Ancient and medieval ideas about the essence and development of life.

The presentation can be used in a biology lesson in 11th grade. The images and text match the textbook" General biology. 11th grade" edited by V.B. Zakharov and reveal the views of scientists of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

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History of ideas about the development of life on Earth Presentation for a biology lesson in grade 11 Biology teacher N. G. Rankaitis MBOU Secondary School No. 2, Makarova, Sakhalin Region

Ancient Greece Thales of Miletus

Ancient Greece Anaximander of Miletus

Ancient Greece Anaximenes of Lampsacus

Ancient Greece Heraclitus of Ephesus According to the teachings of Heraclitus (544-483 BC), everything came from fire and is in a constant state of change. Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of all the elements. Therefore, for Heraclitus, fire became the beginning of the world, while water is only one of its states. Fire condenses into air, air turns into water, water into earth (“the downward path”, which gives way to the “upward path”). The Earth itself, on which we live, was once a red-hot part of the universal fire, but then cooled down. “Everything flows, everything changes”

Ancient Greece Pythagoras of Samos Pythagoras himself (570-490 BC) did not leave any writings, and all information about him and his teachings is based on the works of his followers, who are not always impartial. Founded the Pythagorean school. The disciples of Pythagoras formed a kind of religious order, or brotherhood of initiates, consisting of a caste of selected like-minded people who literally deified their teacher, the founder of the order.

Ancient Greece Empedocles of Acraganthus The basis of the teachings of Empedocles (c. 490 BC) is the concept of four elements that form the “roots” of things, the so-called arche. These roots are fire, air, water and earth. They fill all space and are in constant movement, moving, mixing and separating. They are unchanging and eternal. All things seem to be made up of these elements, “just like a wall is made of bricks and stones.”

Ancient Greece Democritus of Abdera The most significant work of Democritus (c. 460 BC - 370 BC) should be considered “The Great World-Building”, a cosmological work that covered almost all areas of knowledge available at that time. He described the world as a system of atoms in the void, rejecting the infinite divisibility of matter, postulating not only the infinity of the number of atoms in the Universe, but also the infinity of their forms. Bodies are combinations of atoms.

Ancient Greece Aristotle of Stagira Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) develops the doctrine of the causes and origins of all things. Among the 4 reasons, the main ones are matter and form (soul). Matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible. Primary matter is expressed in the form of five primary elements (elements): air, water, earth, fire and ether. Aristotle approaches the idea of the individual existence of a phenomenon: it represents a fusion of matter and form.

Middle Ages Creationism (from Latin creatio, gen. creationis - creation) is a theological and ideological concept, according to which the main forms organic world(life), humanity, planet Earth, as well as the world as a whole, are viewed as directly created by the Creator or God. Gustave Dore. Creation of light.

Middle Ages Classifications existing species plants and animals were of a formal (alphabetical) or applied nature. We successfully use applied classifications. Weeds Medicinal plants Insect pests

Ancient and medieval ideas about the essence and development of life. Life arose from one source through divergence and branching (Confucius, ancient Chinese philosopher). All beings are similar to one original being and arose from it as a result of differentiation (Diogenes, ancient Greek philosopher). Living organisms originated from water (Thales, ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician), from air (Anaxagoras, ancient Greek philosopher), from silt (Democritus, ancient Greek philosopher).

Slide 3 from the presentation “Biology in the Pre-Darwinian Periods”

Dimensions: 720 x 540 pixels, format: .jpg. To download a slide for free to use in class, right-click on the image and click “Save Image As...”. You can download the entire presentation “Biology in Pre-Darwinian Periods.ppt” in a 373 KB zip archive.

History of biology

"Anseriformes" - Black Swan. Horny plates. What do geese eat? Mountain goose. Where do geese build their nests? What plumage colors do swans have? Distribute by childbirth. Swans. Ducks. Geese. Mallard. White-fronted goose. Geese have different necks medium length. Order Anseriformes.

“Evolution of the living world” - Natural selection. Charles Robert Darwin. Artificial selection. Macroevolution. The doctrine of variability. Properties of living organisms. Levels of organization of living matter. Adaptation of organisms to conditions external environment. The evolutionary role of mutations. Development of biology in the pre-Darwinian period. Main directions of evolution.

“Biology as a Science” - The seeds are enclosed in the fruit. Description large number types of living organisms existing on Earth; 2). In the future practical significance biology will increase even more. 3. Basic methods in biology. 3. Stress is a protective reaction of the body that allows it to survive in times of danger. The most important transformations took place in the conductive system.

"Eye Analyzer" - Distorted perception. Sometimes looks speak better than words. The effect of color on the body. The structure of the eyeball. Blue stripes in the picture. Illusory creature. Method for diagnosing the disease. The influence of color on the body. Visual illusions. The letters appear to be slanted. Formation of an image on the retina.

“Class Crustaceans” - Woodlice is a subtype of gill-breathing crustaceans. Copepods crustaceans. Sizes from 2 to 5 mm. Ticks are an independent order of the arachnid class. Has the ability to absorb and concentrate silicon in the body. Distributed everywhere, often found in human homes. But many spiders do not build webs at all and simply hunt prey from ambush.

The question of the origin and development of life on our planet is one of the most important in biology. Two approaches to answering it were formulated in ancient times. Many ancient authors associated the origin of life with a divine, creative act. Materialist philosophers viewed the origin of life as a natural process in the development of matter. Let us dwell on the three most common hypotheses, which are still relevant today to one degree or another.

The hypothesis of the spontaneous origin of life. It suggests that living beings have appeared and continue to appear many times(constantly) from inanimate matter. Such views were held, for example, by Aristotle (IV century BC). According to his ideas, living organisms can be formed not only as a result of reproduction, but also from non-living matter (mud, mucus) under the influence of heat and moisture. The hypothesis turned out to be very tenacious and existed until late XIX V. Scientists from different eras supplemented it with new “observations” and “facts”. Thus, in the treatises of the 16th–17th centuries. featured “recipes” for creating “meat worms” in a piece of decaying meat or mice in a pot previously filled with rags and rotting grain. After two or three weeks, the “experimenter” could find a whole brood of mice in it.

These ideas were criticized by the Italian physician Francesco Redi in 1688.

He carried out a visual and convincing experiment that undermines the authority of this hypothesis (Fig. 1). F. Redi took several vessels, placed a dead snake in each, and then closed half of the vessels with muslin (a thin fabric like gauze), leaving the others open. While observing, he saw that flies flew into the open vessels and crawled over the snake’s corpse for a long time. After this, F. Redi discovered eggs laid by flies, and then noticed the emergence of larvae (“meat worms”) from the eggs, which before his eyes turned into adult insects. Based on similar and other studies of his, F. Redi formulated a law, the essence of which he expressed in a laconic form: “every living thing is from living things,” that is, new organisms appear in the process of reproduction of parent ones.

Rice. 1.Experience of Francesco Redi (1668). Some of the jars containing the dead snakes were covered with muslin, while others were left open. The fly larvae only appearedin open jars; there were none in the closed ones. Redi explained this by saying: that flies entered open jars and laid eggs here, from which the larvae hatched (see the development cycle of the fly at the bottom parts of the picture). Flies could not penetrate into closed jars, and therefore there were no larvae or flies in these jars

After the appearance of his works, the popularity of the hypothesis decreased significantly, but not for long. Already during his lifetime, thanks to the invention of the microscope, researchers discovered new world living beings - microorganisms. The apparent simplicity and poor knowledge of these creatures served as the reason for the “resurrection” of the idea of spontaneous generation. Many researchers of that time reported to the scientific world that they “observed” the emergence of living microorganisms (in herbal decoctions, broths) “out of nothing.”

The discussion on this issue lasted for more than a century, starting with the ingenious experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani (1765), who rejected the idea of spontaneous generation. By boiling flasks with a nutritious decoction for a long time and sealing them, he kept the flasks in this form for several weeks and did not observe the appearance of any signs of life in them. However, if the necks of sealed flasks break off after 2–3 days in a huge number microorganisms were detected. L. Spallanzani rightly concluded that they develop from spores, which are abundant in the air and fall into flasks. His opponents objected, arguing that when the vessels are sealed, the air supply is cut off, so organisms cannot “emerge.”

The hypothesis of spontaneous generation was finally refuted only in 1862 by Louis Pasteur.

He found a simple and ingenious technique to defeat the arguments of his opponents (Fig. 2). He designed a special flask - with a thin and long neck in the form of a strongly curved tube. Air could flow into it freely, but no microorganisms developed in the boiled broth, since spores entering from the air were retained in the bend of the neck. If it broke off, then soon the broth was swarming with numerous microbes. L. Pasteur, following L. Spallanzani, argued that the development of bacteria occurs as a result of spores of these organisms entering the solution. The persuasiveness of his experiments and his authority as the founder of microbiology completely “closed” the hypothesis of spontaneous generation. However, the answer to the question of whether life exists forever or whether its origin once occurred has not been received.

Rice. 2.Curved neck flasks used in experiments Louis Pasteur. Air entered freely through the open tiptube, but he couldn't get around the curve of it fast enoughparts, carrying along relatively heavy bacteria. Bacteriaor other cells in the air settled in this lowercurved part of the neck, while the air passed furtherand went into the flask itself. Penetrate the flask and cause decompositionbroth, bacteria could only exist if the neck of the flaskbroke off

L. Pasteur himself was well aware of the inextricable connection between inanimate and living nature. According to his ideas, life arose on our planet from inanimate nature. But this was a one-time event, due to unique combination conditions that determined its origin. The appearance of any creatures on Earth constantly, in the presence of already living organisms, is impossible. Firstly, because they would immediately be eaten by numerous creatures, without having time to reproduce. And secondly, the formation of living things from non-living things could only occur under very specific conditions on our planet.

Second hypothesis - panspermia- was expressed by the Swedish physicist-chemist S. Arrhenius in 1908 (V.I. Vernadsky also held similar views). Its essence lies in the fact that life exists in the Universe forever. The “seeds” of living things were brought to Earth from space with meteorites and cosmic dust.

This hypothesis is based on data indicating the high resistance of some terrestrial bacteria to high and low temperatures, airless environment, radiation

etc. However, there is still no reliable evidence of the detection of such “seeds” of life in the material of meteorites that fell to the surface of the Earth.

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The textbook introduces students to the most important patterns of the living world. It gives an idea of the evolution of the organic world, the relationship between the organism and the environment.
The textbook is addressed to 11th grade students of general education institutions.

Ancient and medieval ideas about the essence and development of life.
IN Ancient Greece in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. in the depths of the holistic philosophy of nature, the first rudiments of ancient science arose. The founders of Greek philosophy Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Heraclitus were looking for a material source, from which, due to natural self-development,
the world arose. For Thales, this first principle was water. Living beings, according to the teachings of Anaximander, are formed from indefinite matter - “aleurone” according to the same laws as objects of inanimate nature. The Ionian philosopher Anaximenes considered the material origin of the world to be air, from which everything arises and into which everything returns. He also identified the human soul with air.

The greatest of the ancient Greek philosophers was Heraclitus of Ephesus. His teaching did not contain special provisions about living nature, but it was of great importance both for the development of all natural science and for the formation of ideas about living matter. Heraclitus was the first to introduce into philosophy and natural science a clear idea of constant change. The scientist considered fire to be the origin of the world; he taught that every change is the result of struggle: “Everything arises through struggle and out of necessity.”

Table of contents
Preface 5
Section I. The doctrine of the evolution of the organic world 7
Chapter 1. Patterns of development of living nature. Evolutionary doctrine 8
1.1. History of ideas about the development of life on Earth 9
1.1.1. Ancient and medieval ideas about the essence and development of life 9
1.1.2. System of organic nature by C. Linnaeus 11
1.1.3. Development of evolutionary ideas. Evolutionary theory J.-B. Lamarka 13
1.2. Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of Charles Darwin 20
1.2.1. Natural scientific premises of the theory of Charles Darwin 21
1.2.2. Expedition material by Charles Darwin 22
1.3. Evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin 25
1.3.1. Charles Darwin's doctrine of artificial selection 25
1.3.2. Charles Darwin's doctrine of natural selection 32
1.4. Modern ideas about the mechanisms and patterns of evolution. Microevolution 40
1.4.1. View. Criteria and structure 40
1.4.2. The evolutionary role of mutations 43
1.4.3. Genetic stability of populations 45
1.4.4. Genetic processes in populations 46
1.4.5. Forms of natural selection 50
1.4.6. Adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions as a result of natural selection 56
1.4.7. Speciation as a result of microevolution 70
Chapter 2. Macroevolution. Biological consequences of acquiring devices 78
2.1. Ways to achieve biological progress (main directions of progressive evolution) 80
2.1.1. Arogenesis 80
2.1.2. Allogenesis 81
2.1.3. Catagenesis 84
2.2. Basic laws of biological evolution 86
2.2.1. Patterns evolutionary process 87
2.2.2. Rules of Evolution 92
Chapter 3. Development of life on Earth 98
3.1. Development of life in the Archean era 106
3.2. Development of life in the Proterozoic and Paleozoic era 108
3.3. Development of life in Mesozoic era 114
3.4. Development of life in Cenozoic era 120
Chapter 4. Origin of Man 129
4.1. The position of man in the animal world 130
4.2. Evolution of primates 132
4.3. Stages of Human Evolution 135
4.4. Modern stage human evolution 138
Section II. Relationships between the body and the environment 149
Chapter 5. Biosphere, its structure and functions 150
5.1. Structure of the biosphere 151
5.1.1. Inert matter of the biosphere 151
5.1.2. Living organisms (living matter) 152
5.2. Cycle of substances in nature 155
Chapter 6. Living in communities. Basics of ecology 164
6.1. History of the formation of communities of living organisms 165
6.2. Biogeography. Major land biomes 168
6.2.1. Nearctic region 169
6.2.2. Palearctic region 171
6.2.3. Eastern region 172
6.2.4. Neotropical region 173
6.2.5. Ethiopian region 174
6.2.6. Australian region 175
6.3. Relationships between the body and the environment 180
6.3.1. Natural communities of living organisms. Biogeocenoses 180
6.3.2. Abiotic environmental factors 183
6.3.3. Interaction of environmental factors. Limiting factor 193
6.3.4. Biotic factors environment 199
6.3.5. Change of biocenoses 206
6.4. Relationships between organisms 210
6.4.1. Positive relationships - symbiosis 210
6.4.2. Antibiotic relationships 215
6.4.3. Neutralism 231
Chapter 7. Biosphere and man. Noosphere 236
7.1. Human impact on nature in the process of formation of society 237
7.2. Natural resources and their use 239
7.2.1. Inexhaustible resources 239
7.2.2. Exhaustible resources 240
7.3. Consequences economic activity person for environment 242
7.3.1. Air pollution 243
7.3.2. Pollution fresh water 244
7.3.3. Ocean Pollution 245
7.3.4. Anthropogenic soil changes 245
7.3.5. Human influence on plant and fauna 247
7.3.6. Radioactive contamination biosphere 249
7.4. Nature conservation and prospects for rational environmental management 251
Chapter 8. Bionics 259
Conclusion 273
Major milestones in the development of biology 274
List of additional literature 280.