, add or subtract something from the scope. And now that the rifle is zeroed in for you, set the scale in accordance with the results of your zeroing.

DON'T FORGET! The flywheel dial (scale) is closed to the ratchet. When it rotates freely (with the fixing screws released), fixation clicks will be observed. They do not affect the process of correctly setting the scale, and you should not be afraid of this. The flywheel on the ratchet is not closed and, with the fixing locking screws released, rotates without clicks. It rotates with clicks only when the fixing screws are tightened.

For all the above reasons - the difference in ammunition, the dissimilarity of the barrels, the individual characteristics of perception - sniper weapons of precise and highly accurate combat are sighted by a permanent “owner” assigned to him, with reference to specific shooting distances - from 100 to 700 meters, and if necessary - and at more distant specific distances.

Shooting an SVD rifle, which has a barrel of normal accuracy with a working sight, is not particularly difficult because it is made as one piece with a seat (“dovetail”) for an optical sight, and this seat is very accurately oriented strictly parallel to the axis of the barrel bore . Therefore, when installing the PSO-1 sight on this weapon, the target appears in the middle of the optical field of the sight, and when zeroing, bringing the aiming square to it is close and convenient. It is very good when an optical sight, when installed on a weapon, is immediately oriented with its optical axis towards the target and it is in the middle of the visual field. Firstly, the resolution (clarity) of any optical device in the center of the field is much higher than at its edges. Secondly, it is very inconvenient when the optical axis of the sight, and accordingly the center of the visual field, is not oriented towards the target. Look again at diagram 95, the rifle was clearly sighted incorrectly and inconveniently. This is still suitable for shooting at a stationary target, but not for shooting at a moving target.

This disadvantage often characterizes hunting carbines equipped with optics: SKS, Saiga, Kaban and other systems on which the mounting for an optical sight is not provided by the manufacturer.

On three-line rifles of the 1891-1930 model. The installation of an optical sight was also not provided for at first. Therefore, the setting system this weapon optical sights provides for correction of their orientation. The center of the visual field is aimed at the target (target) vertically (up and down) using the upper and lower micrometric screws of the bracket base (photo 94).

To do this, lightly “release” the main clamping screw and alternately rotate the micrometric screws to bring the sight into desired position. In this case, the shank of the bracket (in photo 94) moves up and down, and the sight also moves accordingly. Horizontal guidance is carried out by placing a lining between the shank of the bracket and its base using thin brass or steel strips made at least from tin cans. Sometimes such gaskets have to be placed in the joints of the PSO-1 sight bracket during its horizontal residual displacements from deformations due to impacts.

After the center of the sight's visual field is aligned with the target, the micrometer screws are clamped relative to each other to avoid vertical play. The clamping screw is then tightened with a force of 10-15 kg using a screwdriver. PU sights on three-line rifles are attached “tightly” in the manner described above and are not removed from the rifle when carrying (transporting) the weapon.

On PB sights (photo 90, 91), the horizontal alignment of the center of the visual field to the target is done by rotating screws 2 (photo 90) and 3 (photo 91), moving the sight along the horizontal guide of the bracket. The visual field in this sight is not oriented vertically due to its very precise fit in the wedge-shaped “dovetail”, and only minor adjustments are made using the remote handwheel up and down during the zeroing process.

No one has invented a better shooting method than the statutory one described above. The question arises: why is this necessary? Answer: walking to inspect targets at 100 meters is still closer than at 300. In addition, bullet holes through a 20x telescope at a distance of 100 meters are clearly visible, but at 300 meters they are no longer visible through any tube at all due to the atmospheric haze.

Another question arises: why can’t you set the sight to “1” from the very beginning and immediately shoot at the center of the target at a distance of 100 meters. Answer: the black front sight will merge with the black square, and you will never “feel” the center of the target with the front sight. And it is much more difficult to “take” a small point target, even a bright one, into an open sight than to aim with a rectangular front sight with a clearance under the edge of the sighting square, which in the real sighting projection is the same as the front sight (Diagram 98). A small “gap” between the front sight and the bottom edge of the square (2 in diagram 98) will help control their relative position and will not allow the black front sight to “crash” into the black square. For these reasons, the accuracy of shooting at the sighting square will always be better than when shooting at other targets. This has been noticed in practice.

1 - sighting square;

2 - clearance

DON'T FORGET! One rotation of the front sight of an SVD rifle raises or lowers the aiming point by 16 cm. One line on the horizontal scale of the front sight base is equal to 10 cm (one thousandth). All this helps to quickly zero the rifle with a minimum number of rounds. Let’s say the first three shots hit the lower right corner of the sighting square (or even the chest target) 8 cm below the calculated point (let’s call it “X”) and 10 cm to the right. “Twist” the front sight half a turn down, the barrel will rise up, and on the target we will get an STP rise of 8 cm. There is no need to shoot for this. Next, we move the front sight along the " swallowtail"to the right one division of the scale - the barrel will go to the left and the STP will move to the left by 10 cm. Now we check with three shots what we have achieved. As a rule, in the vast majority of cases, the STP goes where the shooter needs it.

There is a practical sighting formula:

D=(A x B)/100000

where D is the correction value;

A is the length of the sighting line of a particular weapon (from the rear sight to the front sight);

B - deviation of the bullet from the desired point of impact.

Example. Determine the amount of movement of the front sight of the SKS carbine if, during zeroing, the average point of impact deviated from the desired one by 10 cm (100 mm).

Solution:

D = (480 mm (length of the SKS aiming line) x 100 mm)/100000 = 0.48 mm.

Sometimes (very rarely) additional adjustments have to be made.

The above-described zeroing technique allows you to save ammunition. This is what the military has been doing since time immemorial. The men who bought a rifled barrel begin to shoot it “in a simple way”, shooting at the newspaper from a distance of ten steps and gradually putting it further and further away. At the same time, a monstrous amount of cartridges is wasted, but the desired result is still not achieved.

ATTENTION! Only weapons with a compact firing pattern that comply with the instructions for this weapon system are subject to zeroing with an optical sight. There is no point in shooting a rifle or carbine that does not have sufficient accuracy with an optic.

When you shoot a rifle at 100 meters with a scope “3”, aiming under the bleed, exceeding 14 cm in height (meaning SVD), then rest assured: with a scope “1” at the same 100 meters it will hit exactly in the center , at 200 - with sight "2" - strictly in the center, at 300 - with sight "3" - strictly in the center. At 400, 500, 600 meters and beyond, with sights “4”, “5”, “6”, respectively, the rifle will also hit strictly in the center.

Contrary to the widely held belief among snipers that it is not necessary to shoot a rifle with an open sight, bitter combat experience indicates the opposite. Falls are common in war. According to the law of meanness, the rifle hits something hard with the optical sight. The optical sight may be hit by a stray bullet or shrapnel. Sights begin to “breathe” with correction devices (for all sights these are the weakest points) at the most inopportune moment. And you never know what can happen to optics - a precision instrument requires careful handling. A well-worked and verified open sight is simply necessary in such cases and in case of optics failure.

The displacement of the average point of impact (MIP) when working with sights of small-caliber rifles with a barrel length of 65 cm is presented in table. 35 and 36.

Table 35

STP movement, cm, when changing the height of the open sight

Table 36

STP movements when moving the front sight

The process of zeroing a three-line sniper rifle model 1891-1930. is presented very well and in detail in the sighting instructions § 16.

Features of bringing a sniper rifle with an optical sight from the Great Patriotic War to normal combat

The sniper rifle is previously brought into normal combat with an open sight according to the rules for bringing a 7.62 mm caliber rifle of the 1891-1930 model into normal combat. (without a bayonet and with a reinforced optical sight). After this, the optical sight is verified. To do this, the rifle is fixed in the sighting machine and, using an open sight with the clamp installed at the “3” mark, is aimed under the lower edge of the sighting target (Diagram 99). The distance scale of the optical sight is set to division “3”, and the lateral correction scale is set to division “0”. If, with these settings, the aiming line of the optical sight is directed to the center of the white circle of the target, then the optical sight is considered adjusted.

Scheme 99. Sighting target of a sniper rifle with an optical sight

If the aiming line of the optical sight deviates from the center of the white circle, it is necessary to rotate the drums to align it with the center of the circle without changing the aiming position on the open sight. After this, the distance scale must be placed opposite the indicator by marking “3”, and the lateral correction scale – by marking “0”.

To do this, the drum screws are released one or two turns and, after setting the divisions “3” and “0” against the corresponding indicators, they are secured.

With a calibrated optical sight, the aiming lines along the open and optical sights intersect at a distance of 300 meters, forming an angle of 0-01 range between themselves, since the difference in the heights of the aiming lines of the open and optical sights is 3 cm (diagram 100). At a distance of 100 meters, the aiming line for the optical sight will be 2 cm higher than the aiming line for the open sight. Therefore, the excess of the control point (CP) above the aiming point for the optical sight should not be 17 cm, as for an open sight, but 2 cm less, that is 15 cm.

Diagram 100. Exceeding the trajectory above the aiming lines of optical (AB) and open (SV) sights

Before finally bringing the sniper rifle into normal combat, it is necessary to inspect it and the optical sight, paying special attention to the fastening of the drum screws, bracket, tail rotor and stop screw.

The combat of a sniper rifle with an optical sight is considered normal if all 4 holes fit into a size 8 cm in diameter, centered on the control point. If these requirements are not met, corrections for height and lateral direction are introduced into the optical sight according to table. 37.

Table 37

Amounts of corrections in divisions

Let’s assume that when bringing a sniper rifle with an optical sight into normal combat, the STP turned out to be 13 cm lower and 8 cm to the left of the control point. In order to introduce amendments to the settings of the optical sight, we find in the table deviations equal to or close to those obtained during shooting. Such deviations will be 12 1/2 cm in height and 7 1/2 cm in the lateral direction. Since the STP in this case is below the control point, then against 12 1/2 in the “STP below” column we have a division of 4 1/4, and against 7 1/2 in the “STP to the left” column we have a +3/4 division.

Having placed the optical sight drums against the indicators with divisions 4 1/4 (upper) and 3/4 (side), you should unfasten their screws, put the scale of the upper drum against the indicator with division “3”, and the scale of the side one with division “0” and fasten the screws. At these installations, the shooting is repeated. For the rest, one should be guided by the rules for bringing a 7.62 mm rifle of the 1891-1930 model into normal combat. The positions of the screws of the sight bracket, tail and receiver stop are sketched in the sniper’s shooting book (Diagram 101) or on back side reporting (sighting) card.

Scheme 101 Sketching the position of the screws in the sniper’s shooting book

Three-line sniper rifles must be brought into normal combat by the snipers themselves:

after firing 150-200 shots, each time the scope was removed from the rifle; when unscrewing the screws of the base of the bracket or the rings of the PE sight, when unscrewing the screws of the base and body of the PU sight bracket, when receiving a rifle from another sniper.

The range to the target by its angular value is determined when shooting from a place and from a stop. For this purpose, sighting devices of small arms are used. In addition, calculations can be made using the formula:

Where D– range to the target (object), m;

H (W)– height (width) of the target (object), m;

1000 – constant value;

U- the angle at which the target (object) is visible, in thousandths.

Determining the range using small arms sights is done by comparing the visible size of the target with the covering value of the front sight or sight slot. In this case, the weapon is held in the accepted firing position.

For example, if, when firing from an AK assault rifle, the visible width of the machine gun (0.75 m) is equal to the width of the front sight, then the range to the target is 250 m;

if the machine gun seems to be 2 times narrower than the front sight, the range to it is 500 m. Similarly, you can use the weapon sight slot.

To determine the distance to a target (object) by calculation using formula (1), it is necessary to know the height or width of this target (object) and its angular value.

Example. Determine the range to an enemy tank if its width of 3.5 m is visible at an angle of 5 thousandths (0-05).

Solution. According to formula (1)

The angular magnitude of the target (object) is measured using optical instruments (binoculars, periscope, etc.), and in their absence - using fingers and improvised objects.

When measuring angular values with the help of improvised objects they must be held in front of yourself at a distance of 50 cm from the eye.

Then one millimeter division of the ruler will correspond to 2 thousandths of the range (2 etc.). This follows from formula (2), which can be written in the following form:

,(2)

Example. Measure the angular size of the tree using a ruler if, when it is 50 cm away from the eye (L = 500 mm), the height (B) corresponds to 25 mm.

Solution. According to formula (2)

The angular values ​​of the fist and fingers when they are 50 cm away from the hole, shown in Fig. 1 are average, so every sergeant and soldier must clarify and remember them.

Rice. 1. Price in thousandths of a fist and fingers.

Application of the “thousandth” formula in shooting practice

To determine firing distances using the “thousandths” formula, it is necessary to know in advance exactly the width or height of the object (target) to which the distance is determined, determine the angular value of this object in thousandths using available optical instruments, and then calculate the distance using the formula, where:

D is the distance to the object in meters;
Y is the angle at which the object is visible in thousandths;
B is the metric (that is, in meters) known width or height of the target.

1000 is a constant, unchangeable mathematical value that is always present in this formula.

When determining the distance in this way, you need to know or imagine the linear dimensions of the target, its width or height. The linear data (sizes) of objects and targets (in meters) in infantry combined arms practice are accepted as follows.

	Height, m	Width, m
Infantryman: full length
Running crouched
Turned sideways
Telegraph pole: wooden
Concrete
One-story house, gray
One floor of a large-panel house
Four-axle car: freight car
Passenger
Car:
Freight
Passenger car
Without a helmet
Construction brick	thickness 6-7 cm	length 25 cm end 12 cm

For example, you need to determine the distance to the target (chest or height target), which fits into two small side segments of the scale of the PSO-1 optical sight, or is equal to the thickness of the aiming stump of the PU sight, or is equal to the thickness of the front sight of an open rifle sight. The width of the chest or height of the target (full-length infantryman), as can be seen from the table. 6, is equal to 0.5 m. According to all measurements of the above sighting devices (see below), the target is covered by an angle of 2 thousandths. Hence:

But the width of a live target may be different. Therefore, a sniper usually measures the width of the shoulders at different times of the year (by clothing) and only then accepts it as a constant value. It is necessary to measure and know the basic dimensions of the human figure, the linear dimensions of the main military equipment, vehicles and everything that can be “attached” to on the side occupied by the enemy. And at the same time, all this should be viewed critically. Despite laser rangefinders, the determination of ranges in combat practice of the armies of all countries is carried out according to the above formula. Everyone knows about it and everyone uses it, and therefore they try to mislead the enemy. There have been numerous cases when telegraph poles were secretly increased by 0.5 m at night - during the day this gave the enemy an error in calculating the range of 50-70 meters of shortfall.

Angular values ​​in thousandths of available objects and devices

To measure the angular values ​​of targets in thousandths, the most commonly used objects are used, which in combat practice are often at hand. Such items and means are parts of open sights, sighting threads, marks, reticles of optical sights and other optical devices, as well as everyday items that are always available to a soldier - cartridges, matches, ordinary scale metric rulers.

As mentioned earlier, the width of the front sight covers an angle of 2 thousandths in the projection onto the target. The height of the front sight covers 3 thousandths. The base of the sight - the width of the slot - covers 6 thousandths.

As mentioned earlier, the width of the aiming stump covers an angle of 2 thousandths in the projection onto the target. The horizontal threads cover the angles in their thickness by also 2 thousandths. Sight base

A - the distance between the threads - covers 7 thousandths.

For PSO-1:
A - main square for shooting up to 1000 m,
B - three additional squares for shooting at distances of 1100, 1200, 1300 m;
B - the width of the lateral correction scale from 10 to 10 thousandths corresponds to 0-20 (twenty thousandths),
G - from the center (main square) right-left to the number 10 corresponds to 0.10 (ten thousandths) The height of the extreme vertical mark at the number 10 is 0.02 (two thousandths);
D - the distance between two small divisions is 0.01-1 (one thousandth), the height of one small mark on the lateral correction scale is 0.01 (one thousandth);
E - numbers on the rangefinder scale 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 correspond to distances of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 m;
F - the number 1.7 shows that at this level of the height scale the average human height is 170 cm.

Measurements in thousandths of the binocular and periscope reticle:
- from a small risk to a large risk (short distances), an angle of 0.05 (five thousandths) is covered;
- from large risk to large risk, an angle of 0.10 (ten thousandths) is covered.

The height of the small risk is 2.5 thousandths.
The height of the large risk is 5 thousandths.
Cross bars - 5 thousandths.

When using improvised means to determine angular values, they are placed at a distance of 50 cm from the eye. This distance has been verified over many decades. At a distance of 50 cm from the eye, the rifle cartridge and matches close the angles indicated below in projection onto the target.

1 centimeter of an ordinary scale ruler (better if it is made of transparent material) at a distance of 50 cm from the eye covers an angle of 20 thousandths; 1 millimeter, respectively, 2 thousandths.

Prudent shooters determine in advance a goniometric distance of 50 cm for possible determination of distances based on the angular values ​​of available objects. Usually for this purpose they measure 50 cm on the rifle and mark it.

Methods for determining distances on the ground and target designation

Methods for determining distances on the ground

Very often it is necessary to determine the distances to various objects on the ground. Distances are most accurately and quickly determined using special instruments (rangefinders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereo scopes, and sights. But due to the lack of instruments, distances are often determined using improvised means and by eye.

Common methods for determining the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: by the angular dimensions of the object; by linear dimensions of objects; eye; by visibility (discernibility) of objects; by sound, etc.

Determining distances by the angular dimensions of objects (Fig. 8) is based on the relationship between angular and linear quantities. The angular dimensions of objects are measured in thousandths using binoculars, observation and aiming devices, a ruler, etc.

Some angular values ​​(in thousandths of the distance) are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Name of items	Size in thousandths
Thumb thickness
Index finger thickness
Middle finger thickness
Little finger thickness
Cartridge along the width of the case neck (7.62 mm)
Sleeve 7.62 mm across body width
Simple pencil
Matchbox length
Matchbox width
Matchbox height
Match thickness

The distance to objects in meters is determined by the formula: , where B is the height (width) of the object in meters; Y is the angular magnitude of the object in thousandths.

For example (see Fig. 8):
1) the angular size of the landmark observed through binoculars (a telegraph pole with a support), the height of which is 6 m, is equal to the small division of the binocular reticle (0-05). Therefore, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .

2) the angle in thousandths, measured with a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, (1 mm is equal to 0-02) between two telegraph poles 0-32 (telegraph poles are located at a distance of 50 m from each other). Therefore, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .

3) tree height in thousandths, measured with a 0-21 ruler (true tree height 6 m). Therefore, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .

Determining distances by linear dimensions of objects is as follows (Fig. 9). Using a ruler located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, measure the height (width) of the observed object in millimeters. Then the actual height (width) of the object in centimeters is divided by that measured by a ruler in millimeters, the result is multiplied by a constant number 5 and the desired height of the object in meters is obtained.

For example, a distance between telegraph poles equal to 50 m (Fig. 8) is closed on the ruler by a segment of 10 mm. Therefore, the distance to the telegraph line is:

The accuracy of determining distances by angular and linear values ​​is 5-10% of the length of the measured distance. To determine distances based on the angular and linear dimensions of objects, it is recommended to remember the values ​​(width, height, length) of some of them, given in table. 3.

Table 3

	Dimensions, m
Medium tank
Armored personnel carrier
Motorcycle with sidecar
Truck
Car
Four-axle passenger car
Four-axle railway tank
Wooden communication line pole
Average height man

Determining distances by eye

Eye control is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally lay down a well-imagined constant measure on the ground (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Having fixed these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and estimate distances on the ground.

When measuring distance by successively mentally setting aside a well-studied constant measure, one must remember that the terrain and local items seem to be reduced in accordance with their removal, that is, when removed by half, the object will appear half as large. Therefore, when measuring distances, the mentally plotted segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to the distance.

The following must be taken into account:
- the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper the visible object seems to us;
- the closer the object, the larger it seems;
- larger objects seem closer than small objects located at the same distance;
- an object of a brighter color seems closer than an object of a dark color;
- brightly lit objects seem closer to dimly lit ones that are at the same distance;
- during fog, rain, at dusk, cloudy days, when the air is saturated with dust, observed objects seem further away than on clear and sunny days;
- the sharper the difference in the color of the object and the background against which it is visible, the more reduced the distances seem; for example, in winter a snow field seems to bring the darker objects on it closer;
- objects on flat terrain seem closer than on hilly terrain, distances defined across vast expanses of water seem especially shortened;
- folds of the terrain (river valleys, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible to the observer, conceal the distance;
- when observing while lying down, objects seem closer than when observing while standing;
- when observed from bottom to top - from the base of the mountain to the top, objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
- when the sun is behind the soldier, the distance disappears; shines into the eyes - it seems larger than in reality;
- the fewer objects there are in the area under consideration (when observed through a body of water, a flat meadow, steppe, arable land), the smaller the distances seem.

The accuracy of the eye meter depends on the training of the soldier. For a distance of 1000 m, the usual error ranges from 10-20%.

Determination of distances by visibility (discernibility) of objects

With the naked eye, you can approximately determine the distance to targets (objects) by the degree of their visibility. A soldier with normal visual acuity can see and distinguish some objects from the following maximum distances indicated in Table 4.

It must be borne in mind that the table indicates the maximum distances from which certain objects begin to be visible. For example, if a serviceman saw a pipe on the roof of a house, this means that the house is no more than 3 km away, and not exactly 3 km. It is not recommended to use this table as a reference. Each serviceman must individually clarify this data for himself.

Table 4

Objects and attributes	The distances from which they become visible (discernible)
Separate small house, hut
Pipe on the roof
Airplane on the ground tank in place
Tree trunks, kilometer posts and communication lines
Movement of the legs and arms of a running or walking person
Heavy machine gun, mortar, anti-tank gun, wire fence stakes
Light machine gun, rifle, color and parts of clothing on a man, the oval of his face
Roof tiles, tree leaves, wire on stakes
Buttons and buckles, details of a soldier's weapons
Human facial features, hands, details of small arms

Orientation by sounds

At night and in fog, when observation is limited or impossible at all (and in very rough terrain and in the forest, both at night and during the day), hearing comes to the aid of vision.

Military personnel must learn to determine the nature of sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sources of sounds and the direction from which they come. If different sounds are heard, the soldier must be able to distinguish them from one another. The development of such an ability is achieved through long-term training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the voices of instruments in an orchestra).

Almost all sounds that indicate danger are made by humans. Therefore, if a soldier hears even the faintest suspicious noise, he should freeze in place and listen. If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving away his location, then he will be the first to be detected.

Quietly summer night even ordinary human voice on open space can be heard far away, sometimes half a kilometer. On a frosty autumn or winter night, all kinds of sounds and noises can be heard very far away. This applies to speech, steps, and the clinking of dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds can also be heard far away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, sounds travel a very long distance. But the rain greatly muffles the sounds. The wind blowing towards the soldier brings sounds closer and away from him. It also carries sound away, creating a distorted picture of the location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep hollows change the direction of sound, creating an echo. They also generate echoes and water spaces, facilitating its spread over long distances.

The sound changes when its source moves on soft, wet or hard soil, along the street, along a country or field road, on pavement or soil covered with leaves. It must be taken into account that dry soil transmits sounds better than air. At night, sounds are transmitted especially well through the ground. That’s why they often listen by putting their ears to the ground or tree trunks. Average hearing range different sounds during the day on flat terrain, km (in summer), is given in Table 5.

Table 5

Character of sound	Range audibility, m
The crack of a broken branch
Steps of a man walking along the road
Strike the oars on the water
The blow of an ax, the clang of a cross-cut saw
Digging trenches with shovels in hard ground
Quiet conversation
Loud scream
The sound of metal parts of equipment
Loading small arms
Tank engine running on site
Movement of troops on foot:
On a dirt road
On the highway
Vehicle movement:
On a dirt road
On the highway
Tank movement:
On a dirt road
On the highway
From a rifle
From the gun	5000 or more
Gun firing

To listen to sounds while lying down, you need to lie on your stomach and listen while lying down, trying to determine the direction of the sounds. This is easier to do by turning one ear in the direction from which the suspicious noise is coming. To improve hearing, it is recommended to apply bent palms, a bowler hat, or a piece of pipe to the auricle.

To better listen to sounds, you can put your ear to a dry board placed on the ground, which acts as a sound collector, or to a dry log dug into the ground.

Determining distances using the speedometer. The distance traveled by a car is determined as the difference between the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the journey. When driving on hard-surfaced roads it will be 3-5%, and on viscous soil 8-12% more than the actual distance. Such errors in determining distances using the speedometer arise from wheel slip (track slippage), tire tread wear and changes in tire pressure. If you need to determine the distance traveled by the car as accurately as possible, you need to make an amendment to the speedometer readings. This need arises, for example, when moving in azimuth or when orienting using navigation devices.

The amount of correction is determined before the march. For this purpose, a section of the road is selected, which in terms of the nature of the relief and soil cover is similar to the upcoming route. This section is passed at marching speed in the forward and reverse directions, taking speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the section. Based on the data obtained, the average length of the control section is determined and the value of the same section, determined from a map or on the ground with a tape (roulette), is subtracted from it. Dividing the result obtained by the length of the section measured on the map (on the ground) and multiplying by 100, the correction factor is obtained.

For example, if the average value of the control section is 4.2 km, and the measured value on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor is:

Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then the speedometer will read 55 km, i.e. 10% more. The difference of 5 km is the magnitude of the correction. In some cases it may be negative.

Measuring distances in steps. This method is usually used when moving in azimuth, drawing up terrain diagrams, drawing individual objects and landmarks on a map (diagram), and in other cases. Steps are usually counted in pairs. When measuring a long distance, it is more convenient to count steps in threes, alternately under the left and right foot. After every hundred pairs or triplets of steps, a mark is made in some way and the countdown begins again.

When converting the measured distance in steps into meters, the number of pairs or triplets of steps is multiplied by the length of one pair or triple of steps.

For example, there are 254 pairs of steps taken between turning points on the route. The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m. Then

Typically, the step of a person of average height is 0.7-0.8 m. The length of your step can be determined quite accurately using the formula: , where D is the length of one step in meters; P is a person’s height in meters.

For example, if a person is 1.72 m tall, then his step length will be equal to:

More precisely, the step length is determined by measuring some flat linear section of terrain, for example a road, with a length of 200-300 m, which is measured in advance with a measuring tape (tape measure, range finder, etc.).

When measuring distances approximately, the length of a pair of steps is taken to be 1.5 m.

The average error in measuring distances in steps, depending on driving conditions, is about 2-5% of the distance traveled.

Determination of distance by time and speed. This method is used to approximate the distance traveled, for which the average speed is multiplied by the time of movement. Average speed pedestrian speed is about 5, and when skiing 8-10 km/h.

For example, if a reconnaissance patrol skied for 3 hours, then it covered about 30 km.

Determination of distances by the ratio of the speeds of sound and light. Sound travels in the air at a speed of 330 m/s, i.e. approximately 1 km per 3 s, and light travels almost instantly (300,000 km/h). Thus, the distance in kilometers to the place of the flash of the shot (explosion) is equal to the number of seconds that passed from the moment of the flash to the moment when the sound of the shot (explosion) was heard, divided by 3.

For example, an observer heard the sound of an explosion 11 seconds after the flash. The distance to the flash point will be:

Determination of distances by geometric constructions on the ground. This method can be used to determine the width of difficult or impassable terrain and obstacles (rivers, lakes, flooded areas, etc.). Figure 10 shows the determination of the width of the river by constructing an isosceles triangle on the ground.

Since in such a triangle the legs are equal, the width of the river AB is equal to the length of the leg AC.

Point A is selected on the ground so that a local object (point B) on the opposite bank can be seen from it, and a distance equal to its width can be measured along the river bank.

The position of point C is found by approximation, measuring the angle ACB with a compass until its value becomes equal to 45°.

Another version of this method is shown in Fig. 10, b.

Point C is selected so that the angle ACB is equal to 60°.

It is known that the tangent of an angle of 60° is equal to 1/2, therefore, the width of the river is equal to twice the distance AC.

In both the first and second cases, the angle at point A should be equal to 90°.

Orientation by light very convenient for maintaining direction or for determining the position of an object on the ground. Moving at night towards a light source is most reliable. The distances at which light sources can be detected by the naked eye at night are given in Table 6.

Table 6

Target designation

Target designation is the ability to quickly and correctly indicate targets, landmarks and other objects on the ground. Targeting is important practical significance to control the unit and fire in battle. Target designation can be carried out either directly on the ground or from a map or aerial photograph.

When designating targets, the following basic requirements are observed: indicate the location of targets quickly, briefly, clearly and accurately; indicate goals in a strictly established order, using accepted units of measurement; the transmitter and receiver must have common landmarks and firmly know their location, and have a uniform coding of the area.

Target designation on the ground is carried out from a landmark or in azimuth and range to the target, as well as by pointing the weapon at the target.

Target designation from a landmark is the most common method. First, the closest landmark to the target is named, then the angle between the direction to the landmark and the direction to the target in thousandths, and the distance of the target from the landmark in meters. For example: “Landmark two, forty-five to the right, then one hundred, there is an observer at a separate tree.”

If the transmitting and receiving target have observation devices, then instead of the distance of the target from the landmark, the vertical angle between the landmark and the target in thousandths can be indicated. For example: “Landmark four, thirty to the left, ten below - fighting machine in the trench."

In some cases, especially when issuing target designation for unobtrusive targets, local objects located near the target are used. For example: “Landmark two, thirty to the right - a separate tree, further two hundred - ruins, twenty to the left, under a bush - a machine gun.”

Target designation by azimuth and range to the target

The azimuth of the direction to the appeared target is determined using a compass in degrees, and the distance to it in meters using binoculars (observation device) or by eye. Having received this data, they transmit it, for example: “Thirty-two, seven hundred - combat vehicle.”

Target designation by pointing a weapon at a target

Targets spotted on the battlefield must be immediately reported to the commander and their location correctly indicated. The target is indicated by verbal report or tracer bullets.

The report should be short, clear and precise, for example: “There is a wide bush straight ahead, a machine gun to the left.” “The second landmark, two fingers to the right, under the bush there is an observer.” When designating targets with tracer bullets, fire one or two short bursts in the direction of the target.