Famous Russian chemists, their contribution to science. Great chemists: short biography

German physicist. Creator of the special and general theories of relativity. His theory was based on two postulates: the special principle of relativity and the principle of the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum. Discovered the law of the relationship between mass and energy contained in bodies. Based on the quantum theory of light, he explained phenomena such as the photoelectric effect (Einstein’s law for the photoelectric effect), Stokes’ rule for fluorescence, and photoionization. Distributed (1907)…

German chemist-organic. The works are devoted to the chemistry of carbohydrates, proteins, and purine compounds. He studied the structure of purine compounds, which led him to the synthesis of physiologically active purine derivatives - caffeine, theobromine, xanthine, theophylline, guanine and adenine (1897). As a result of the research carried out on carbohydrates, this area of chemistry has become an independent scientific discipline. Carried out the synthesis of sugars. He proposed a simple nomenclature for carbohydrates, which is still used today...

English physicist and chemist, member of the Royal Society of London (since 1824). Born in London. I studied on my own. From 1813 he worked in the laboratory of G. Davy at the Royal Institution in London (from 1825 - its director), from 1827 - professor at the Royal Institution. He began scientific research in the field of chemistry. He was engaged (1815-1818) in the chemical analysis of limestone, with...

Chemist and physicist. Born in Warsaw. Graduated from the University of Paris (1895). Since 1895, she worked at the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry in the laboratory of her husband P. Curie. In 1900-1906. taught at the Sèvres Normal School, and from 1906 - professor at the University of Paris. Since 1914, she headed the chemical department, founded with her participation in 1914...

German chemist. Published (1793) the work “The Principles of Stoichiometry, or the Method of Measuring Chemical Elements,” in which he showed that when compounds are formed, elements interact in strictly defined proportions, later called equivalents. Introduced the concept of “stoichiometry”. Richter's discoveries contributed to the foundation of chemical atomism. Years of life: 10.III.1762-4.V.1807

Austrian-Swiss theoretical physicist. One of the creators of quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory. Formulated (1925) the principle named after him. Included spin in the general formalism of quantum mechanics. Predicted (1930) the existence of neutrinos. Works on the theory of relativity, magnetism, meson theory of nuclear forces, etc. Nobel Prize in Physics (1945). Years of life: 25.IV.1890-15.XII.1958

Russian scientist, corresponding member. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1876). Born in Tobolsk. Graduated from the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (1855). In 1855-1856 - teacher of the gymnasium at the Richelieu Lyceum in Odessa. In 1857-1890 taught at St. Petersburg University (from 1865 - professor), at the same time in 1863-1872. - Professor at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology. In 1859-1861 was...

French chemist, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences (since 1772). Born in Paris. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris (1764). He attended a course of lectures on chemistry at the Botanical Garden in Paris (1764-1766). In 1775-1791. - Director of the Office of Gunpowder and Saltpeter. Using his own funds, he created an excellent chemical laboratory, which became the scientific center of Paris. Was a supporter constitutional monarchy. In…

German organic chemist. Born in Darmstadt. Graduated from the University of Giessen (1852). Listened to lectures in Paris by J. Dumas, C. Wurtz, C. Gerap. In 1856-1858 taught at the University of Heidelberg, 1858-1865. - Professor at the University of Ghent (Belgium), from 1865 - University of Bonn (in 1877-1878 - rector). Scientific interests were mainly concentrated in the field...

Great chemists

Alder Kurt (10.VII.1902.-.20.VI.1958)

German organic chemist. He graduated from the University of Kiel (Doctor of Philosophy, 1926), where he studied with O. P. G. Diels. In 1926-1936 he worked there (from 1934 professor). In 1936-1940, scientific director of the branch of the I.G. Farbenindustry concern in Leverkusen, since 1940 director of the Chemical Institute of the University of Cologne.

The main area of research is organic synthesis. Studied (1926) azodicarboxylic ether together with Diels; this work led to their discovery (1928) of one of the most important reactions in organic chemistry - the 1,4-addition of molecules with an activated multiple bond (dienophiles) to conjugated dienes with the formation of cyclic structures (diene synthesis). Further work allowed Alder to find general patterns of dependence of the formation of adducts in this reaction on the structure of the initial components (Alder's rules). Studied the stereochemical features of reactions and reactivity organic compounds with tense connections. He established the possibility of carrying out and widespread use of reactions inverse to diene synthesis (retro-diene decomposition). He discovered en-synthesis - the addition of olefins containing allylic hydrogen atoms to a dienophile. Found (1940) that cyclopentadiene, when heated, adds vinyl acetate to form an unsaturated acetate, which can be converted into a saturated alcohol. Developed (1956) a method for obtaining cyclopentenone. Nobel Prize (1950, jointly with Diels).

Arbuzov Alexander Erminingeldovich (12.IX.1877 - 21.I.1968)

Soviet organic chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1942). Graduated from Kazan University (1900). In 1900-1911 he worked at the New Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry (from 1906 professor), in 1911-1930 professor at Kazan University, in 1930-1963 at the Kazan Institute of Chemical Technology. In 1946-1965, Chairman of the Presidium of the Kazan Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

His main research is devoted to the chemistry of organophosphorus compounds, of which he is one of the founders. For the first time in Russia (1900), he carried out the synthesis of allylmethylphenylcarbinol through an organomagnesium compound. Established (1905) the structure of phosphorous acid, obtained its esters in pure form, discovered the catalytic isomerization of medium esters of phosphorous acid into esters of alkylphosphinic acids (Arbuzov rearrangement), which became a universal method for the synthesis of organophosphorus compounds. In 1914 he obtained esters of phosphinic acids, thereby marking the beginning of a new field of research - the chemistry of organophosphorus compounds with the P-C bond (their systematic study was begun in the USSR and abroad in the 20-30s). When studying the structure of “Boyd’s acid chloride” together with B. A. Arbuzovdiscovered (1929) the reaction of the formation of free radicals of the triarylmethyl series from triarylbromomethane. The reference radical divinylpicrylhydrazyl was prepared and studied. Exploring domestic sources of organic compounds, together with B. A. Arbuzov he developed new method tips coniferous trees and techniques for collecting oleoresin without losing volatile components. Discovered and studied (30-40s) new classes of organophosphorus compounds - derivatives of subphosphoric, pyrophosphoric, pyrophosphorous and phosphorous acids. Discovered (1947) the reaction of addition of dialkylphosphorous acids to a carbonyl group, which was a new universal method for the synthesis of organophosphorus compounds. He established the physiological activity of a number of compounds he discovered, some of which turned out to be insecticides, others - drugs. He proposed a number of laboratory instruments (flasks, columns). Author of works on the history of Russian chemistry.

Hero of Socialist Labor (1957). Laureate of USSR State Prizes (1943, 1947). The Institute of Organic and Physical Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences in Kazan bears his name (since 1968).

Arndt Fritz Georg (6.VII.1885 - 8.XII.1969)

chemistry alder bayer synthesis

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Freiburg (PhD, 1908). He worked there, in 1910-1915 at the University of Kiel. In 1915-1918 he taught at the University of Istanbul (Turkey), in 1918-1933 - at the University of Breslau (from 1927 professor). When the Nazis came to power, he left his homeland. In 1933 he lectured at Oxford University (England). In 1934-1966 he again worked at Istanbul University. The main works are devoted to the synthesis of diazomethane and the study of its reactions with aldehydes, ketones and acid chlorides, and the development of the theory of mesomerism. He studied (1921-1923) the cyclization of hydrazodithiodicarbonamide and showed that, depending on the medium, cyclization leads to either triazole derivatives or thiodiazole derivatives. Proposed (1924) the electronic theory of intermediate states. He obtained (1924) dehydracetic acid by heating acetoacetic ester in the presence of traces of sodium bicarbonate at a temperature of 200 ° C with simultaneous removal of alcohol. Together with Eistert (1927), he discovered the reaction for producing higher homologues of carboxylic acids from lower ones by reacting acid chlorides with diazomethane (Arndt-Eistert reaction). He proposed (1930) a method for producing diazomethane at 5°C by reacting nitrosomethylurea with an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide under a layer of ether.

Bayer Adolf Johann Friedrich Wilhelm, von (31.X.1835 - 20.VIII.1917)

German organic chemist. He studied at the University of Heidelberg with R. W. Bunsen and F. A. Kekule and at the University of Berlin (Ph.D., 1858). From 1860 he taught simultaneously at the Berlin Academy of Crafts and at the Military Academy. From 1872 he was a professor at the University of Strasbourg and from 1875 at the University of Munich. The works relate to synthetic organic chemistry and stereochemistry. Discovered barbituric acid (1864) and barbiturates. Introduced (1866) into the practice of organic synthesis the method of reducing organic substances with zinc dust. Showed (1867) that mellitic acid is a benzenehexacarboxylic acid. Together with the German chemist A. Emmerling, he synthesized (1869) indole by fusing o-nitrocinnamic acid with potassium hydroxide, then its derivatives, incl. isatin. Picolines and collidines were obtained by condensation of ammonia with acetaldehyde and acrolein in 1870. Reduced (1870) naphthalene to tetrahydronaphthalene and mesitylene to tetrahydromesitylene. Together with G. Caro, he synthesized (1877) indole from ethylaniline. Discovered (1879) the indophenine reaction - the appearance of a blue color when mixing thiophene with isatin in the presence of conc. sulfuric acid. He synthesized indigo from dinitrophenyldiacetylene (1883) and indene from o-di(bromomethyl)benzene and disodium malonic ether (1884). He put forward (1885) a theory of stress, which established the dependence of the strength of cycles on the magnitude of the angles between valence bonds. Received terephthalic acid (1886) and two geometric isomers of hexahydrophthalic acid (1888); introduced (1888) the concept of cis-trans-isomerism. He proposed (1887, simultaneously with G. E. Armstrong) the centric formula of benzene. Experimentally proved (1888) the identity of all carbon atoms in benzene. Established (1894) the structure of the caran. Discovered (1896) cis-trans-isomerism in the terpene series. He created a large school of organic chemists, among whom were G. O. Wieland, K. Grebe, K. T. Liebermann, B. Meyer and others. President of the German Chemical Society (1871, 1881, 1893, 1903). Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1892). Nobel Prize (1905).

Backelund Leo Hendrik (14.XI.1863-23.II.1944)

American chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1936). Born in Ghent (Belgium). Graduated from Ghent University (1884). Worked there too. In 1889 he moved to the USA, where he first worked in a photographic company, and then founded (1893) his own company for the production of photographic paper, which he invented, which could be developed under artificial light. The main areas of research are chemistry and polymer technology. Working (since 1905) on the creation of a material capable of replacing shellac, he synthesized (1908) the first thermosetting resin - bakelite (a product of polycondensation of phenol with formaldehyde). President of the American Chemical Society (1924). Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies.

Bamberger Eugene (19.VII.1857 - 10.XII.1932)

Swiss organic chemist. Born in Berlin. He studied (since 1875) at the universities of Breslau, Heidelberg and Berlin. From 1880 he worked at the Higher Technical School in Berlin, from 1883 - at the University of Munich (from 1891 professor). In 1893-1905, professor at the Higher Technical School in Zurich. In 1905 he left this post for health reasons, but continued his research with the help of an assistant. The main scientific works are devoted to the study of aromatic and nitrogen-containing organic compounds. He established (1885) that the structure of retene includes a phenanthrene core. By hydrogenation of naphthalene derivatives he obtained (1889) alicyclic compounds and introduced this term into chemistry. He studied the oxidation and reduction reactions of nitrogen-containing substances, in particular, he reduced (1894) nitrobenzene to phenylhydroxylamine. He established (1896) that diazonium salts or salts of diazo acids in acidic media transform into water-insoluble, highly unstable anhydrides. Determined (1897) the mechanism of formation of sulfanilic acid from aniline sulfate. Showed (1901) that under controlled conditions of acid catalysis n-tolylhydroxylamine can rearrange to dienone. Received (1903) n-quinone oxidation n-cresol peracid in a neutral environment. Studied the optical properties of anthranilic acid derivatives and photos chemical properties benzaldehyde derivatives.

Beilstein Fedor Fedorovich (Friedrich Conrad) (11.17.1838 - 18.H.1906)

Organic chemist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1886). Born in St. Petersburg. He studied chemistry at Heidelberg (1853-1854, 1856, under the leadership of R. W. Bunsen), Munich (1855, listened to lectures by J. Liebig) and Göttingen (1857-1858, under the direction of F. Wöhler) universities (Doctor of Philosophy, 1858) . He improved his education (1858-1859) under the leadership of S. A. Wurtz at the Higher Medical School in Paris. He worked at the University of Breslau (1859), the University of Göttingen (1860-1866, from 1865 professor). Since 1866, professor at St. Petersburg University. The main area of research is the chemistry of aromatic compounds. Established (1866) the rule for the chlorination of aromatic compounds: in the cold - into the core, and when heated - into the side chain. Synthesized o- and m-toluidines (1870-1871), o-nitrocinnamic, o-nitrobenzoic and anthranilic acids (1872). He proposed (1872) a highly sensitive reaction for the discovery of halogens in organic compounds by calcining them on oxidized copper wire in the flame of a gas burner (Beilstein test). He was one of the first to study Caucasian oil and prove the presence of hexahydroaromatic compounds in it. The initiator of the creation and the first compiler of a multi-volume reference book, including information on all organic compounds known at the time of publication of the next volume, “Handbuch der organische Chemie” (vol. 1-2, 1st ed. 1881). Subsequently, a special Beilstein Institute for the Literature of Organic Chemistry was created in Frankfurt am Main in 1951 to publish the reference book.

Beckmann Ernst Otto (4.VII.1853 - 12.VII.1923)

German chemist. Graduated from the University of Leipzig (1878). In 1879-1883 he worked at the Higher Technical School in Brunswick, and from 1883 at the University of Leipzig. In 1891 professor at Giessen, in 1892-1897 at the University of Erlangen. In 1897 he organized a laboratory of applied chemistry at the University of Leipzig, and from 1912 he was director of the established Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Applied and Pharmaceutical Chemistry in Berlin. The works relate to organic and physical chemistry. He studied the spatial structure of oximes and showed (1886) that oximes, under the influence of acidic agents, rearrange into acid amides (Beckmann rearrangement). In 1891, metal ketyls were obtained by the action of metallic sodium on diaryl ketones. He developed methods for determining the molecular weight of dissolved substances based on Raoult's law - by lowering the freezing temperature (1888) and increasing the boiling point (1889) of their solutions. He invented a thermometer that allows you to accurately determine the temperature near these points (Beckmann thermometer).

Birch Arthur (b. 3.VIII.1915)

Australian organic chemist, member of the Australian Academy of Sciences (since 1954), its president in 1976-1986. Graduated from the University of Sydney (1937). He improved his education at Oxford University (England) with R. Robinson. In 1949-1952 he worked at the University of Cambridge under A. Todd. Professor at Sydney (1952-1955), Manchester (1955-1967) universities and the Australian National University in Canberra (since 1970). The main works are devoted to organic synthesis, in particular the synthesis of natural compounds. Discovered (1949) the reaction of selective reduction of aromatic compounds into dihydroaromatic compounds by the action of sodium and alcohol in liquid ammonia (Birch reduction). He proposed (1962) a method for the synthesis of tropones from anisoles. He developed a method for stabilizing labile diene systems in reactions of alicyclic compounds, including flavonoids and terpenes.

Member of a number of academies of sciences and scientific societies. Foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1976).

Blanc Gustave Louis (6.IX.1872 - 1927)

French chemist. He studied at the School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry in Paris (1890-1893) and the Sorbonne (PhD, 1899). From 1906 he headed the technical laboratories of the Military Commissariat Office in Paris. The main works are devoted to the chemistry of terpenes, aliphatic and hydroaromatic compounds. Together with L. Bouveau, he discovered (1903) the reaction for producing primary alcohols by reducing esters by the action of metallic sodium in ethyl alcohol (Bouvo-Blanc reduction). Established (1907) a rule according to which, under the action of acetic anhydride, 1,4- and 1,5-dicarboxylic acids are converted into ketones, and 1,2- and 1,3-dicarboxylic acids are converted into anhydrides. Discovered (1923) a general method for the chloromethylation of aromatic hydrocarbons (Blanc reaction).

Borodin Alexander Porfirievich (12.X1.1833 - 27.11.1887)

Russian organic chemist. He graduated from the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg (1856). From 1856 he worked in a military hospital in St. Petersburg, in 1859-1862 - in the chemical laboratories of Heidelberg, Paris and Pisa, in 1862-1887 - at the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg (from 1864 professor) and at the same time in 1872-1887 - at the Women's Medical Center courses. The main area of research is organic synthesis. He developed methods for the production of bromo-substituted fatty acids (1861) and organic acid fluorides (1862). Investigated (1863-1873) aldehyde condensation products; simultaneously with S. A. Wurtz (1872), he carried out aldol condensation. He discovered that silver carboxylates, when treated with bromine, transform into haloalkanes (Borodin-Hunsdieker reaction). Widely known as a composer (for the opera “Prince Igor”, for example).

Brønsted Johannes Nikolaus (22.11.1879 - 17.12.1947)

Danish physical chemist, member of the Royal Danish Society of Sciences (since 1914). Graduated from the University of Copenhagen (1902). From 1905 he worked at the University of Copenhagen (from 1908 professor), in 1930-1947 director of the Physicochemical Institute of the Higher Technical School in Copenhagen. The main works are devoted to chemical kinetics, catalysis and thermodynamics of solutions. He studied catalytic reactions and the kinetic properties of ions in solutions. He put forward (1923) ideas about salt effects in acid-base catalysis in solutions (the effect of neutral salts on the rate of acid-base reactions) and established (1923-1925) their causes. He introduced into science the concept of “critical complex” (in a certain sense, the predecessor of the activated complex). Formulated (1929) the basic principles of the “general” or “extended” theory of acids and bases, according to which: a) the acid is a donor, and the base is a proton acceptor; b) acids and bases exist only as conjugate pairs; c) the proton does not exist in a free form in solution; in water it forms an H ion 3O +. Established a quantitative relationship between the strength of acids and bases and their catalytic activity. Developed (1929) the theory of acid-base catalysis.

Buvo Louis (15.11.1864 - 5.IX.1909)

French organic chemist. Graduated from the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris (1885). He worked as a preparator at the University of Paris. He taught at the universities of Lyon, Lille (1898), Nancy (from 1899) and Paris (from 1904; professor from 1905). The main area of research is organic synthesis. He developed methods for the preparation of aldehydes by the action of disubstituted formamides on the Grignard reagent (1904, Bouveau reaction), and carboxylic acids by hydrolysis of amides (also Bouveau reaction). Together with G. L. Blanc, he discovered (1903) the reaction of the formation of primary alcohols by the reduction of esters under the action of metallic sodium in ethyl alcohol (Bouvaud-Blanc reduction). Synthesized (1906) isoleucine from alkyl acetoacetic ester via oxime.

Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich (15.IX.1828 - 17.VIII.1886)

Russian chemist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1874). Graduated from Kazan University (1849). He worked there (from 1857 professor, in 1860 and 1863 rector). Since 1868, professor at St. Petersburg University. Creator of the theory chemical structure organic substances, which forms the basis of modern concepts in chemistry. Having discovered (1858) a new method for the synthesis of methylene iodide, he carried out a series of works related to the preparation of its derivatives. He synthesized methylene diacetate, obtained the product of its saponification - a polymer of formaldehyde, and on the basis of the latter for the first time received (1861) hexamethylenetetramine (urotropine) and the sugary substance "methylenenitane" (this was the first complete synthesis of a sugary substance). In 1861 he first made a report “On the chemical structure of substances”, in which: a) he showed the limitations of existing theories of structure in chemistry; b) emphasized the fundamental importance of atomic theory; c) gave a definition of the concept of chemical structure as the distribution of affinity forces belonging to atoms, as a result of which chemical bonds of varying strength are formed; d) was the first to draw attention to the fact that the different reactivity of different compounds is explained by the “more or less energy” with which atoms bind (i.e., bond energy), as well as the complete or incomplete consumption of affinity units during bond formation (in carbon dioxide complete, in carbon monoxide incomplete). He substantiated the idea of the mutual influence of atoms in a molecule. Predicted and explained (1864) the isomerism of many organic compounds, including two isomeric butanes, three pentanes and various alcohols up to and including amyl alcohols. He conducted a large number of experiments confirming the theory he put forward: he synthesized and established the structure of tertiary butyl alcohol (1864), isobutane (1866) and isobutylene (1867), determined the structure of a number of ethylene hydrocarbons and carried out their polymerization. He showed (1862) the possibility of reversible isomerization, laying the foundations for the doctrine of tautomerism. He studied (1873) the history of chemistry and lectured on the history of organic chemistry. He wrote “An Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry” (1864), the first manual in the history of science based on the theory of chemical structure. He created a school of Russian chemists, which included V.V. Markovnikov, A.M. Zaitsev, E.E. Wagner, A.E. Favorsky, I.L. Kondakov and others. He actively fought for the recognition of the merits of Russian scientists by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Was a champion higher education for women. He was also interested in issues of biology and agriculture: he was engaged in gardening, beekeeping, and tea cultivation in the Caucasus. Chairman of the Chemistry Department of the Russian Physical-Chemical Society (1878-1882). Honorary member of many scientific societies.

Bucherer Hans Theodor (19.V.1869 - 29.V.1949)

German chemist. He studied in Munich and Karlsruhe, as well as at the University of Leipzig with J. Wislicenus (Ph.D., 1893). In 1894-1900 he worked at the BASF enterprises in Ludwigshafen. From 1901 at the Higher Technical School in Dresden (from 1905 professor), from 1914 at the Higher Technical School in Berlin, from 1926 at the Higher Technical School in Munich. The main works are devoted to the study of aromatic diazo compounds and their use in the production of dyes. Discovered (1904) the reaction of reversible exchange of an amino group for hydroxyl in the naphthalene series under the action of aqueous solutions of bisulfites (Bucherer reaction). Synthesized (1934) hydantoins from carbonyl compounds, hydrocyanic acid and ammonium carbonate.

Wagner Egor Egorovich (9.XII.1849 - 27.XI.1903)

Russian organic chemist. He graduated from Kazan University (1874), where he worked for a year. In 1875 he was sent to St. Petersburg University, to the laboratory of A. M. Butlerov. In 1876-1882 he was a laboratory assistant for N. A. Menshutkin at the same university. In 1882-1886 he was a professor at the New Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, and in 1886-1903 at the University of Warsaw. The main scientific research is devoted to organic synthesis. Together with A. M. Zaitsev, he discovered (1875) the reaction for the production of secondary and tertiary alcohols by the action of carbonyl compounds of zinc and alkyl halides. Using this reaction, he carried out (1874-1884) the synthesis of a number of alcohols. Clarified (1885) the rule of ketone oxidation formulated by A.N. Popov. He discovered (1888) the oxidation reaction of organic compounds containing an ethylene bond by treating these compounds with a 1% solution of potassium permanganate in an alkaline medium (Wagner reaction, or Wagner oxidation). Using this method, he proved the unsaturated nature of a number of terpenes. Established the structure of limonene (1895), a-pinene - the main component of Russian pine turpentines, discovered (1899) the camphene rearrangement of the first kind using the example of the transition of borneol to camphene and back (Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement; G. L. Meerwein in 1922 elucidated the mechanism and showed the general nature of this regrouping).

Walden Paul (Pavel Ivanovich) (26.VII. 1863 - 22.1.1957)

Physical chemist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1910) Graduated from the Riga Polytechnic Institute (1889) and the University of Leipzig (1891). In 1894-1902 professor, in 1902-1905 director of the Riga Polytechnic Institute. In 1911-1919, director of the Chemical Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, in 1919-1934, professor at the University of Rostock, from 1934 - at the universities of Frankfurt am Main and Tübingen (1947-1950, from 1950 honorary professor). Works - in the field of physics. chemistry and stereochemistry. Established (1888) the dependence of the electrical conductivity of aqueous solutions of salts on their molar mass. Showed (1889) that the ionizing ability of non-aqueous solvents is directly proportional to their dielectric constant. He discovered (1896) the phenomenon of inversion of stereoisomers, which consists in the fact that optical antipodes can be obtained from the same form of an optically active compound as a result of exchange reactions of a hydrogen atom associated with an asymmetric carbon atom (Walden inversion). Discovered (1903) optically active compounds in oil. Proposed (1902) the theory of autodissociation of inorganic and organic solvents. Together with K. A. Bischof he published (1894) “Handbook of Stereochemistry,” followed by a two-volume addition (1902). Foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1927).

Wallach Otto (27.III.1847 - 26.II.1931)

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Göttingen (1869). From 1870 he worked at the University of Bonn (from 1876 professor), in 1889-1915 - at the University of Göttingen. The main works are devoted to the chemistry of alicyclic compounds and the study (since 1884) of terpenes. Isolated (1891) limonene, phellandrene, fenchone, terpinolene, terpineol and other terpenes and studied their properties. Showed (1906-1908) that ethylidenecyclohexane isomerizes under the catalytic action of acids into ethylcyclogensen-1. Described (1903) the reaction of chlorocyclohexane with alkali, leading to the formation of cyclopentanecarboxylic acid. Studied (1909) the reductive amination of aldehydes and ketones with a mixture of primary and secondary amines with formic acid. Discovered (1880) the rearrangement of azoxy compounds into n-oxy- or O-hydroxy derivatives of azobenzene. One of the initiators of the creation of the aromatic substances industry in Germany. President of the German Chemical Society (1910). Nobel Prize (1910).

Wöhler Friedrich (31.VII.1800 - 23.IX.1882)

German chemist. Graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Heidelberg (1823). He specialized in chemistry under the guidance of L. Gmelin at Heidelberg University and J. J. Berzelius at Stockholm University. In 1825-1831 he worked at the Technical School in Berlin, in 1831-1835 - professor at the Technical School in Kassel, from 1836 - at the University of Göttingen. Research focuses on both inorganic and organic chemistry. While still a student, I independently prepared cyanide iodide and mercury thiocyanate. Discovered (1822) cyanic acid. Like J. Liebig established (1823) the presence of isomerism of fulminates (salts of mercury fulminate). He proved (1828) the possibility of obtaining urea by evaporating an aqueous solution of ammonium cyanate, which is considered the first synthesis of a natural organic substance from an inorganic one. Together with Liebig, he established (1832) the formula for benzoic acid; while studying derivatives of “bitter almond oil”, together with Liebig, he discovered (1832) that during transformations in the series benzoic acid - benzaldehyde - benzoyl chloride - benzoyl sulfide, the same group “C” 6N 5CO-" passes without change from one connection. to another. They named the group benzoyl. This discovery was a fact that supported the radical theory. Together with Liebig, he carried out the decomposition of amygdalin (1837) and studied (1838) uric and benzenehexacarboxylic acids and their derivatives. Received diethyltellurium (1840), hydroquinone (1844); studied (1844) opium alkaloid, obtained (1847) mandelic acid from amygdalin. He obtained metallic aluminum (1827), beryllium and yttrium (1828) by heating their chlorides with potassium, phosphorus (1829) from calcium phosphate, silicon and its hydrogen compounds and chlorides (1856-1858), calcium carbide and acetylene from it (1862). Together with A.E. Saint-Clair Deville (1857), he prepared pure preparations of boron, boron hydride, titanium, titanium nitride, and studied nitrogen compounds with silicon. For the first time prepared and tested (1852) a mixed copper-chromium catalyst for the oxidation of sulfur dioxide - CuO Cr 2O 3, which is the first time in the history of chemistry that chromium oxide is used in catalysis. President of the German Chemical Society (1877). Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies. Foreign member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1853).

Williamson (WILLIAMSON) Alexander William (1824-1904)

A British organic chemist, he made significant discoveries in the chemistry of alcohols and ethers, catalysis and reversible reactions. They were the first to explain the action of the catalyst from the point of view of the formation of intermediate compounds. He worked as a professor at University College, London (1849-1887). He was the first to synthesize compound ethers using a method he proposed involving treatment of an alkoxide with a haloalkane (Williamson's synthesis)

Wittig Georg (16.VI.1897 - 26.VIII.1987)

German organic chemist. He studied at the Universities of Tübingen (until 1916) and Marburg (1923-1926). Until 1932 he worked at the University of Marburg, in 1932-1937 professor at the Higher Technical School in Braungsweig, in 1937-1944 at Freiburg, in 1944-1956 at Tübingen and from 1956 at Heidelberg University (from 1967 honorary professor). Research is devoted to the synthesis of complex and difficult to obtain organic compounds. Using the method of lithium halogen exchange, he obtained (1938) various organolithium compounds, including O-lithium fluorobenzene. Put forward (1942) a hypothesis about the formation in reactions involving O-lithium fluorobenzene intermediate short-lived compound - dehydrobenzene and subsequently confirmed its existence, synthesized polynuclear aromatic compounds on its basis, in particular benzene polymers. Showed that rings containing a-b-highly unsaturated bonds tend to form polymers with a tubular or helical structure. Discovered (1942) the rearrangement of ethers into alcohols under the action of phenyllithium (Wittig rearrangement). He obtained (1945) a compound that was the first representative of the class of ylides - bipolar ions in which a positively charged onium atom (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) is covalently bonded to a negatively charged carbon atom. Synthesized (1952) pentaphenylphosphorus. Carried out (1958) a multi-stage synthesis of phenanthrenes by reduction of esters of substituted 2,2"-diphenylcarboxylic acids. Discovered (1954) the reaction of the formation of olefins from carbonyl compounds and alkylidenephosphoranes (Wittig reaction). Discovered (1954) the reaction of the addition of phosphinemethylidenes to aldehydes and ketones at a double carbon oxygen bond. Synthesized (1956) tryptycene. Proved (1960-1961) the intermediate formation of cycloalkynes C. 5-WITH 7during the oxidation of the corresponding bis-hydrazones in the presence of highly active components of the Diels-Alder reaction (phenyl azide and 2,5-diphenyl-3,4-benzofuran). Established (1971) the structure of aromatic propellane using NMR spectroscopy. Member of a number of academies of sciences and scientific societies. Nobel Prize (1979, jointly with G. C. Brown).

Wurtz Charles Adolf (26.IX.1817 - 12.V.1884)

French chemist, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences (since 1867), its president in 1881-1884. Graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Strasbourg (1839). He studied chemistry in the laboratory of J. Liebig at the University of Giessen (1842). From 1844 he worked at the Higher Medical School in Paris (from 1845 assistant to J. B. A. Dumas, from 1853 professor). Since 1875 professor at the University of Paris. The works relate to organic and inorganic chemistry. Received cyanuric acid, isocyanate esters. Discovered (1849) alkylamines by synthesizing ethylamine and methylamine. Developed (1855) a universal method for the synthesis of paraffin hydrocarbons by the action of metallic sodium on alkyl halides (Wurtz reaction). He synthesized ethylene glycol from ethylene iodide and silver acetate (1856), lactic acid from propylene glycol (1856), ethylene chlorohydrin and ethylene oxide (1859). He obtained phenol (1867), as well as various nitrogen-containing bases with open and closed chains - ethanolamines, choline (1867), neurin (1869). He carried out (1872) simultaneously with A.P. Borodin aldol condensation, carried out (1872) crotonic condensation of acetaldehyde. He was an excellent lecturer and did a lot as an organizer and popularizer of science. Author of the books “Lectures on Some Issues of Theoretical Chemistry” (1865), “Elementary Lessons in New Chemistry” (1868), etc. President of the French Chemical Society (1864, 1874, 1878). Member of several academies of sciences. Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1873). The mineral wurtzite is named in his honor.

Gabriel Sigmund (7.11.1851 - 22.111.1924)

German organic chemist. He studied at Berlin (with A.V. Hoffmann) and Heidelberg (from 1872, with R.V. Bunsen) universities (Doctor of Philosophy, 1874). From 1874 he worked at the University of Berlin (from 1886 professor). The main works are devoted to the synthesis and qualitative analysis of nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds. Synthesized isoquinoline and phenylisoquinoline (1885), phthalazine and its homologues. Discovered (1877) together with A. Michael that phthalic anhydride can participate in the Perkin reaction as a carbonyl component. He discovered (1887) a method for the synthesis of primary aliphatic amines by reacting organic halogen derivatives with potassium phthalimide and subsequent hydrolysis of the resulting N-substituted phthalimides (Gabriel's synthesis). Discovered (1891) the first spirane compound with nitrogen (IV). Synthesized (1898) ethyleneimine by the action of potassium hydroxide on b-bromoethyleneamine hydrobromide.

Ganch (HANCH) Arthur Rudolf (7.III.1857 - 14.111.1935)

German organic chemist. He graduated from the Higher Technical School in Dresden (1879). Worked at the University of Würzburg (1880). Professor of Zurich Polytechnic Institute(since 1882), Würzburg (since 1893) and Leipzig (1903-1927) universities.

The main works are devoted to the synthesis and stereochemistry of organic compounds. Discovered (1882) the reaction of the formation of pyridine derivatives by cyclocondensation of b-keto acid esters with aldehydes or ketones and ammonia (Hantzsch synthesis). Synthesized thiazole (1890), imidazole, oxazole and selenazole. Discovered (1890) the reaction of formation of a pyrrole ring during the condensation of acetoacetic ether, a-chloroketones and ammonia (or amines). Together with A. Werner, he established (1890) the structure of nitrogen-containing compounds such as oximes and azobenzene and put forward (1890) the theory of stereoisomerism of molecules containing a nitrogen-carbon double bond; the existence of two isomers of monooximes was explained as a case of geometric isomerism. Showed (1894) that diazo compounds can exist in the form syn- And anti-forms He was a proponent of the concept that the properties of acids depend on their interaction with the solvent. Proposed (1923) the theory of pseudoacids and pseudobases.

Gomberg Moses (8.II.1866 - 12.II.1947)

American chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1914). Born in Elisavetgrad (now Kirovograd, Ukraine). Graduated from the University of Michigan (1890). In 1896-1897 he improved his education at the University of Munich under A. Bayer and at the University of Heidelberg under W. Meyer. He worked at the University of Michigan until 1936 (from 1904 professor). During the First World War he worked in the US Military Chemical Service.

The works are devoted mainly to the chemistry of free radicals, of which he is the founder. Tetraphenylmethane was first obtained (1897). He discovered (1900) the existence of free radicals: trying to synthesize a completely phenylated hydrocarbon - hexaphenylethane, he isolated a reactive compound that had an intense color in solution, and showed that this compound - triphenylmethyl - is a “half” of the molecule. This was the first free radical obtained. He worked on the creation of poisonous gases, in particular, on the industrial synthesis of ethylene chlorohydrin, an intermediate product in the production of mustard gas. Created the first successful antifreeze for cars. President of the American Chemical Society (1931).

Hoffmann August Wilhelm (8.IV.1818 - 5.V.1892)

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Giessen (1840). He worked there under the leadership of Yu. Liebig. In 1845 he taught at the University of Bonn. In the same year he was invited to England. In 1845-1865 director of the Royal College of Chemistry in London. Since 1865 professor at the University of Berlin.

The main scientific research is devoted to aromatic compounds, in particular dyes. Isolated (1841) aniline and quinoline from coal tar. In 1843, he became acquainted with the method of producing aniline developed by N. N. Zinin and since then devoted his research to the synthesis of dyes based on it. Chemically identified (1843) Zinin’s “benzidam” with Fritzsche’s “aniline” and Runge’s “kyanol”. Observed (1845) the polymerization of styrene. Received (1845) toluidines. Discovered (1850) tetraalkylated ammonium bases +4as a kind of organic metals. He proposed (1850) a method for the synthesis of aliphatic amines by the action of ammonia on alkyl halides (Hoffmann reaction). Together with O. T. Kaur, he synthesized (1855) triethylphosphine, showing that it combines with oxygen, sulfur, halogens and ethyl iodide to form tetraethylphosphonium iodide. Together with Kaur, he obtained allylic alcohol and its oxidation - acrolein. Synthesized (1858) fuchsin (aniline red) and established (1861) its composition. He discovered (1863) the composition of rosaniline dyes and found a route for the synthesis of rosaniline. Together with his collaborator K. A. Martius, he discovered (1871) the hemibenzidine rearrangement. Discovered (1868) the transformation of primary amines into isonitriles. He proposed (1881) a method for preparing aliphatic, fatty-aromatic and heterocyclic amines from acid amides (Hoffmann rearrangement). President of the Chemical Society of London (1861-1863). Founder and first president of the German Chemical Society (1868-1892, intermittently). Founder (1868) of the press organ of this society “Chemische Berichte”. Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1857).

Grignard François Auguste Victor (6.V.1871 - 13.XII.1935)

French organic chemist, member. Paris Academy of Sciences (since 1926). Student of F. A. Barbier. Graduated from the University of Lyon (1893). In 1900-1909 he worked there, from 1909 - at the university in Nancy (from 1910 professor). During the First World War - in the military chemical laboratory at the Sorbonne. In 1917-1918 he lectured at the Milo Institute (USA). In 1919-1935 again at the University of Lyon, from 1921 at the same time director of the School of Chemical Industry in Lyon.

The main research is devoted to the synthesis and study of organic compounds. On the advice of Barbier, he carried out (1900) the first syntheses of organic compounds using mixed organomagnesium compounds obtained from alkyl halides and magnesium in an ethereal medium. He established (1901) that the main reagent in such syntheses is a reagent consisting of alkylmagnesium halides dissolved in ether (Grignard reagent). These works laid the foundation for universal methods of organomagnesium synthesis, opening a new stage in the development of preparative organic chemistry. He used organomagnesium compounds for the synthesis of hydrocarbons, alcohols (1901-1903), ketones, aldehydes (1906), ethers, nitriles, amines (1920), acids, etc. These syntheses (Grignard reaction) are widely used in synthetic practice. He also studied the enolization and condensation of ketones with organic magnesium derivatives, the synthesis of acetylene hydrocarbons, and mixed magnesium alcoholates. Founder of the 23-volume publication “Manual of Organic Chemistry” (1935-1954; only the first two volumes were published during his lifetime). Developed a nomenclature of organic compounds. Member of a number of Academies of Sciences and scientific societies. Nobel Prize (1912).

Griess Johann Peter (6.IX.1829 - 30.VIII.1888)

German organic chemist who worked in England; Member of the Royal Society of London (since 1868). He studied at the Polytechnic Institute in Kassel (specializing in agriculture), then at the Universities of Jena and Marburg. In 1858 he was invited by A.V. Hoffman to London, where he worked at the Royal College of Chemistry. Since 1861, chief chemist of the brewery in Burton-on-Trent (England). The main works relate to the chemistry of nitrogen-containing organic compounds. He was the first to obtain (1857) diazo compounds (and introduced the term “diazo” into chemistry). Discovered (1858) the diazotization reaction of aromatic amines with nitrous acid. He proposed (1864) a method for the reduction of diazonium salts by replacing the diazo group with hydrogen. Received (1864) a new type of dyes - azo dyes. Synthesized aniline yellow (1866), phenylenediamines (1867), oxyazobenzene (1876). Characterized (1874) isomeric diaminobenzenes by decarboxylating all six diaminobenzoic acids with lime. He proposed (1879) a reagent (a mixture of a-naphthylamine with sulfanilic acid), which gives a red color with nitrite ions (Griess reagent). Prepared (1884) dyes that can dye cotton without prior mordant.

Delepin Marcel (19.IX.1871 - 21.X.1965)

French organic chemist, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences (since 1930). Graduated from the Higher Pharmaceutical School in Paris (Doctor of Philosophy, 1894). In 1895-1902, assistant to P. E. M. Berthelot at the Collège de France, in 1904-1930 he worked at the Higher School of Pharmacy (from 1913 professor), in 1930-1941 professor at the Collège de France.

The main works are devoted to organic synthesis. Developed (1895) a method for the preparation of primary amines by acid hydrolysis of quaternary salts formed by the condensation of benzyl and alkyl halides with hexamine (Delepine reaction). Discovered (1909) the reaction of oxidation of aldehydes into carboxylic acids by the action of Ag 2O in an aqueous solution of alkali, also named after him. Studied various sulfur compounds and reactions in the terpene series. President of the French Chemical Society (1929-1930), honorary president (1945).

Demyanov Nikolai Yakovlevich (27.III.1861 - 19.III.1938)

Diels Otto Paul Hermann (23.1.1876 - 7.Sh.1954)

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Berlin (1899). He worked there until 1916 (assistant to E. G. Fischer, professor from 1906). Since 1916 professor at Kiel University.

The main direction of research is structural organic chemistry. Received (1906) "carbon dioxide" C 3ABOUT 2. He carried out work to establish the structure of cholesterol and cholic acid, which was reflected in the names “Diels acid”, “Diels hydrocarbon”, “Diels dehydrogenation with selenium”. Studied azodicarboxylic ether together with K. Alder (1911). These works, which were interrupted due to the outbreak of the First World War and resumed in the 1920s, served as the starting point for the discovery (1928) by Diels and Alder of one of the most important reactions of modern organic chemistry - the 1,4-addition of molecules with an activated multiple bond (dienophiles) to conjugated dienes to form cyclic structures (diene synthesis). Discovered (1930) the catalytic reaction of selective dehydrogenation of the cyclohexene or cyclohexane ring in the molecules of polycyclic compounds by the action of selenium upon heating, leading to the formation of aromatic compounds. Nobel Prize (1950, jointly with Alder).

Zaitsev Alexander Mikhailovich (2.VII.1841 - 1.IX.1910)

Russian organic chemist, corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1885). Student of A. M. Butlerov. Graduated from Kazan University (1862). In 1862-1865 he improved his education in the laboratories of A. W. G. Kolbe at the University of Marburg and S. A. Wurtz at the Higher Medical School in Paris. From 1865 he worked at Kazan University (from 1871 professor). Research is mainly aimed at developing and improving organic synthesis and Butlerov's theory of chemical structure. He developed (1870-1875) organozinc methods for the synthesis of various classes of alcohols (“Zaitsev alcohols”), confirming the predictions of Butlerov’s theory about the existence of such alcohols and laying the foundations for one of the universal directions of organic synthesis in general. In particular, together with E.E. Wagner, he discovered (1875) the reaction for the production of secondary and tertiary alcohols by acting on carbonyl compounds of zinc and alkyl halides. Received (1870) normal primary butyl alcohol. Synthesized (1873) diethylcarbinol. Established (1875) a rule according to which the elimination of elements of hydrohalic acids from alkyl halides or water from alcohols occurs in such a way that, together with the halogen or hydroxyl, hydrogen leaves from the least hydrogenated neighboring carbon atom (Zaitsev’s rule). Carried out (1875-1907) the synthesis of unsaturated alcohols. He obtained (1877-1878) together with I.I. Kanonnikov acetic anhydride by the action of acetyl chloride on glacial acetic acid. Together with his students, he carried out many works on the preparation and study of polyhydric alcohols, organic oxides, unsaturated acids and hydroxy acids. He created a large school of chemists, including A.E. Arbuzov, E.E. Wagner, A.N. Reformatsky, S.N. Reformatsky and others. President of the Russian Physical-Chemical Society (1905, 1908 and 1911).

Sandmeier Traugott (15.IX.1854 - 9.IV.1922)

Swiss chemist. He worked as an assistant to W. Meyer at the Zurich Polytechnic Institute (from 1882) and the University of Gottingen (from 1885), and to A. R. Ganch at the Zurich Polytechnic Institute (1886-1888). Since 1888 at the Geigy company in Basel.

One of the pioneers in creating the synthetic dye industry. Together with Meyer, he synthesized (1883) thiophene by the action of acetylene on boiling sulfur. Discovered (1884) the reaction of replacing a diazo group in aromatic or heteroaromatic compounds with a halogen atom by decomposition of diazonium salt in the presence of cuprous halides (Sandmeyer reaction). He proposed a new method for producing isatin with quantitative yield (the interaction of an amine with chloral and hydroxylamine).

Zelinsky Nikolai Dmitrievich (6.II.1861 - 31.VII.1953)

Soviet organic chemist, academician (since 1929). Graduated from Novorossiysk University in Odessa (1884). From 1885 he improved his education in Germany: at the University of Leipzig with J. Wislicenus and at the University of Göttingen with W. Meyer. In 1888-1892 he worked at Novorossiysk University, from 1893 he was a professor at Moscow University, which he left in 1911 in protest against the reactionary policies of the tsarist government. In 1911-1917, director of the Central Chemical Laboratory of the Ministry of Finance, from 1917 - again at Moscow University, at the same time from 1935 - at the Institute of Org. of Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences, of which he was one of the organizers.

Research relates to several areas of organic chemistry - the chemistry of alicyclic compounds, the chemistry of heterocycles, organic catalysis, protein and amino acid chemistry. Initially, he studied the isomerism of thiophene derivatives and obtained (1887) a number of its homologues. Studying the stereoisomerism of saturated aliphatic dicarboxylic acids, he found (1891) methods for preparing cyclic five- and six-membered ketones from them, from which he in turn obtained (1895-1900) a large number of homologues of cyclopentane and cyclohexane. Synthesized (1901-1907) numerous hydrocarbons containing from 3 to 9 carbon atoms in the ring, which served as the basis for artificial modeling of the composition of oil and oil fractions. He laid the foundation for a number of directions related to the study of the mutual transformations of hydrocarbons. He discovered (1910) the phenomenon of dehydrogenation catalysis, which consists in the exclusively selective action of platinum and palladium on cyclohexane and aromatic hydrocarbons and in the ideal reversibility of hydro- and dehydrogenation reactions only depending on temperature. Together with engineer A. Kumant, he developed the design (1916) of a gas mask. Further work on dehydrogenation-hydrogenation catalysis led him to the discovery (1911) of irreversible catalysis. While dealing with issues of petroleum chemistry, he carried out numerous works on the petrolization of cracking (1920-1922) and on the “ketonization of naphthenes”. Obtained (1924) alicyclic ketones by catalytic acylation of petroleum cyclanes. Carried out (1931 - 1937) the processes of catalytic and pyrogenetic aromatization of oils. Together with N. S. Kozlov, for the first time in the USSR, he began (1932) work on the production of chloroprene rubber. He is one of the founders of the doctrine of organic catalysis. He put forward ideas about the deformation of reagent molecules during adsorption on solid catalysts. Together with his students, he discovered the reactions of selective catalytic hydrogenolysis of cyclopentane hydrocarbons (1934), destructive hydrogenation, numerous isomerization reactions (1925-1939), including mutual transformations of rings in the direction of both their narrowing and expansion. Experimentally (1938, together with Ya. T. Eidus) proved the formation of methylene radicals as intermediate particles in the processes of organic catalysis. He also conducted research in the field of amino acid and protein chemistry. He discovered (1906) the reaction of producing a-amino acids from aldehydes or ketones by the action of a mixture of potassium cyanide with ammonium chloride and subsequent hydrolysis of the resulting a-aminonitriles. Synthesized a number of amino acids and hydroxyamino acids. He created a large school of organic chemists (A. N. Nesmeyanov, B. A. Kazansky, A. A. Balandin, N. I. Shuikin, A. F. Plate, etc.). One of the organizers of the All-Union Chemical Society named after. D.I. Mendeleev and his honorary member (since 1941). President of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists (1935-1953). Hero of Socialist Labor (1945). Prize named after V.I. Lenin (1934), State Prizes of the USSR (1942, 1946, 1948). The name of Zelinsky was assigned (1953) to the Institute of Organic Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences (now the Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences named after N.D. Zelinsky).

organic chemist biography outstanding

Zinin Nikolai Nikolaevich (25.VIII.1812 - 18.II.1880)

Russian organic chemist, academician. St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1865). Graduated from Kazan University (1833). He worked there, from 1837 in laboratories and factories in Germany, France, England (in 1839-1840 at the University of Giessen under J. Liebig). In 1841-1848 he was a professor at Kazan University, in 1848-1874 - at the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg.

Scientific research is devoted to organic chemistry. Developed (1841) methods for producing benzoin from benzaldehyde and benzyl by oxidation of benzoin. This was the first case of benzoin condensation, one of the universal methods for producing aromatic ketones. He discovered (1842) the reduction reaction of aromatic nitro compounds, which served as the basis for a new branch of the chemical industry - anilo-dye. In this way he obtained aniline and a-naphthylamine (1842), n-phenylenediamine and deoxybenzoin (1844), benzidine (1845). Discovered (1845) the rearrangement of hydrazobenzene under the influence of acids - the “benzidine rearrangement”. Showed that amines are bases capable of forming salts with various acids. Received (1852) allyl ester of isothiocyanic acid - “volatile mustard oil” - based on allyl iodide and potassium thiocyanide. Discovered (1854) ureids. He studied derivatives of the allyl radical and synthesized allyl alcohol. Received (1860s) dichloro- and tetrachlorobenzene, tolane and stilbene. Studied (1870s) the composition of lepidene (tetraphenylfuran) and its derivatives. Together with A. A. Voskresensky, he is the founder of a large school of Russian chemists. Among his students were A. M. Butlerov, N. N. Beketov, A. P. Borodin and others. One of the organizers of the Russian Chemical Society and its first president (1868-1877). In 1880, this society established a prize named after. N. N. Zinin and A. A. Voskresensky.

Iocic Zhivoin Ilya (6.H.1870 - 23.1.1914)

Organic chemist. Student of A.E. Favorsky. Born in Paracin (Serbia). Graduated from St. Petersburg University (1898). In 1899-1914 he worked there.

Research is devoted to the synthesis and isomerization of unsaturated, mainly acetylene, hydrocarbons. He showed (1897) the possibility of converting methylallene under the action of alcohol alkali into dimethylacetylene, and under the action of metallic sodium into ethyl acetylene derivatives. Discovered (1898) the reaction of transformation of a-halogen-substituted alcohols into unsaturated hydrocarbons under the action of zinc dust. Developed a method for producing halogenated alcohols. Discovered (1902) the reaction of acetylene hydrocarbons with organomagnesium compounds, in which alkenyl- and dialkenylmagnesium halides (Jocic complexes) are formed. Thus, he indicated the routes for the synthesis of many acetylene and diacetylene compounds. Developed (1908) a method for the synthesis of acetylene acids using organomagnesium complexes. Discovered some new acetylene compounds. Obtained easily polymerizing unsymmetrical halogen-substituted hydrocarbons. I haven't written a single article. He reported orally on the results of his work at meetings of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society.

Cannizzaro Stanislao (13.VII.1826 - 10.V.1910)

Italian chemist, member of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei (since 1873). He received his medical education at the universities of Palermo (1841-1845) and Pisa (1846-1848). He took part in the popular uprising in Sicily, after the suppression of which he emigrated to France in 1849. In 1851 he returned to Italy. Professor of Chemistry at the National College of Alexandria (Piedmont, 1851-1855), University of Genoa (1856-1861), University of Palermo (1861-1871), University of Rome (1871-1910).

One of the founders of atomic-molecular theory. Together with the French chemist F. S. Cloez, he obtained cyanamide (1851), studied its thermal polymerization, and obtained urea by hydration of cyanamide. While studying the effect of potassium hydroxide on benzaldehyde, he discovered (1853) benzyl alcohol. At the same time, he discovered the redox disproportionation of aromatic aldehydes in an alkaline medium (Cannizzaro reaction). He synthesized benzoyl chloride and obtained phenylacetic acid from it. Studied anise alcohol, monobenzylurea, santonin and its derivatives. However, the main significance of Cannizzaro’s work lies in the system of basic chemical concepts he proposed, which meant a reform of atomic-molecular concepts. Applying the historical method, he analyzed (1858) the development of atomic-molecular science from J. Dalton and A. Avogadro to C. F. Gerard and O. Laurent and proposed a rational system of atomic weights. Established and substantiated the correct atomic weights of many elements, in particular metals; Based on Avogadro’s law, he clearly distinguished (1858) the concepts of “atom”, “molecule” and “equivalent”. At the 1st International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe (1860), he convinced many scientists to take the position of atomic-molecular theory and brought clarity to the confusing issue of the difference in the values of atomic, molecular and equivalent weights. Together with E. Paterno and H. J. Schiff, he founded (1871) the magazine Gazzetta Chimica Italiana. Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1889).

Karash Morris Selig (24.VIII.1895 - 7.H.1957)

American organic chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1946). Born in Kremenets (Ukraine). Graduated from the University of Chicago (1917). He worked there (from 1939 as a professor), and from 1922-1924 - at the University of Maryland.

The main works relate to the chemistry of free radicals. At the beginning of his activity, he studied the addition of hydrogen bromide to allyl bromide and showed (1930s) that the addition against Markovnikov’s rule is associated with the presence of traces of peroxide compounds in the reaction mixture. Based on ideas about the free radical mechanism of reactions, he created a number of synthetic methods. Synthesized (1940) and studied organomercury compounds used in agriculture and medicine. He isolated ergotocin and showed that it can be used as an active principle of drugs. He created the basis for the implementation of free radical polymerization processes that are important for industry. Developed (1939) a method for low-temperature chlorination of alkanes using sulfuryl chloride and benzoyl peroxide as an initiator.

Kekule Friedrich August (7.IX.1829 - 13.VII.1896)

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Giessen (1852). Listened to lectures in Paris by J. B. A. Dumas, S. A. Wurtz, C. F. Gerer. In 1856-1858 he taught at the University of Heidelberg, in 1858-1865 professor at the University of Ghent (Belgium), from 1865 at the University of Bonn (in 1877-1878 rector).

Interests were mainly concentrated in the region. theoretical organic chemistry and organic synthesis. Received thioacetic acid and other sulfur compounds (1854), glycolic acid (1856). For the first time, by analogy with the type of water, he introduced (1854) the type of hydrogen sulfide. He expressed (1857) the idea of valency as a whole number of affinity units possessed by an atom. Pointed out the “bibasicity” (bivalency) of sulfur and oxygen. Divided (1857) all chemical elements, with the exception of carbon, into one-, two- and three-basic ones; carbon was classified as a tetrabasic element (simultaneously with A.V.G. Kolbe). He put forward (1858) the proposition that the constitution of compounds is determined by the “basicity,” i.e., valency, of the elements. For the first time (1858) he showed that the number of hydrogen atoms associated with ncarbon atoms in alkanes is equal to 2 n+ 2. Based on the theory of types, he formulated the initial provisions of the theory of valency. Considering the mechanism of double exchange reactions, he expressed the idea of a gradual weakening of the initial bonds and presented (1858) a diagram that was the first model of the activated state. He proposed (1865) the cyclic structural formula of benzene, thereby extending Butlerov’s Theory of Chemical Structure to aromatic compounds. Experimental work Kekule are closely related to his theoretical research. In order to test the hypothesis about the equivalence of all six hydrogen atoms in benzene, he obtained its halogen-, nitro-, amino- and carboxy derivatives. He carried out (1864) a cycle of transformations of acids: natural malic - bromosuccinic - optically inactive malic. Discovered (1866) the rearrangement of diazoaminobenzene into n-aminoazobenzene. Synthesized triphenylmethane (1872) and anthraquinone (1878). To prove the structure of camphor, he undertook work to convert it into oxycymol, and then into thiocymol. Studied the croton condensation of acetaldehyde and the reaction to produce carboxytartronic acid. Proposed methods for the synthesis of thiophene based on diethyl sulfide and anhydride succinic acid. President of the German Chemical Society (1878, 1886, 1891). One of the organizers of the I International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe (1860). Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1887).

Kizhner Nikolai Matveevich (9.XII.1867 - 28.XI.1935)

Soviet organic chemist, honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1934). Graduated from Moscow University (1890). He worked there, in 1901-1913 as a professor at the Tomsk Technological Institute, in 1914-1917 at the People's University. A. L. Shanyavsky in Moscow, since 1918 scientific director of the Aniltrest Research Institute in Moscow.

The main research is devoted to organic synthesis and the study of the properties of organic compounds discovered by him. Showed (1894) that the hydrogenation of benzene with hydroiodic acid produces methylcyclopentane. This observation provided experimental evidence for ring-shrinking ring isomerization. Discovered (1900) aliphatic diazo compounds. Developed a method for producing organic hydrazine derivatives. Discovered (1910) the reaction of the catalytic decomposition of hydrazones with the reduction of the carbonyl group of aldehydes or ketones into a methylene group. This reaction became the basis for the method for the synthesis of individual hydrocarbons of high purity (Kizhner-Wolf reaction). It makes it possible to determine the structure of various complex hormones and polyterpenes. Applying the method of catalytic decomposition to pyrazoline bases, he discovered (1912) universal method synthesis of hydrocarbons of the cyclopropane series, including bicyclic terpenes with a three-membered caran type ring (Kizhner reaction). He made a significant contribution to the chemistry of synthetic dyes and to the creation of the aniline dye industry.

Claisen (KLEISEN) Ludwig (14.1.1851 - 5.1.1930)

German organic chemist. He studied at the Universities of Göttingen (from 1869) and the Universities of Bonn (Doctor of Philosophy, 1875). In 1875-1882 he worked at the University of Bonn, in 1882-1885 - at the University of Manchester, from 1886 - at the University of Munich, from 1890 - at the Higher Technical School in Aachen, from 1897 - at the University of Kiel and from 1904 - at the University of Berlin. In 1907-1926 he worked in his private laboratory in Bad Godesberg.

The main works are devoted to the development of general methods of organic synthesis, acylation of carbonyl compounds, and the study of tautomerism and isomerism. Discovered (1887) the reaction of disproportionation of aldehydes with the formation of esters under the action of weak bases (Claisen reaction). He discovered (1887) the reaction of producing esters of b-keto (or b-aldehyde) acids by condensation of identical or different esters in the presence of basic catalysts (Claisen ester condensation). Developed (1890) a method for preparing cinnamic acid esters by condensation of aromatic aldehydes with carboxylic acid esters under the action of metallic sodium. Studied (1900-1905) the tautomeric transformations of acetoacetic ester. Discovered (1912) the rearrangement of allyl ethers of phenols into allyl-substituted phenols (Claisen rearrangement). He proposed (1893) a special flask for distillation in vacuum, which is widely used in laboratory practice (Claisen flask).

Knoevenagel Heinrich Emil Albert (11.VIII.1865 - 5.VI.1921)

German chemist. He studied at the Higher Technical School in Hannover (from 1884), then (from 1886) at the University of Göttingen (Doctor of Philosophy, 1889). From 1889 he worked at the University of Heidelberg (from 1896 professor).

The main works are devoted to the development of general methods of organic synthesis. Discovered (1896) the condensation reaction of aldehydes and ketones with compounds containing an active methylene group in the presence of bases to form ethylene derivatives (Knoevenagel reaction). He discovered (1914) the reaction (also named after him) of replacing the hydroxy group in dioxynaphthalenes with an arylamino group in the presence of iodine. Showed that pyridine derivatives can be prepared by heating 1,5-diketones with hydroxylamine.

Kolbe Adolf Wilhelm Hermann (27.IX.1818 - 25.XI.1884)

German organic chemist. He graduated from the University of Gottingen (1842), where he studied with F. Wöhler. In 1842-1845 he was an assistant to R. W. Bunsen at the University of Marburg. In 1845-1847 he worked at the School of Mines in London, in 1847-1865 - at the University of Marburg (from 1851 professor), from 1865 - at the University of Leipzig. The main works are devoted to organic chemistry. Showed (1843) the possibility of synthesizing carbon tetrachloride from elements. Received (1845) acetic acid from elements through carbon disulfide. Together with E. Frankland (1847), he obtained propionic acid by saponification of ethyl cyanide, thus discovering a general method for the preparation of carboxylic acids from alcohols through nitriles. Discovered (1849) an electrochemical method for producing saturated hydrocarbons by electrolysis of aqueous salt solutions alkali metals carboxylic acids (Kolbe reaction). He synthesized salicylic (1860), formic (1861) and “benzoleic” (1861; its structure was studied by K. Grebe) acids. Received (1872) nitroethane. He was a supporter of the theory of radicals and, along with F.A. Kekule, suggested the tetravalence of carbon. Predicted (1857) the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, in particular trimethylcarbinol. Being an outstanding experimenter, he was an opponent of Butlerov’s Theory of chemical structure and stereochemistry of J. G. Van’t Hoff.

Konovalov Mikhail Ivanovich (13.IX.1858 - 25.XII.1906)

Russian organic chemist. Student of V.V. Markovnikov. Graduated from Moscow University (1884). He worked there (1884-1896), and in 1896-1899 he was a professor at the Moscow Agricultural Institute, and from 1899 at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute (in 1902-1904 rector).

The main research is devoted to studying the effect of nitric acid on organic compounds. Discovered (1888) the nitrating effect of a weak solution of nitric acid on aliphatic (Konovalov's reaction), alicyclic and fatty-aromatic hydrocarbons. Developed (1888-1893) methods for obtaining oximes of aldehydes, ketones and keto alcohols based on fatty nitro compounds. With his reaction, according to N.D. Zelinsky, “revived the chemical dead,” which was considered paraffin hydrocarbons at that time. Used nitration reactions to determine the structure of hydrocarbons. Developed (1889) methods for the isolation and purification of various naphthenes.

Crafts James Mason (8.I.1839 - 20.VI.1917)

American chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1872). Studied at Harvard University. In 1859-1860 he studied mining and metallurgy there and at the Freiberg Mining Academy. In 1860 he was an assistant to R. W. Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg, in 1861-1865 to S. A. Wurtz at the Higher Medical School in Paris and S. Friedel at the University of Strasbourg. From 1866 he was a professor at Cornell University, from 1870-1874 and from 1891 he worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (president from 1898-1900), and from 1874-1891 at the Higher Mining School in Paris.

Main works relate to organic chemistry. Together with Friedel, he studied (since 1863) organosilicon compounds and established the tetravalency of titanium and silicon. They developed (1877) a method for the alkylation and acylation of aromatic compounds, respectively, with alkyl and acyl halides in the presence of aluminum chloride (Friedel-Crafts reaction). He made a major contribution to thermometry by studying gas thermometers. Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (since 1867).

Curtius Theodore (27.V.1857 - 8.II.1928)

German chemist. He studied with R. W. Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg and with A. W. G. Kolbe at the University of Leipzig. Professor at Kiel (since 1889), Bonn (since 1897) and Heidelberg (since 1898) universities.

The main works relate to organic chemistry. Discovered diazoacetic ester (1883), hydrazine (1887), and hydronitrous acid (1890). He proposed (1883) methods for the synthesis of peptides from esters and from amino acid azides. Described (1883) the transition of glycine ester to glycyl-glycine-diketopiperazine. At the same time, he obtained a compound whose structure he could not decipher, and called it “biuret base.” Paved the first path to the synthesis of polypeptides. Developed (1888) a method for producing glycine ethyl ester hydrochloride by the action of absolute alcohol and hydrogen chloride on glycine. He synthesized triazoles, tetrazoles and acid azides. He proposed (1890) a method for the preparation of primary amines by rearrangement of carboxylic acid azides into isocyanates followed by hydrolysis (Curtius reaction). He also discovered (1891) the reaction that bears his name for the production of diarylacetylenes from a-diketone hydrazones by the action of mercury oxide. Synthesized (1904) g-benzoylbutyric and b-benzoylisobutyric acids, benzoylurea and benzoylserine. His research made a huge contribution to the development of preparative methods of organic synthesis.

Kucherov Mikhail Grigorievich (3.VI.1850 - 26.VI.1911)

Russian organic chemist. Graduated from the St. Petersburg Agricultural Institute (1871). Until 1910 he worked at the same institute (since 1877 - Forestry Institute; since 1902 professor).

The main works are devoted to the development of organic synthesis. Received (1873) biphenyl and some of its derivatives. Investigated (1875) the conditions for the transformation of bromovinyl into acetylene. He discovered (1881) the reaction of catalytic hydration of acetylene hydrocarbons with the formation of carbonyl-containing compounds, in particular, the conversion of acetylene into acetaldehyde in the presence of mercury salts (Kucherov reaction). This method forms the basis for the industrial production of acetaldehyde and acetic acid. Showed (1909) that the hydration of acetylene hydrocarbons can also be carried out in the presence of magnesium, zinc, and cadmium salts. Investigated the mechanism of this reaction. He established the intermediate formation of organometallic complexes due to the incomplete interaction of salt metal atoms and carbon atoms with a triple bond. The Russian Physicochemical Society established (1915) the M.G. Kucherov Prize for beginning chemist researchers.

Ladenburg Albert (2.VII.184 - 15.VIII.1911)

German organic chemist and historian of chemistry. He graduated from the University of Heidelberg (1863), where he studied with R. W. Bunsen and the German physicist G. R. Kirchhoff. He worked there (1863-1864), then at the University of Ghent (1865) and the Higher Medical School in Paris under S. A. Wurtz (1866-1867). He taught at the University of Heidelberg (1868-1872), professor at the universities of Kiel (1872-1889) and Breslau (1889-1909).

The works are devoted to elucidating the structure and synthesis of alkaloids, studying organic compounds of silicon and tin, and studying the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons. Pyridine was obtained (1885) by the action of potassium cyanide on 1,3-dihalogen derivatives of propane. Carried out (1886) the first synthesis of a natural alkaloid - coniine (starting from a-methyl-pyridine). Arguing with F.A. Kekule, he proposed (1869) a prismatic structural formula of benzene. Established the equivalence of hydrogen atoms in benzene and its structure O-, m- And n-replaced. Established the formula for ozone O 3. Scopalamine was the first to be isolated. He proposed (1885) a method for the reduction of organic compounds with metallic sodium in an alcoholic medium (Ladenburg method), which was developed by A. N. Vyshnegradsky five years earlier (1880). Author of the book “Lectures on the history of the development of chemistry from Lavoisier to our time” (Russian translation 1917).

Liebig Justus (12.V.1803 - 18.IV.1873)

German chemist, member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences (since 1854), its president since 1859. He studied at the Universities of Bonn (1820) and Erlangen (since 1821). He also studied at the Sorbonne with J.L. Gay-Lussac. From 1824 he taught at the University of Giessen, and from 1852 at the University of Munich. In 1825 he organized a laboratory for scientific research in Giessen, in which many outstanding chemists worked.

Research is devoted mainly to organic chemistry. When studying fulminates (salts of explosive acid), he discovered (1823, along with F. Wöhler) isomerism, pointing out the analogy of fulminates and salts of cyanic acid, which have the same composition. For the first time (1831, independently of the French chemist E. Soubeyrand) chloroform was obtained. Together with Wöhler, he established (1832) that during transformations in the series benzoic acid - benzaldehyde - benzoyl chloride - benzoyl sulfide, the same group (C 6H 5CO) passes without change from one compound to another. They named this group benzoyl. In the article “On the constitution of ether and its compounds” (1834), he pointed out the existence of an ethyl radical, which passes without changes in the series alcohol - ether - ethyl chloride - nitric acid ester - benzoic acid ester. These works contributed to the establishment of the theory of radicals. Together with Wöhler, he established (1832) the correct formula for benzoic acid, correcting that proposed in 1814 by J. J. Berzelius. Discovered (1832) chloral. Improved (1831 -1833) the method for the quantitative determination of carbon and hydrogen in organic compounds. Established (1832) the composition and identity of lactic acid. Discovered (1835) acetaldehyde (proposing the term “aldehyde” for the first time). Received (1836) mandelic acid from benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide. Together with Wöhler (1837), he carried out the decomposition of amygdalin from bitter almond oil into benzaldehyde, hydrocyanic acid and sugar, and began the study of benzaldehyde. In a joint program article with J. B. A. Dumas “On current state organic chemistry" (1837) defined it as "the chemistry of complex radicals." Having studied (1838) the composition and properties of tartaric, malic, citric, mandelic, quinic, camphoric and other acids, he showed (1838) that the molecules of organic acids do not contain the element of water, as assumed by the dualistic theory. Defined organic acids as compounds capable of forming salts by replacing hydrogen with a metal; pointed out that acids can be one-, two- and three-basic, and proposed a classification of acids according to their basicity. Created the theory of polybasic acids. Together with E. Mitscherlich, he established (1834) the empirical formula of uric acid. Together with Wöhler, he studied (1838) uric and benzenehexacarboxylic acids and their derivatives. He studied alkaloids - quinine (1838), cinchonine (1838), morphine (1839), coniine (1839). He studied (since 1839) the chemistry of physiological processes. Discovered (1846) the amino acid tyrosine. He proposed dividing foods into fats, carbohydrates and proteins; found that fats and carbohydrates serve as a kind of fuel for the body. One of the founders of agrochemistry. Proposed (1840) the theory of mineral nutrition of plants. He put forward (1839) the first theory of catalysis, suggesting that the catalyst is in a state of instability (decomposition, putrefaction) and causes similar changes in the affinity between the constituent parts of the compound. This theory was the first to point out the weakening of affinity during catalysis. He was involved in the development of quantitative methods of analytical chemistry (gas analysis, etc.). He designed original instruments for analytical research. Created a large school of chemists. Founded (1832) the journal. "Annalen der Pharmazie" (from 1839 - "Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie"; after Liebig's death, from 1874 - "Liebigs Annalen der Chemie"). Member of several academies of sciences. Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1830).

Lossen Wilhelm Clemens (8.V.1838 - 29.H.1906)

German chemist. Graduated from the University of Göttingen (Doctor of Philosophy, 1862). He worked there, then in Karlsruhe, Halle and Heidelberg (from 1870 professor). In 1871 - 1904 professor at the University of Königsberg.

The main works are related to the study of alkaloids (atropine, cocaine), as well as hydroxylamine and its derivatives. Proposed (1862) an empirical formula for cocaine. He discovered (1865) hydroxylamine, which was obtained in the form of hydrochloride by reducing ethyl nitrate with tin and hydrochloric acid. Discovered (1872) the rearrangement reaction of hydroxamic acids and their derivatives with the formation of isocyanates (Lossen reaction).

Lowry Thomas Martin (26.H.1874 - 2.IX.1936)

English chemist, member of the Royal Society of London (since 1914). Graduated from the Central Technical College in London (1889). In 1896-1913 he worked there as an assistant to G. E. Armstrong and at the same time, from 1904, taught at the Westminster Pedagogical Institute. Since 1913, professor at one of the medical schools in London, since 1920 - at the University of Cambridge.

The main works are devoted to the study of the optical activity of organic compounds. Found (1899) that a freshly prepared solution of nitrocamphor changes its optical activity over time, i.e., it discovered mutarotation. Developed methods of polarimetry. Researched tautomerism. One of the authors of the protolytic theory of acid-base equilibrium (1928, almost simultaneously with J. N. Brønsted), according to which every acid is a proton donor. President of the Faraday Society (1928-1930).

Lewis Gilbert Newton (23.H.1875 - 23.111.1946)

American physical chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1913). Graduated from Harvard University (1896). He worked there until 1900, in 1901-1903 and 1906-1907. In 1900-1901 he improved his education at the University of Leipzig with V.F. Ostwald and at the University of Gottingen with V.F. Nernst. In 1904-1905, manager of the House of Weights and Measures and chemist at the Bureau of Science in Manila (Philippines). In 1907-1912 assistant professor, then professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. From 1912 he worked at the University of California at Berkeley. During World War I, a colonel in the US Army Chemical Service (developed methods of protection against poisonous gases). The main works are devoted to chemical thermodynamics and the theory of the structure of matter. Determined the free energy of many compounds. Introduced (1907) the concept of thermodynamic activity. Clarified the formulation of the law of mass action proposed by K. M. Guldberg and P. Waage. Developed (1916) the theory of covalent chemical bonds. His concept of a generalized electron pair proved very fruitful for organic chemistry. Proposed (1926) a new theory of acids as acceptors of a pair of electrons and bases as donors of a pair of electrons. Introduced (1929) the term “photon”. Together with R. MacDonald and F. Spedding, he developed (1933) a method for producing heavy water. Foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1942).

Mannich Karl Ulrich Franz (8.III.1877 - 5.III.1947)

German organic chemist. He studied at the Universities of Marburg (until 1899), Berlin (1899-1902) and Basel (1902-1903; Ph.D., 1903). From 1904 he taught at the University of Göttingen (from 1911 as a professor), and from 1919 at the University of Frankfurt. Since 1927, professor and director of the Pharmaceutical Institute in Berlin.

The main research relates to synthetic organic chemistry. Isolated cardiac glycosides from digitalis and strophanthus in crystalline form. He discovered (1912) the reaction of replacing hydrogen in organic compounds with an aminomethyl group under the action of formaldehyde and ammonia, as well as amines or their hydrochloride salts (Mannich reaction). For 30 years I studied the possibility practical application this reaction. Synthesized a large number of amino ketones and amino alcohols, used amino alcohols for the preparation of esters n-aminobenzoic acid. Investigated the possibility of using these ethers as local anesthetics.

Markovnikov Vladimir Vasilievich (25.11.1837-11.11.1904)

Russian organic chemist. He graduated from Kazan University (1860) and, at the suggestion of A.M. Butlerov, remained at the university as a laboratory assistant. In 1865-1867, in order to prepare for professional activity, he was on a business trip to Berlin, Munich, Leipzig, where he worked in the laboratories of A. Bayer, R. Erlenmeyer and A. Kolbe. In 1867-1871 he taught at Kazan University (from 1869 professor), in 1871-1873 - at Novorossiysk University in Odessa, in 1873-1904 - at Moscow University.

Research is devoted to theoretical organic chemistry, organic synthesis and petrochemistry. Received (1862-1867) new data on the isomerism of alcohols and fatty acids, discovered oxides of a number of olefinic hydrocarbons, and was the first to synthesize halogen and oxy derivatives of butyric acid isomers. The results of these studies served as the basis for his doctrine of the mutual influence of atoms as the main content of the theory of chemical structure. Formulated (1869) rules on the direction of substitution, elimination, addition at a double bond and isomerization reactions, depending on the chemical. structures (Markovnikov rules). He showed the features of double and triple bonds in unsaturated compounds, which consist in their greater strength in relation to single bonds, but not in their equivalence to two and three simple bonds. Together with G. A. Krestovnikov, he first synthesized (1879) cyclobutanedicarboxylic acid. He studied (since 1880) the composition of oil, laying the foundations of petrochemistry as an independent science. Opened (1883) new class organic substances - naphthenes. He showed that, along with Vreden's hexahydrobenzene hydrocarbons, there are hydrocarbons of the cyclopentane, cycloheptane and other cycloalkanes series. Proved the existence of cycles with the number of carbon atoms from 3 to 8; first received (1889) suberon; established mutual isomeric transformations of cycles in the direction of both increasing and decreasing the number of atoms in the ring; discovered (1892) the first ring-reducing isomerization reaction of cyclic hydrocarbons (cycloheptane to methylcyclohexane). Introduced many new experimental techniques for the analysis and synthesis of organic substances. For the first time he studied the transformation of naphthenes into aromatic hydrocarbons. One of the founders of the Russian Chemical Society (1868).

German organic chemist. He studied at the Technical High School in Berlin (until 1901) and the University of Berlin (PhD, 1903). From 1903 he worked at the University of Bonn, from 1922 professor and director of the Königsberg Chemical Institute, and from 1928 rector of the University of Marburg. The main works relate to synthetic organic chemistry. He clarified (1922) the mechanism and showed the general nature of the camphene rearrangement of the first kind (Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement); received and described bicyclononane. Together with the French chemist A. Verley, he discovered (1925) the selective reduction of aldehydes and ketones to alcohols by the action of isopropyl alcohol in the presence of aluminum isopropylate. Since the German chemist W. Ponndorf worked in the same direction at the same time (1926), the reaction is named after them (Meerwein-Ponndorff-Verley reaction). He studied (1927) the complexation of weak electrolytes, which is important in the implementation of reactions of the formation of organic oxonium salts with bromine fluoride, aluminum chloride, etc. These studies of Meerwein are considered as the beginning of the theory of carbonium ions. Discovered (1939) the interaction of aryldiazonium halides with unsaturated compounds [catalyst - salts of copper (I) or copper (II)], leading to the formation of addition products of an aryl radical and a halogen atom at a multiple bond (Meerwein reaction). This discovery gave rise to a new direction in the development of the doctrine of catalysis, called “cuprocatalysis.”

Meyer Victor (8.IX.1848 - 8.VIII.1897)

German chemist. Graduated from the University of Heidelberg (Doctor of Philosophy, 1866). He improved his education at the University of Berlin (1868-1871). In 1871 he worked at the Stuttgart Polytechnic School. Professor at the Zurich Polytechnic Institute (1872-1885), Göttingen (1885-1889) and Heidelberg (since 1889) universities.

Main works are in the field of organic chemistry. Established (1870) the structure of salicylic acid. By the action of silver nitrite on alkyl halides he obtained (1872) aliphatic nitro compounds (Meyer's reaction). He established that when nitrous acid acts on primary nitro compounds, nitrolic acids are formed. Discovered (1882) a new substance, which he called thiophene; studied the properties of thiophene and its derivatives. Discovered (1882) the reaction of aldehydes and ketones with hydroxylamine. He first obtained (1883) and studied oximes, explained the stereochemistry of oximes, and introduced (1888) the term “stereochemistry” into science. Discovered (1894) together with L. Gutterman aromatic iodonium compounds; coined the term "onium" compounds. Synthesized (1894) diphenyliodonium hydroxide. Introduced the idea (1894) of “spatial difficulties” in chemical reactions using the example of esterification O-substituted arenecarboxylic acids. Developed (1878) a method for determining vapor density, named after him. President of the German Chemical Society (1897).

Meyer Kurt Heinrich (29.IX.1883 - 14.IV.1952)

German organic chemist. Born in Dorpat (now Tartu, Estonia). He studied at the Universities of Marburg, Freiburg and Leipzig (Doctor of Philosophy, 1907). He continued his education in 1908 at University College in London. In 1909-1913 he worked at the University of Munich. During the First World War - in military service. After graduation - again (from 1917) at the University of Munich. Since 1921, director of the central factory laboratories of the BASF company in Ludwigshafen (in 1926 this company merged with the I.G. Farbenindustry concern). In 1932, for political reasons, he emigrated to Switzerland and became a professor at the University of Geneva. The main works are devoted to organic synthesis and chemistry of natural high-molecular compounds. Isolated (1911) the pure enol form of acetoacetic ester by distillation of the equilibrium mixture in a quartz device. Developed a method for analyzing a tautomeric mixture based on the fact that only the enol form reacts quickly with bromine at 0 O S. Discovered several reactions of combining diazonium salts. He proposed industrial methods for the synthesis of formalin (from carbon monoxide) and phenol (by hydrolysis of chlorobenzene). Using physical methods, he studied, together with G.F. Mark, the structure of cellulose, silk, starch, proteins, and natural rubber. He proposed the formula for amylopectin. He was the first to isolate (1934) hyaluronic acid from the vitreous body of the eye. Studied the permeability of synthetic membranes.

Michael Arthur (7.VIII.1853 - 8.II.1942)

American organic chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1889). He studied at Berlin (1871, 1875-1878, with A. V. Hoffmann), Heidelberg (1872-1874, with R. W. Bunsen) and Paris (1879, with S. A. Wurtz) universities. In 1881 he returned to the USA. In 1881-1889 and 1894-1907 he was a professor at Tufts College in Boston. From 1907 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, in 1912-1936 at Harvard University. A significant part of the scientific research was carried out in his own laboratory in Newton (USA).

The main works are devoted to the chemistry of compounds containing reactive methylene groups. Established (1877) together with Z. Gabriel that phthalic anhydride can participate in the Perkin reaction as a carbonyl component. Synthesized (1881) monomethyl ether of the natural glycoside - arbutin. He discovered the reaction for the production of acetylated O-aryl glycosides by the interaction of a-acetylhalogenoses with potassium phenolate (1879), as well as the reaction of nucleophilic addition of substances with a reactive methylene group to the activated C=C bond in the presence of bases (1887). Both of these processes are called the Michael reaction. In experiments on the addition of bromine and hydrogen halides to maleic, fumaric and acetylenedicarboxylic acids, he showed (1892-1895) the possibility of addition to trance-position. Investigating the direction of cleavage of esters of the ROR" type under the influence of hydroiodic acid, he applied the conditions under which RI and R"OH were formed (1906). Synthesized (1933) paraconic acid by the interaction of paraformaldehyde and carboxysuccinic acid.

Nemtsov Mark Semenovich (born November 23, 1900)

Soviet chemist. Graduated from the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute (1928). In 1928-1941 he worked in State Institute high pressure in Leningrad, until 1963 - at the All-Russian Research Institute of Synthetic Rubber. Since 1963 - at the All-Russian Research Institute of Petrochemical Processes in Leningrad. The main works relate to industrial organic chemistry. Participated (1930-1941) in the creation of technical methods for hydrotreating and destructive hydrogenation of heavy hydrocarbons. Together with R.Yu. Udris, B.D. Kruzhalov and P.G. Sergeev developed (1949) a technological process for the production of acetone and phenol from benzene and propylene through cumene (cumene method), which has found application in industry. He created methods for the synthesis of a-methylstyrene by alkaline oxidation of isopropylbenzene (1953), isoprene from isobutylene and formaldehyde (1964). Discovered (1961) the disproporation reaction of rosin on a stationary catalyst. Lenin Prize (1967).

Nesmeyanov Alexander Nikolaevich (9.1X.1899 - 17.1.1980)

Soviet chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1943), president of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1951-1961). Graduated from Moscow University (1922). From 1922 he worked there (from 1935 professor, in 1948-1951 rector). In 1939-1954 director of the Institute of Organic Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences, from 1954 director of the Institute of Organoelement Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Research relates to the chemistry of organometallic compounds. He discovered (1929) the reaction for the production of organomercury compounds by the decomposition of double diazonium salts and metal halides, which was later extended to the synthesis of organic derivatives of many heavy metals (Nesmeyanov’s diazomethod). Formulated (1945) the laws of the relationship between the position of a metal in the periodic table and its ability to form organometallic compounds. Proved (1940-1945) that the products of the addition of heavy metal salts to unsaturated compounds are covalent organometallic compounds (quasi-complex compounds). Together with M.I. Kabachnik he developed (1955) fundamentally new ideas about the dual reactivity of organic compounds of a non-tautomeric nature. Together with Freidlina (1954-1960), he studied radical telomerization and developed methods for the synthesis of a,w-chloroalkanes, on the basis of which intermediates were obtained that were used in the production of fiber-forming polymers, plasticizers, and solvents. Under his leadership, the field of “sandwich” transition metal compounds, in particular ferrocene derivatives, was developed (since 1952). Discovered (1960) the phenomenon of metallotropy - the reversible transfer of an organomercury residue between oxy- and nitroso groups n-nitrosophenol. Laid (1962) the foundations of a new direction of research - the creation of synthetic food products.

Twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1969, 1979). Lenin Prize (1966), USSR State Prize (1943). Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies. Gold medal named after. M.V. Lomonosov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1962). The Institute of Organoelement Compounds of the USSR Academy of Sciences was named after Nesmeyanov (1980).

Nave John Ulrich (14.VI.1862 - 13.VIII.1915)

American organic chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1904). Born in Herisau (Switzerland). Graduated from Harvard University (1884). He continued his education at the University of Munich under the guidance of A. von Bayer. He taught at Purdue University (1887-1889), Clark University (1889-1892) and the University of Chicago (1892-1915).

Basic research relates to organic synthesis. Discovered (1894) the reaction of the formation of aldehydes and ketones during the interaction of sodium salts of primary or secondary nitroalkanes with an excess of cold mineral acids (Nef reaction). Suggested (1897) the existence of carbenes. Showed that sodium in ether is an active dehydrohalogenating agent. Investigated the effect of alkalis and oxidizing agents on sugars. Identified and characterized various types sugar acids. I found out some features in the characteristics of keto-enol tautometry equilibria. Discovered (1899) the reaction of producing acetylenic alcohols by adding metal acetylenides to ketones. Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (since 1891).

Perkin William Henry (senior) (12.III.1838 - 14.VII.1907)

English organic chemist and industrialist. In 1853-1855 he studied at the Royal College of Chemistry in London with A.V. Hoffmann, and from 1855 he was his assistant. He worked mainly in his home laboratory.

The main works are devoted to the study of synthetic dyes. Tried (1856) to synthesize quinine; isolated from a dark precipitate formed by the interaction of aniline with potassium dichromate, purple dye (mauveine) - one of the first synthetic dyes. He patented this method (which was associated with certain difficulties, since the applicant was only 18 years old) and organized the production of mauvais in a factory built with his father’s funds. Here he developed a method for producing aniline from nitrobenzene, improved many technological methods and created new devices. He proposed (1868) a method for obtaining alizarin from coal tar products and began (1869) the production of this dye. Discovered (1868) the reaction of obtaining a-substituted cinnamic acids by condensation of aromatic aldehydes with carboxylic acid anhydrides in the presence of bases (Perkin reaction). Using this reaction he synthesized (1877) coumarin and cinnamic acid. In 1874 he sold the plant and began exclusively research work in his home laboratory in Sodbury. In 1881 he became interested in the phenomenon of rotation of the plane of polarization of light in a magnetic field and contributed significantly to the fact that the study of this phenomenon has become an important tool in determining the molecular structure of matter.

Reimer Karl Ludwig (25.XII.1845 - 15.1.1883)

German chemist. He studied at the Universities of Göttingen, Greiswald and Berlin (Doctor of Philosophy, 1871). He worked as a chemist at the Kolbaum company, and in 1876-1881 at the Vanillin company in Holtzminden.

The main works relate to organic synthesis. Carried out (1875) the synthesis of salicylic aldehyde from phenol and chloroform. Discovered (1876) the reaction for producing aromatic O-oxyaldehydes by introducing a formyl group into phenols by heating them with chloroform in the presence of alkali, studied it together with I.K. Timan (Reimer-Timan reaction); Based on this reaction, they obtained (1876) vanillin by treating guaiacol with chloroform and sodium hydroxide.

Reppe Walter Julius (29.VII.1892 - 26.VII.1969)

German organic chemist. He studied at Jena (1912-1916) and Munich (Ph.D., 1920) universities. From 1921 he worked at the BASF company in Ludwigshafen (in 1926 this company merged with the I.G. Farbenindustry concern). He led (1952-1957) scientific research in this company.

The main works are devoted to the chemistry of acetylene. He discovered a series of reactions that bear his name: a) catalytic cyclopolymerization of acetylene and its derivatives into arenes and cyclopolyolefins in the presence of nickel (1948); b) addition of acetylene to compounds with a mobile hydrogen atom in the presence of alkaline catalysts (vinylation, 1949); c) addition of carbon monoxide and substances with a mobile hydrogen atom to acetylenes or olefins in the presence of nickel halides (carbonylation, 1949); d) producing butadiene by adding two molecules of formaldehyde to acetylene in the presence of copper acetylide, hydrogenating the resulting product into butanediol and dehydrating the latter (1949); e) condensation of acetylene or its monosubstituted homologues with aldehydes or ketones (alkynol synthesis), amines (aminobutyne synthesis) in the presence of heavy metal acetylides to form the corresponding alcohols or amines (ethynylation, 1949); f) condensation of acetylene with oxo- and amino compounds (1950).

Reformatsky Sergey Nikolaevich (1.IV.1860 - 27.XII.1934)

Soviet organic chemist, corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1928). Graduated from Kazan University (1882). In 1882-1889 he worked there. In 1889-1890 he improved his education at the University of Heidelberg under the leadership of W. Meyer and at the University of Leipzig under V.F. Ostwald. In 1891-1934 he was a professor at Kyiv University.

The main works are devoted to organometallic synthesis. Investigated (1882) the reduction of tertiary alcohols to hydrocarbons of isostructure. Discovered (1887) the synthesis of b-hydroxy acids by the action of zinc and esters of a-halogenated acids on aldehydes (Reformatsky reaction). This reaction was extended to produce b-keto acids and unsaturated compounds. With its help, it was possible to synthesize vitamin A and its derivatives. In 1889 he completed a series of works on the production of polyhydric alcohols. Author of the textbook “Initial Course in Organic Chemistry,” which went through 17 editions from 1893 to 1930. Founder of the Kyiv school of organic chemists.

Rodionov Vladimir Mikhailovich (28.X.1878 - 7.II.1954)

Soviet organic chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1943). He graduated from the Dresden Polytechnic Institute (1901) and the Moscow Technical School (1906). In 1906-1920 an engineer at various chemical enterprises, in 1920-1934 a professor at Moscow University, in 1935-1944 at the Moscow Textile Institute and at the same time in 1936-1941 at the 2nd Moscow Medical Institute. In 1943-1954 he worked at the Moscow Institute of Chemical Technology.

Research covers many areas of organic chemistry. The first works were devoted to the study of azo dyes, sulfur and alizarin dyes and intermediate products for them. He studied the alkylation of organic compounds in order to obtain alkaloids, dyes, aromatic substances and pharmaceuticals in a convenient and cheap way. The synthesis of diazonium salts by the action of nitrous acid on phenols, proposed by him (1923), has found wide industrial application. He discovered (1926) a general method for the synthesis of b-amino acids by condensation of aldehydes with malonic acid and ammonia in an alcohol solution (Rodionov reaction) and found ways to convert b-amino acids into heterocyclic compounds. He studied the mechanism and modernized the Hoffmann reaction (formation of tertiary amines), which opened up the possibility of synthesizing compounds similar in structure to biologically active analogues of the vitamin biotin.

President of the All-Union Chemical Society named after. D. I. Mendeleev (1950-1954). Laureate of USSR State Prizes (1943, 1948, 1950).

Semenov Nikolai Nikolaevich (15.IV.1896 - 25.IX.1986)

Soviet physicist and physical chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1932). Graduated from Petrograd University (1917). In 1918-1920 he worked at Tomsk University, in 1920-1931 - at the Petrograd (Leningrad) Institute of Physics and Technology, and at the same time (from 1928) a professor at the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute. Since 1931, director of the Institute of Chemical Physics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, at the same time (since 1944) professor at Moscow University. In 1957-1971, academician-secretary of the Department of Chemical Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in 1963-1971 vice-president of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Research relates to the study of chemical processes. In his first works (1916-1925), he obtained data on the phenomena caused by the passage of electric current through gases, on the ionization of metal and salt vapors under the influence of electron impact, and on the mechanism of breakdown of dielectrics. He developed the fundamentals of the thermal theory of breakdown of dielectrics, the initial provisions of which were used by him in creating (1940) the theory of thermal explosion and combustion of gas mixtures. On the basis of this theory, together with his students, he developed the doctrine of the spread of flame, detonation, and combustion of explosives and gunpowder. His work on the ionization of metal and salt vapors formed the basis of modern ideas about the elementary structure and dynamics of the chemical transformation of molecules. While studying the oxidation of phosphorus vapor, in collaboration with Yu.B. Khariton and Z.V. Valta, he discovered (1926-1928) the limiting phenomena that limit the chemical process - “critical pressure”, “critical size” of the reaction vessel and established limits for the addition of inert gases to reaction mixtures, below which the reaction does not occur, and above which it proceeds at tremendous speed. He discovered the same phenomena (1927-1928) in the oxidation reactions of hydrogen, carbon monoxide (II) and other substances. He discovered (1927) a new type of chemical processes - branched chain reactions, the theory of which he first formulated in 1930-1934, showing their great prevalence. He experimentally proved and theoretically substantiated all the most important concepts of the theory of chain reactions: the reactivity of free atoms and radicals, the low activation energy of reactions, the persistence of free valency during the interaction of radicals with molecules, the avalanche-like increase in the number of free valences, the termination of chains on the walls and in the volume vessels, the possibility of degenerate branches, and the interaction of chains. He established the mechanism of complex chain reactions, studied the properties of free atoms and radicals that carry out their elementary stages. Based on the theory put forward, he not only explained the peculiarities of the flow of chemicals. reactions, but also predicted new phenomena that were later discovered experimentally. The theory of branched chain reactions, supplemented by him and A.E. Shilov in 1963 with the provision of energy chain branching, made it possible to control chemical processes: speed them up, slow them down, suppress them altogether, terminate them at any desired stage (telomerization). He carried out (1950-1960) a large series of works in the field of both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, as a result of which he discovered a new type of catalysis - ion-heterogeneous. Together with V.V. Voevodsky and F.F. Volkenshtein, he developed (1955) the chain theory of heterogeneous catalysis. Semenov's school put forward a statistical theory of catalytic activity, a theory of topochemical processes and crystallization. Based on the theoretical concepts developed by Semenov’s school, many processes were carried out for the first time - selective oxidation and halogenation of hydrocarbons, in particular the oxidation of methane to formaldehyde, strictly directed polymerization, combustion processes in a flow, decomposition of explosives, etc. Editor-in-chief of the journal "Chemical Physics" (since 1981). Chairman of the Board of the All-Union Society "Knowledge" (1960-1963). Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies.

Twice Hero of Socialist Labor (1966, 1976). Lenin Prize (1976), State Prize of the USSR (1941, 1949). Gold medal named after. M. V. Lomonosov Academy of Sciences of the USSR (1970). Nobel Prize (1956, together with S.N. Hinshelwood).

Tieman Johann Karl Ferdinand (10.VI.1848 - 14.XI.1889)

German chemist. Graduated from the University of Berlin (1871). He worked there (from 1882 as a professor).

The main works are devoted to the study of terpenes. Pointed to genetic connection vanillin with coniferin and confirmed this (1874) by obtaining vanillin by oxidation of coniferin and coniferyl alcohol with chromic acid. Together with K.L. Reimer, he studied the reaction for the production of aromatic O-oxyaldehydes by introducing a formyl group into phenols by heating them with chloroform in the presence of alkali (Reimer-Tiemann reaction); Based on this reaction, they obtained (1876) vanillin by treating guaiacol with chloroform and sodium hydroxide. Used (1884) alkyl cyanides and nitrides to obtain amidooximes.

Tishchenko Vyacheslav Evgenievich (19.VIII.1861 - 25.11.1941)

Soviet chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1935). Graduated from St. Petersburg University (1884). He worked at St. Petersburg (then Leningrad) University (from 1906 as a professor), and at the same time, in 1919-1939, at the State Institute of Applied Chemistry.

The main area of work is organic chemistry and forest chemistry. In the laboratory of A. M. Butlerov he established (1883-1884) the ways of converting paraformaldehyde under the influence of hydrohalic acids and halogens into acetic acid and methyl halide, symmetric dihalomethyl ether and phosgene. Developed (1899) a method for producing aluminum alcoholates. Discovered (1906) the reaction of ester condensation (reaction of disproportionation of aldehydes) with the formation of esters under the influence of aluminum alcoholates. Studied (1890) the composition of oil and individual oil fractions. After becoming familiar with rosin production in the United States, he wrote the book “Rosin and Turpentine” (1895), which contributed to the development of wood chemistry in Russia. I studied the composition of pine resin, Canadian and Russian balsams. Developed (1896-1900) a batch recipe for 28 different grades of glass for chemical glassware. He proposed a new type of bottles for washing and drying gases (Tishchenko bottles). Participated in solving the problem of the Kola apatites. Under his leadership, methods for producing many chemically pure reagents were developed. Studied the history of chemistry.

Ullmann Fritz (2.VII.1875 - 17.III.1939)

Swiss organic chemist. In 1893-1894 he studied with K. Grebe at the University of Geneva. In 1895-1905 and 1925-1939 he worked there, in 1905-1925 he taught at the Higher Technical School in Berlin.

The main direction of work is the synthesis of biphenyl and acridine derivatives. Together with Grebe (1894), he discovered the reaction for the production of carbazoles by thermal cleavage of benzotriazoles. First used (1900) dimethyl sulfate as a methylating agent. By the action of powdered copper on monohalogen derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons he obtained (1901) diaryls (Ullmann reaction). Developed (1905) a method for the preparation of diaryl ethers, diarylamines and diarylsulfones by condensation of aryl halides, respectively, with phenols, aromatic amines and arylsulfonic acids in the presence of copper (Ullmann condensation).

Editor of the Encyclopedia of Technical Chemistry (vol. 1-12, 1915-1923), which went through several editions.

Favorsky Alexey Evgrafovich (Z.I.1860 - 8.VIII.1945)

Soviet organic chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1929). Graduated from St. Petersburg University (1882). He worked there (from 1896 as a professor), at the same time at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology (1897-1908), the State Institute of Applied Chemistry (1919-1945), the Institute of Org. chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences (organizer and director in 1934-1938).

One of the founders of the chemistry of acetylene compounds. He discovered (1887) the isomerization of acetylene hydrocarbons under the influence of an alcoholic solution of alkalis (acetylene-allen rearrangement), which was a general method for the synthesis of acetylene and diene hydrocarbons. Later, having accumulated a large amount of experimental material revealing the dependence of isomerization processes on the structure of the reagents and reaction conditions, he formulated the laws governing the occurrence of these processes (Favorsky’s rule). Considered (1891) the question of the mechanism of isomerization in the series of unsaturated hydrocarbons, establishing the possibility of reversible isomerization of acetylene, allene and 1,3-diene hydrocarbons. Discovered (1895) a new type of isomerism of a-halogen ketones into carboxylic acids, which laid the foundation for the synthesis of acrylic acids. He discovered (1905) the reaction of producing tertiary acetylene alcohols by condensation of acetylene hydrocarbons with carbonyl compounds in the presence of anhydrous powdered potassium hydroxide (Favorsky reaction). He proposed (1939) a method for the synthesis of isoprene based on acetylene and acetone through acetylene alcohol and vinyldimethylcarbinol. Developed (1906) a method for the synthesis of dioxane and established its nature. He proposed a method for the synthesis of a-carbinols of the acetylene series based on ketones, as well as vinyl ethers based on acetylene and alcohols. Founder of the scientific school of organic chemists. Since 1900, permanent editor of the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society (later the Journal of General Chemistry).

Hero of Socialist Labor (1945). Laureate of the USSR State Prize (1941).

Fittig Rudolf (6.XII.1835 - 19.XI.1910)

German organic chemist. He graduated from the University of Göttingen (1858), where he studied with F. Wöhler. He worked there (from 1866 as a professor), in 1870-1876 at the Tübingen University, and in 1876-1902 at the Strasbourg University.

The main works are devoted to the study of the structure and synthesis of aromatic hydrocarbons. While still a student, while studying the effect of sodium on acetone, he first synthesized (1859) pinacone. He established (1860) that pinacone, when boiled with 30% sulfuric acid, dehydrates to form pinacoline. Extended (1864) the Wurtz reaction to the synthesis of aromatic hydrocarbons, for example benzene homologues, obtaining them by the action of metallic sodium on a mixture of alkyl and aryl halides (Wurtz-Fittig reaction). He studied mesithene and its derivatives, in particular, he was the first to obtain (1866) mesithene by condensation of acetone. Discovered (1872) phenanthrene in coal tar. Proposed (1873) a quinoid structure for benzoquinone. After 1873, he was mainly engaged in the study of unsaturated acids and lactones.

Friedel Charles (12.III.1832 - 20.IV. 1899)

French organic chemist and mineralogist, member of the Paris Academy of Sciences (since 1878). Graduated from the University of Strasbourg (1852). In 1853-1876 he worked there, and from 1876 he was a professor at the University of Paris.

The main direction of research is catalytic organic synthesis. He was the first to synthesize acetophenone (1857), lactic acid (1861), secondary propyl alcohol (1862), glycerol (1873), melissic acid (1880) and mesicamphoric acid (1889). Carried out (1862) the transformation of pinacon into pinacoline. Joint With J.M. Crafts studied (since 1863) organic silicon compounds, established the tetravalence of titanium and silicon. Discovered the similarity of some silicon compounds with carbon compounds. Together with Crafts, he developed (1877) a method for the alkylation and acylation of aromatic compounds, respectively, with alkyl and acyl halides in the presence of aluminum chloride (Friedel-Crafts reaction). Quartz, rutile and topaz were obtained artificially.

Foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1894).

Fries Karl Theophil (13.III.1875-1962)

German organic chemist. Graduated from the University of Marburg (PhD, 1899). He worked there (from 1912 - professor), from 1918 - director of the Chemical Institute of the Higher Technical School in Braunschweig. The main scientific works are related to the study of bicyclic compounds (benzothiazoles, benzoxazoles, thionaphthols, indazoles). Discovered (1908) the formation of aromatic oxyketones during the rearrangement of phenol esters in the presence of aluminum chloride (Fries rearrangement, or shift).

Hofman (HOFMAN) Roald (b. 18.VII.1937)

American chemist, member of the US National Academy of Sciences (since 1972). Graduated from Columbia University (1958). Until 1965 he worked at Harvard University (in 1960-1961 he interned at Moscow University), since 1965 he has worked at Cornell University (since 1968 professor).

The main research relates to chemical kinetics and the study of the mechanism of chemical reactions. Carried out (1964) analysis and calculations of s-electron systems in the study of conformations and construction of molecular orbitals of complex organic molecules; calculated the energies of hypothetical reaction intermediates, in particular carbocations, which made it possible to estimate activation energies and draw conclusions about the preferred configuration of the activated complex. Together with R.B. Woodward (1965), he proposed the rule for preserving orbital symmetry for coordinated reactions (Woodward-Hoffman rule). Investigated (1965-1969) the applicability of this rule to monomolecular reactions with ring closure, bimolecular cycloaddition reactions, sigmatropic reactions of movement of an s-bonded group, reactions of synchronous formation or rupture of two s-bonds, etc. Established (1970) the physical essence of the formation of energy barriers on chemical transformation pathways. Developed (1978-1980s) research in the field of stereochemistry of mono- and binuclear transition metal complexes with carbonyl, aromatic, olefin and acetylene ligands.

Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (since 1971). Nobel Prize (1981, jointly with K. Fukui).

Hückel Erich Armand Arthur Joseph (9.VIII.1896-16.11.1980)

German physicist and theoretical chemist. Student of P.J.V.Debye. Graduated from the University of Göttinen (PhD, 1921). He worked there, in 1925-1929 at the Higher Technical School in Zurich, in 1930-1937 at the Higher Technical School in Stuttgart, in 1937-1962 prof. University of Marburg.

The main direction of research in the field of chemistry is the development of quantum chemical methods for studying the structure of molecules. Together with Debye he developed (1923-1925) the theory of strong electrolytes (Debye-Hückel theory). He proposed (1930) an explanation for the stability of the aromatic sextet based on the molecular orbital method (Hückel's rule): planar monocyclic conjugated systems with the number of p-electrons 4n+2 will be aromatic, while the same systems with the number of p-electrons 4n will be anti-aromatic. Hückel's rule applies to both charged and neutral systems; it explains the stability of the cyclopentadienyl anion and predicts the stability of the cycloheptatrienyl cation. Hückel's rule allows us to predict whether a monocyclic system will be aromatic or not.

Chichibabin Alexey Evgenievich (29.III.1871 - 15.VIII.1945)

The main works are devoted to the chemistry of heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds, mainly pyridine. He proposed (1903) a method for the synthesis of aldehydes based on orthoformic ether and alkylmagnesium halides. He discovered (1906) the cyclocondensation reaction of aldehydes with ammonia that bears his name, leading to the formation of pyridine homologues. Synthesized (1907) the “biradical hydrocarbon” that bears his name. He showed (1924) that aliphatic and aromatic ketones and keto acids also enter into this reaction; established (1937) that the synthesis of pyridines occurs through the stage of formation of aldimines and aldehydes. Developed (1914) a method for the preparation of a-aminopyridine by the action of sodium amide on pyridine and extended this method to the synthesis of pyridine homologues, quinoline and isoquinoline. Synthesized (1924) pyridine from acetaldehyde and formic aldehyde in the presence of ammonia. He studied the tautomerism of amino- and oxypyridines and introduced the concept of amino-imine tautomerism. Studied (1902-1913) the structure of the simplest colored derivatives of triphenylmethane (in connection with the problem of trivalent carbon). Established (1913) the formation of free radicals during the synthesis of hexanaphthylethane. Discovered (1919) the phenomenon of phototropy in the series of pyridine derivatives. Established the structure of a number of alkaloids (pilocarpine, 1933, together with N.A. Preobrazhensky; antoninine, bergenin). He developed a method for the synthesis of aldehydes using organomagnesium compounds. Synthesized and established the structure (1930, together with N.A. Preobrazhensky) of piloponic acid. One of the founders of the domestic chemical and pharmaceutical industry.

Schiemann Gunther Robert Arthur (7.XI.1899-11.IX.1967)

German chemist. Graduated from the Higher Technical School in Breslau (PhD, 1925). He worked there, from 1926 at the Technical High School in Hannover (since 1946, professor and director of the Institute of Chemistry of this school). In 1950-1956 he taught at Istanbul University (Türkiye). The main directions of research are the synthesis and study of the properties of fluorine-containing aromatic compounds. Discovered (1927) the reaction of thermal decomposition of borofluorides of aromatic diazonium salts into aromatic fluorine derivatives, nitrogen and boron trifluoride (Schimann reaction).

Schiff Hugo Joseph (26.IV.1834-8.IX.1915)

Italian chemist. He graduated from the University of Gottingen (1857), where he studied with F. Wöhler. Soon, due to his liberal views, he was forced to emigrate from Germany. In 1857-1863 he worked at the University of Bern (Switzerland), in 1863-1876 - at the Museum of Natural History in Florence (Italy), in 1876-1879 a professor at the University of Turin, from 1879 he taught at the Chemical Institute High school in Florence. The main works relate to organic chemistry. Obtained (1857) thionyl chloride by the action of sulfur dioxide on phosphorus pentachloride. Described (1859) the method of droplet analysis. Discovered (1864) the condensation products of aldehydes with amines, later called Schiff bases. He proposed (1866) a qualitative reaction for aldehydes with fuchsinous acid (Schiff reaction), as well as for furfural. Synthesized (1873) digallic acid. Created (1868) a device for determining nitrogen according to the method proposed (1830) by J.B.A. Dumas.

Together with E. Paterno and S. Cannizzaro he founded (1871) the magazine “Gazzetta Chimica Italiana”.

Schlenk Wilhelm (22.III.1879 - 29.III.1943)

German chemist. Graduated from the University of Munich (Doctor of Philosophy, 1905). In 1910-1913 he worked there, in 1913-1916 - at the University of Jena. In 1916-1921 he was a professor at the University of Vienna, from 1921 he was a professor and director of the Chemical Institute of the University of Berlin, and from 1935 at the University of Tübingen. The main works are related to the study of free radicals. Prepared (1917) a series of nitrogen (V) compounds of the type NR4X and NR5. Isolated (1922) the free radical pentaphenylethyl.

President of the German Chemical Society (1924-1928).

Schorlemmer Karl (30.IX.1834 - 27.VI.1892)

German organic chemist. He studied at Heidelberg (1853-1857) and Giessen (1858-1860) universities. From 1861 he worked at Owens College in Manchester (from 1884 a professor).

The main research is related to the solution of general problems of organic chemistry and the synthesis of simple hydrocarbons. In 1862-1863, while studying the products of distillation of oil and coal, he found that saturated hydrocarbons should be considered as the basis from which all other classes of organic compounds are formed. Established (1864) the identity of ethyl hydrogen and dimethyl, showing that the “free alcohol radicals” obtained by E. Frankland are in fact ethane molecules. Proved (1868) that all four valences of carbon are the same. Investigated the nature of suberone (1874-1879) and the reaction of transformation of rosolonic acid - aurine into rosaniline and triphenyl- n-rosani-lin (1879). He was engaged in the systematization of organic compounds based on the study of their structural formulas and properties. Author (together with G.E. Roscoe) of the “Treatise on Chemistry” (1877), which went through several editions. He studied the history of chemistry and published the work “The Emergence and Development of Organic Chemistry” (1889).

Member of the Royal Society of London (since 1871).

Schrödinger Erwin (12.VIII.1887 - 4.I.1961)

Austrian theoretical physicist. Studied at the University of Vienna (1906-1910). He worked at the University of Vienna (1910-1918) and Jena (1918). Professor at the Technical High School in Stuttgart and the University of Breslau (1920). In 1921-1927 professor at Zurich, in 1927-1933 at Berlin, at 1933-1936 at Oxford, at 1936-1938 at Graz University. In 1941-1955 director of the Institute of Physical Research in Dublin, from 1957 prof. University of Vienna. One of the creators of quantum mechanics. Based on L. de Broglie's idea of corpuscular-wave dualism, he developed a theory of the movement of microparticles - wave mechanics, which was based on the wave equation he introduced (1926). This equation is fundamental to quantum chemistry. Member of several academies of sciences.

Foreign chen. USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1934). Nobel Prize in Physics (1933, jointly with P. Dirac).

Eistert Fritz Berndt (1902 - 1978)

“After receiving an academic degree from the University of Breslau, he worked until 1957 at BASF, also received an assistant professorship at the University of Heidelberg and taught at the University of Darmstadt. In 1957, he responded to an invitation from the University of Kiel and worked as head of the department of organic chemistry until his retirement in 1971. Under his auspices there was a transition from the French education system to the German one. Thanks to his scientific research, which continued the work of his teacher Arndt, he gained worldwide recognition. Thus, the monograph “Tautomerism and Mesomerism” published in 1938 paved the way for the development of theoretical organic chemistry; His name is associated with the discovery of the famous Arndt-Eistert reaction: a method for homologizing carboxylic acids.” (From a report at the symposium of the German Chemical Society dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Prof. B. Eistert)

Elbs (ELBS) Karl Joseph Xaver (13.X.1858 - 24.VIII.1933)

German chemist. Studied at the University of Freiburg (PhD, 1880). He worked there (from 1887 as a professor), and from 1894 at the University of Giessen.

The main research is related to the electrochemical reduction of aromatic nitro compounds. He developed methods for producing persulfuric acid and its salts, which he used as oxidizing agents. He established that a mixture of sodium persulfate and iodine is a good medium for the iodination of organic compounds. Developed (1893) a method for converting monohydric phenols into diatomic ones using potassium persulfate in an alkaline medium (Elbs oxidation). Discovered and studied (1884-1890) the pyrolytic cyclization of diaryl ketones containing methyl or methylene groups in O-position to the carbonyl, which leads to the formation of polycyclic aromatic systems (Elbs reaction).

Eltekov Alexander Pavlovich (6.V.1846 - 19.VII.1894)

Russian organic chemist. Graduated from Kharkov University (1868). In 1870-1876 he worked there, in 1876-1885 - at the Kharkov Diocesan Women's School. In 1885-1886 he was a professor at the Kharkov Institute of Technology, in 1887-1888 - at Kharkov University, in 1889-1894 - at Kyiv University.

The main works are devoted to the study of the transformations of hydrocarbons and their oxygen derivatives (ethers, alcohols). Obtained (1873) ethylene oxide from ethylene bromide in the presence of lead oxide. Formulated (1877) the rule according to which alcohols having a hydroxyl group at the carbon atom with a double bond are irreversibly converted into isomeric saturated aldehydes and ketones (Eltekov’s rule). Developed a method for determining the structure of unsaturated compounds. Created (1878) a method for methylation of olefins. He discovered (1878) the reaction of producing aldehydes and ketones by heating the corresponding a- and b-dibromoalkanes with water in the presence of lead oxide (the last stage of this reaction - the conversion of a-glycols into carbonyl compounds - is called the Eltekov rearrangement).

Erlenmeyer Richard August Karl Emil (28.VI.1825 - 1.I.1909)

German organic chemist. Student of Yu. Liebig. He studied at the University of Giessen (until 1845), Heidelberg (1846-1849) and again at the University of Giessen (Doctor of Philosophy, 1850). He worked as a pharmacist in Heidelberg, in 1857-1883 at the Higher Technical School in Munich (from 1868 professor).

The main research is devoted to structural organic chemistry. Together with K.I. Lisenko, he discovered (1861) the reaction of formation of disulfides during the oxidation of mercaptans with sulfuric acid. After unsuccessful attempts by chemists to obtain methylene glycol and its analogues with two hydroxyl groups on one carbon atom, he formulated (1864) a rule prohibiting the existence of such compounds. He put forward and substantiated (1864) the idea of a double bond between carbon atoms. He was the first to propose (1865) the now generally accepted formulas of ethylene and acetylene. He proposed (1866) the correct formula for naphthalene, later (1868) proven by K. Grebe. Received (1865) isobutyric and three isomeric valeric acids. I found out the structure of butyl and amyl alcohols. Synthesized (1883) tyrosine, discovered (1846) by Liebig, obtained mannitol and dulcite. Synthesized (1868) aldehydes from a-hydroxy acids. He proved the structure of ethylene lactic acid and found that g-hydroxy acids are easily converted into lactones. Synthesized leucine and isoserine. Received (1880) glycidic acid simultaneously and independently of P. G. Melikishvili. Guanidine was obtained (1868) by the action of ammonia on cyanamide. Carried out (1884) a study of creatine and determined its structure. He introduced the conical flask (1859, Erlenmeyer flask) and gas furnace for elemental analysis. One of the first foreign scientists - supporters and followers of Butlerov's theory of chemical structure.

President of the German Chemical Society (1884).

Robert BOYLE

He was born on January 25, 1627 in Lismore (Ireland), and was educated at Eton College (1635-1638) and the Geneva Academy (1639-1644). After that, he lived almost continuously on his estate in Stalbridge, where he conducted his chemical research for 12 years. In 1656, Boyle moved to Oxford, and in 1668 he moved to London.

Robert Boyle's scientific work was based on the experimental method in both physics and chemistry, and developed the atomic theory. In 1660, he discovered the law of changes in the volume of gases (in particular, air) with changes in pressure. Later he received the name Boyle-Mariotte law: Independently of Boyle, this law was formulated by the French physicist Edme Mariotte.

Boyle did a lot of studying chemical processes - for example, those occurring during the firing of metals, dry distillation of wood, transformations of salts, acids and alkalis. In 1654 he introduced the concept into science body composition analysis. One of Boyle's books was called "The Skeptical Chemist." It defined elements How " primary and simple, completely unmixed bodies, which are not composed of each other, but represent those constituent parts from which all so-called mixed bodies are composed and into which the latter can ultimately be decomposed".

And in 1661, Boyle formulated the concept of " primary corpuscles "like elements and" secondary corpuscles "like complex bodies.

He was also the first to explain differences in the physical state of bodies. In 1660 Boyle received acetone, distilling potassium acetate, in 1663 discovered and used the acid-base indicator in research litmus in litmus lichen growing in the mountains of Scotland. In 1680 he developed a new method of obtaining phosphorus from bones, got phosphoric acid And phosphine...

At Oxford, Boyle took an active part in the founding of the scientific society, which in 1662 was transformed into Royal Society of London(in fact, this is the English Academy of Sciences).

Robert Boyle died on December 30, 1691, leaving a rich scientific legacy to future generations. Boyle wrote many books, some of them were published after the scientist’s death: some of the manuscripts were found in the archives of the Royal Society...

AVOGADRO Amedeo

(1776 – 1856)

Italian physicist and chemist, member of the Turin Academy of Sciences (since 1819). Born in Turin. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of the University of Turin (1792). Since 1800, he independently studied mathematics and physics. In 1809 - 1819 taught physics at the Lyceum of Vercelli. In 1820 - 1822 and 1834 - 1850. - Professor of Physics at the University of Turin. Scientific works relate to various fields of physics and chemistry. In 1811, he laid the foundations of molecular theory, summarized the experimental material accumulated by that time on the composition of substances and brought into a single system the contradictory experimental data of J. Gay-Lussac and the basic principles of atomism of J. Dalton.

Discovered (1811) the law according to which equal volumes of gases at the same temperatures and pressures contain the same number of molecules ( Avogadro's law). Named after Avogadro universal constant– the number of molecules in 1 mole of an ideal gas.

Created (1811) a method for determining molecular weights, through which, based on experimental data from other researchers, he was the first to correctly calculate (1811-1820) the atomic masses of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, chlorine and a number of other elements. He established the quantitative atomic composition of the molecules of many substances (in particular, water, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, ammonia, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony), for which it had previously been determined incorrectly. Indicated (1814) the composition of many compounds of alkali and alkaline earth metals, methane, ethyl alcohol, ethylene. He was the first to draw attention to the analogy in the properties of nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic and antimony - chemical elements that later made up the VA group of the Periodic Table. The results of Avogadro's work on molecular theory were recognized only in 1860 at the First International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe.

In 1820-1840 studied electrochemistry, studied the thermal expansion of bodies, heat capacities and atomic volumes; At the same time, he received conclusions that are coordinated with the results of later studies by D.I. Mendeleev's specific volumes bodies and modern ideas about the structure of matter. He published the work “Physics of Weighing Bodies, or a Treatise on the General Construction of Bodies” (vol. 1-4, 1837 - 1841), in which, in particular, the path to ideas about the non-stoichiometry of solids and the dependence of the properties of crystals on their geometry.

Jens-Jakob Berzelius

(1779-1848)

Swedish chemist Jens-Jakob Berzelius born into the family of a school director. His father died shortly after his birth. Jacob's mother remarried, but after the birth of her second child she fell ill and died. The stepfather did everything so that Jacob and his younger brother received a good education.

Jacob Berzelius became interested in chemistry only at the age of twenty, but already at the age of 29 he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and two years later - its president.

Berzelius experimentally confirmed many chemical laws known at that time. Berzelius's work capacity is amazing: he spent 12-14 hours a day in the laboratory. Over the course of his twenty years of scientific activity, he examined more than two thousand substances and accurately determined their composition. He discovered three new chemical elements (cerium Ce, thorium Th and selenium Se), and for the first time isolated silicon Si, titanium Ti, tantalum Ta and zirconium Zr in the free state. Berzelius studied theoretical chemistry a lot, compiled annual reviews of the progress of the physical and chemical sciences, and was the author of the most popular chemistry textbook in those years. Perhaps this forced him to introduce convenient modern designations of elements and chemical formulas into chemical use.

Berzelius married only at the age of 55 the twenty-four-year-old Johanna Elisabeth, the daughter of his old friend Poppius, the state chancellor of Sweden. Their marriage was happy, but there were no children. In 1845, Berzelius's health deteriorated. After one particularly severe attack of gout, both legs were paralyzed. In August 1848, at the age of seventy, Berzelius died. He is buried in a small cemetery near Stockholm.

Vladimir Ivanovich VERNADSKY

Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky, while studying at St. Petersburg University, listened to lectures by D.I. Mendeleev, A.M. Butlerov and other famous Russian chemists.

Over time, he himself became a strict and attentive teacher. Almost all mineralogists and geochemists in our country are his students or students of his students.

The outstanding naturalist did not share the point of view that minerals are something unchangeable, part of the established “system of nature.” He believed that in suits nature gradual interconversion of minerals. Vernadsky created a new science - geochemistry. Vladimir Ivanovich was the first to note the huge role living matter– all plant and animal organisms and microorganisms on Earth – in the history of the movement, concentration and dispersion of chemical elements. The scientist noticed that some organisms are capable of accumulating iron, silicon, calcium and other chemical elements and can participate in the formation of deposits of their minerals, that microorganisms play a huge role in the destruction of rocks. Vernadsky argued that " The answer to life cannot be obtained only by studying a living organism. To resolve it, we must turn to its primary source - the earth’s crust.".

Studying the role of living organisms in the life of our planet, Vernadsky came to the conclusion that all atmospheric oxygen is a waste product of green plants. Vladimir Ivanovich paid exceptional attention environmental problems. He considered global environmental issues affecting the biosphere as a whole. Moreover, he created the very doctrine of biosphere– areas of active life, covering the lower atmosphere, hydrosphere and top part lithosphere, in which the activity of living organisms (including humans) is a factor on a planetary scale. He believed that the biosphere, under the influence of scientific and industrial achievements, is gradually moving into a new state - the sphere of reason, or noosphere. The decisive factor in the development of this state of the biosphere should be intelligent human activity, harmonious interaction between nature and society. This is possible only by taking into account the close relationship of the laws of nature with the laws of thinking and socio-economic laws.

John DALTON

(Dalton J.)

John Dalton Born into a poor family, he had great modesty and an extraordinary thirst for knowledge. He did not hold any important university position, but was a simple teacher of mathematics and physics at school and college.

Basic scientific research before 1800-1803. belong to physics, later ones – to chemistry. Conducted (since 1787) meteorological observations, studied the color of the sky, the nature of heat, refraction and reflection of light. As a result, he created the theory of evaporation and mixing of gases. Described (1794) a visual defect called color blindness.

Opened three laws, which formed the essence of his physical atomism of gas mixtures: partial pressures gases (1801), dependencies volume of gases at constant pressure on temperature(1802, independent of J.L. Gay-Lussac) and dependence solubility gases from their partial pressures(1803). These works led him to the solution of the chemical problem of the relationship between the composition and structure of substances.

Proposed and substantiated (1803-1804) theory of atomic structure, or chemical atomism, which explained the empirical law of constancy of composition. Theoretically predicted and discovered (1803) law of multiples: if two elements form several compounds, then the masses of one element per the same mass of the other are related as whole numbers.

Compiled (1803) the first relative table atomic masses hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur and phosphorus, taking the atomic mass of hydrogen as unity. Proposed (1804) system of chemical signs for "simple" and "complex" atoms. He carried out (since 1808) work aimed at clarifying certain provisions and explaining the essence of the atomic theory. Author of the work " New system chemical philosophy" (1808-1810), enjoying worldwide fame.

Member of many academies of sciences and scientific societies.

Svante ARRENIUS

(b. 1859)

Svante August Arrhenius was born in the ancient Swedish city of Uppsala. At the gymnasium, he was one of the best students; studying physics and mathematics was especially easy for him. In 1876, the young man was admitted to Uppsala University. And just two years later (six months ahead of schedule) he passed the exam for the degree of candidate of philosophy. However, he later complained that education at the university was conducted according to outdated schemes: for example, “it was impossible to hear a single word about the Mendeleev system, and yet it was already more than ten years old”...

In 1881, Arrhenius moved to Stockholm and began working at the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. There he began studying the electrical conductivity of highly dilute aqueous solutions of electrolytes. Although Svante Arrhenius is a physicist by training, he is famous for his chemical research and became one of the founders of the new science of physical chemistry. Most of all, he studied the behavior of electrolytes in solutions, as well as studying the rate of chemical reactions. Arrhenius's work was not recognized by his compatriots for a long time, and only when his findings were highly praised in Germany and France was he elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences. For development electrolytic dissociation theories Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1903.

The cheerful and good-natured giant Svante Arrhenius, a true “son of the Swedish countryside,” was always the soul of society, endearing himself to colleagues and acquaintances. He was married twice; his two sons were named Olaf and Sven. He became widely known not only as a physical chemist, but also as the author of many textbooks, popular science and simply popular articles and books on geophysics, astronomy, biology and medicine.

But the path to world recognition for Arrhenius the chemist was not at all easy. The theory of electrolytic dissociation had very serious opponents in the scientific world. So, D.I. Mendeleev sharply criticized not only the Arrhenius idea of dissociation itself, but also the purely “physical” approach to understanding the nature of solutions, which did not take into account the chemical interactions between the solute and the solvent.

Subsequently, it turned out that both Arrhenius and Mendeleev were each right in their own way, and their views, complementing each other, formed the basis of a new - proton– theory of acids and bases.

CAVENDISH Henry

English physicist and chemist, member of the Royal Society of London (since 1760). Born in Nice (France). Graduated from Cambridge University (1753). Conducted scientific research in his own laboratory.

Works in the field of chemistry relate to pneumatic (gas) chemistry, of which he is one of the creators. Isolated (1766) carbon dioxide and hydrogen in their pure form, mistaking the latter for phlogiston, and established the basic composition of air as a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen. Received nitrogen oxides. By burning hydrogen he obtained water (1784), determining the ratio of the volumes of gases interacting in this reaction (100:202). The accuracy of his research was so great that it allowed him, when obtaining (1785) nitrogen oxides by passing an electric spark through humidified air, to observe the presence of “dephlogisticated air,” constituting no more than 1/20 of the total volume of gases. This observation helped W. Ramsay and J. Rayleigh discover (1894) the noble gas argon. He explained his discoveries from the perspective of the phlogiston theory.

In the field of physics, in many cases he anticipated later discoveries. The law according to which forces electrical interaction inversely proportional to the square of the distance between charges, was discovered by him (1767) ten years earlier than the French physicist C. Coulomb. He experimentally established (1771) the influence of the environment on the capacitance of capacitors and determined (1771) the value of the dielectric constants of a number of substances. He determined (1798) the forces of mutual attraction between bodies under the influence of gravity and at the same time calculated the average density of the Earth. Cavendish's work in the field of physics became known only in 1879, after the English physicist J. Maxwell published his manuscripts, which had been in the archives until that time.

The physics laboratory at the University of Cambridge, established in 1871, is named after Cavendish.

KEKULE Friedrich August

(Kekule F.A.)

German organic chemist. Born in Darmstadt. Graduated from the University of Giessen (1852). Listened to lectures in Paris by J. Dumas, C. Wurtz, C. Gerapa. In 1856-1858 taught at the University of Heidelberg, 1858-1865. - Professor at the University of Ghent (Belgium), from 1865 - University of Bonn (in 1877-1878 - rector). Scientific interests were mainly concentrated in the field of theoretical organic chemistry and organic synthesis. Received thioacetic acid and other sulfur compounds (1854), glycolic acid (1856). For the first time, by analogy with the type of water, he introduced (1854) the type of hydrogen sulfide. He expressed (1857) the idea of valence as a whole number of affinity units possessed by an atom. Pointed out the “bibasicity” (bivalency) of sulfur and oxygen. Divided (1857) all elements, with the exception of carbon, into one-, two- and three-basic ones; carbon was classified as a tetrabasic element (at the same time as L.V.G. Kolbe).

He put forward (1858) the proposition that the constitution of compounds is determined by “basicity”, that is valence, elements. For the first time (1858) he showed that the number of hydrogen atoms associated with n carbon atoms equals 2 n+ 2. Based on the theory of types, he formulated the initial provisions of the theory of valency. Considering the mechanism of double exchange reactions, he expressed the idea of a gradual weakening of the initial bonds and presented (1858) a diagram that was the first model of the activated state. He proposed (1865) the cyclic structural formula of benzene, thereby extending Butlerov’s theory of chemical structure to aromatic compounds. Kekule's experimental work is closely related to his theoretical research. In order to test the hypothesis about the equivalence of all six hydrogen atoms in benzene, he obtained its halogen-, nitro-, amino- and carboxy derivatives. He carried out (1864) a cycle of transformations of acids: natural malic - bromosuccinic - optically inactive malic. Discovered (1866) the rearrangement of diazoamino- to aminoazobenzene. Synthesized triphenylmethane (1872) and anthraquinone (1878). To prove the structure of camphor, he undertook work to convert it into oxycymol, and then into thiocymol. Studied the croton condensation of acetaldehyde and the reaction to produce carboxytartronic acid. He proposed methods for the synthesis of thiophene based on diethyl sulfide and succinic anhydride.

President of the German Chemical Society (1878, 1886, 1891). One of the organizers of the 1st International Congress of Chemists in Karlsruhe (1860). Foreign Corresponding Member Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1887).

Antoine-Laurent LAVOISIER

(1743-1794)

French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier A lawyer by training, he was a very rich man. He was a member of the "Transaction Company" - an organization of financiers that farmed out state taxes. From these financial transactions, Lavoisier acquired a huge fortune. The political events that took place in France had sad consequences for Lavoisier: he was executed for working in the "General Tax" ( joint stock company for tax collection). In May 1794, among other accused tax-farmers, Lavoisier appeared before a revolutionary tribunal and the next day was sentenced to death "as an instigator or accomplice in a conspiracy who sought to promote the success of the enemies of France through extortion and illegal exactions from the French people." On the evening of May 8, the sentence was carried out, and France lost one of its most brilliant heads... Two years later, Lavoisier was recognized as unfairly convicted, however, this could no longer return the remarkable scientist to France. While still studying at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris, the future general tax farmer and an outstanding chemist simultaneously studied natural sciences. Lavoisier invested part of his fortune in the construction of a chemical laboratory, equipped with excellent equipment for those times, which became the scientific center of Paris. In his laboratory, Lavoisier conducted numerous experiments in which he determined changes in the mass of substances during their calcination and combustion.

Lavoisier was the first to show that the mass of the combustion products of sulfur and phosphorus is greater than the mass of the burned substances, and that the volume of air in which phosphorus burned decreased by 1/5. By heating mercury with a certain volume of air, Lavoisier obtained “mercury scale” (mercury oxide) and “suffocating air” (nitrogen), unsuitable for combustion and breathing. By calcining the mercury scale, he decomposed it into mercury and “life air” (oxygen). With these and many other experiments, Lavoisier showed the complexity of the composition atmospheric air and for the first time correctly interpreted the phenomena of combustion and roasting as a process of combining substances with oxygen. This could not be done by the English chemist and philosopher Joseph Priestley and the Swedish chemist Karl-Wilhelm Scheele, as well as other natural scientists who reported the discovery of oxygen earlier. Lavoisier proved that carbon dioxide (carbon dioxide) is a compound of oxygen with “coal” (carbon), and water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. He showed experimentally that when breathing oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is formed, that is, the breathing process is similar to the combustion process. Moreover, the French chemist found that the formation of carbon dioxide during respiration is the main source of “animal heat”. Lavoisier was one of the first to try to explain the complex physiological processes occurring in a living organism from the point of view of chemistry.

Lavoisier became one of the founders of classical chemistry. He discovered the law of conservation of substances, introduced the concepts of “chemical element” and “chemical compound”, proved that breathing is similar to the combustion process and is a source of heat in the body. Lavoisier was the author of the first classification of chemical substances and the textbook “Elementary Course of Chemistry”. At the age of 29 he was elected a full member of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

Henri-Louis LE CHATELIER
(Le Chatelier H. L.)

Henri-Louis Le Chatelier was born on October 8, 1850 in Paris. After graduating from the Ecole Polytechnique in 1869, he entered the National Higher Mining School. Future discoverer famous principle was a widely educated and erudite person. He was interested in technology, natural sciences, and social life. He devoted a lot of time to the study of religion and ancient languages. At the age of 27, Le Chatelier became a professor at the Higher Mining School, and thirty years later at the University of Paris. At the same time he was elected a full member of the Paris Academy of Sciences.

The most important contribution of the French scientist to science was associated with the study chemical equilibrium, research equilibrium shifts under the influence of temperature and pressure. Sorbonne students who listened to Le Chatelier's lectures in 1907-1908 wrote in their notes: " A change in any factor that can influence the state of chemical equilibrium of a system of substances causes a reaction in it that seeks to counteract the change being made. An increase in temperature causes a reaction that tends to lower the temperature, that is, it occurs with the absorption of heat. An increase in pressure causes a reaction that tends to cause a decrease in pressure, that is, accompanied by a decrease in volume...".

Unfortunately, Le Chatelier was not awarded the Nobel Prize. The reason was that this prize was awarded only to authors of works completed or recognized in the year the prize was received. Le Chatelier's most important work was completed long before 1901, when the first Nobel Prizes were awarded.

LOMONOSOV Mikhail Vasilievich

Russian scientist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1745). Born in the village of Denisovka (now the village of Lomonosov, Arkhangelsk region). In 1731-1735 studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow. In 1735 he was sent to St. Petersburg to the academic university, and in 1736 to Germany, where he studied at the University of Marburg (1736-1739) and in Freiberg at the School of Mining (1739-1741). In 1741-1745 – adjunct of the Physics class of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, from 1745 – professor of chemistry at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, from 1748 he worked in the Chemical Laboratory of the Academy of Sciences, established on his initiative. At the same time, from 1756, he conducted research at the glass factory he founded in Ust-Ruditsy (near St. Petersburg) and in his home laboratory.

Lomonosov's creative activity is distinguished by both its exceptional breadth of interests and the depth of its penetration into the secrets of nature. His research relates to mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth sciences, and astronomy. The results of these studies laid the foundations modern natural science. Lomonosov drew attention (1756) to the fundamental importance of the law of conservation of mass of matter in chemical reactions; outlined (1741-1750) the foundations of his corpuscular (atomic-molecular) teaching, which was developed only a century later; put forward (1744-1748) the kinetic theory of heat; substantiated (1747-1752) the need to involve physics to explain chemical phenomena and proposed the name “physical chemistry” for the theoretical part of chemistry, and “technical chemistry” for the practical part. His works became a milestone in the development of science, separating natural philosophy from experimental natural science.

Until 1748, Lomonosov was mainly engaged in physical research, and in the period 1748-1757. his works are devoted mainly to solving theoretical and experimental problems of chemistry. Developing atomistic ideas, he first expressed the opinion that bodies consist of “corpuscles,” and those, in turn, of “elements”; this corresponds to modern ideas about molecules and atoms.

He was the pioneer of the use of mathematical and physical research methods in chemistry and was the first to teach an independent “course of truly physical chemistry” at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In the Chemical Laboratory of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, which he led, a wide program of experimental research was carried out. Developed precise weighing methods, applied volumetric methods quantitative analysis. Conducting experiments on firing metals in sealed vessels, he showed (1756) that their weight does not change after heating and that R. Boyle’s opinion about the addition of thermal matter to metals is erroneous.

He studied the liquid, gaseous and solid states of bodies. He determined the expansion coefficients of gases quite accurately. Studied the solubility of salts at different temperatures. He studied the effect of electric current on salt solutions, established the facts of a decrease in temperature when salts are dissolved and a decrease in the freezing point of the solution compared to a pure solvent. He distinguished between the process of dissolving metals in acid, which is accompanied by chemical changes, and the process of dissolving salts in water, which occurs without chemical changes in the dissolved substances. He created various instruments (viscometer, device for filtering under vacuum, device for determining hardness, gas barometer, pyrometer, boiler for studying substances at low and high pressure), and calibrated thermometers quite accurately.

He was the creator of many chemical productions (inorganic pigments, glazes, glass, porcelain). He developed the technology and recipe for colored glass, which he used to create mosaic paintings. Invented porcelain paste. He was engaged in the analysis of ores, salts and other products.

In his work “The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Ore Mining” (1763), he examined the properties of various metals, gave their classification and described methods of production. Along with other works on chemistry, this work laid the foundations of the Russian chemical language. Considered the formation of various minerals and non-metallic bodies in nature. He expressed the idea of the biogenic origin of soil humus. He proved the organic origin of oils, coal, peat and amber. He described the processes of obtaining iron sulfate, copper from copper sulfate, sulfur from sulfur ores, alum, sulfuric, nitric and hydrochloric acids.

He was the first of the Russian academicians to begin preparing textbooks on chemistry and metallurgy ("Course of Physical Chemistry", 1754; "The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining Affairs", 1763). He is responsible for the creation of Moscow University (1755), the project and curriculum of which were compiled by him personally. According to his project, the construction of the Chemical Laboratory of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was completed in 1748. From 1760 he was a trustee of the gymnasium and university at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Created the foundations of the modern Russian literary language. He was a poet and artist. He wrote a number of works on history, economics, and philology. Member of several academies of sciences. Moscow University (1940), the Moscow Academy of Fine Chemical Technology (1940), and the city of Lomonosov (formerly Oranienbaum) are named after Lomonosov. The USSR Academy of Sciences established (1956) the Gold Medal named after. M.V. Lomonosov for outstanding work in the field of chemistry and other natural sciences.

Dmitry Ivanovich MENDELEEV

(1834-1907)

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev- a great Russian scientist-encyclopedist, chemist, physicist, technologist, geologist and even meteorologist. Mendeleev had an amazingly clear chemical thinking; he always clearly understood the ultimate goals of his creative work: foresight and benefit. He wrote: “The closest subject of chemistry is the study of homogeneous substances, from the composition of which all the bodies of the world are made, their transformations into each other and the phenomena accompanying such transformations.”

Mendeleev created the modern hydrate theory of solutions, the equation of state of an ideal gas, developed a technology for producing smokeless gunpowder, discovered the Periodic Law and proposed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements, and wrote the best chemistry textbook of its time.

He was born in 1834 in Tobolsk and was the last, seventeenth child in the family of the director of the Tobolsk gymnasium, Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev and his wife Maria Dmitrievna. By the time of his birth, only two brothers and five sisters remained alive in the Mendeleev family. Nine children died in infancy, and three of them were not even given names by their parents.

Dmitry Mendeleev's studies in St. Petersburg at the Pedagogical Institute were not easy at first. In his first year, he managed to get unsatisfactory grades in all subjects except mathematics. But in senior years, things went differently - Mendeleev’s average annual grade was four and a half (out of a possible five). He graduated from the institute in 1855 with a gold medal, receiving a senior teacher's diploma.

Life was not always kind to Mendeleev: there was a breakup with his fiancée, hostility from colleagues, an unsuccessful marriage and then a divorce... Two years (1880 and 1881) were very difficult in Mendeleev’s life. In December 1880, the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences refused to elect him as an academician: nine academicians voted for and ten academicians voted against. A particularly unseemly role was played by the secretary of the academy, a certain Veselovsky. He frankly stated: “We don’t want university ones. Even if they are better than us, then we still don’t need them.”

In 1881, with great difficulty, Mendeleev’s marriage with his first wife was dissolved, who did not understand her husband at all and blamed him for his lack of attention.

In 1895, Mendeleev went blind, but continued to head the House of Weights and Measures. Business papers were read aloud to him, he dictated orders to the secretary, and at home he continued to blindly pack his suitcases. Professor I.V. Kostenich removed the cataract in two operations, and soon vision returned...

In the winter of 1867-68, Mendeleev began writing the textbook “Fundamentals of Chemistry” and immediately encountered difficulties in systematizing the factual material. By mid-February 1869, pondering the structure of the textbook, he gradually came to the conclusion that the properties of simple substances (and this is the form of existence of chemical elements in a free state) and the atomic masses of elements are connected by a certain pattern.

Mendeleev did not know much about the attempts of his predecessors to arrange chemical elements in order of increasing atomic masses and about the incidents that arose in this case. For example, he had almost no information about the work of Chancourtois, Newlands and Meyer.

Mendeleev came up with an unexpected idea: to compare the close atomic masses of various chemical elements and their chemical properties.

Without thinking twice, he wrote down the symbols on the back of Khodnev’s letter chlorine Cl and potassium K with fairly close atomic masses, equal to 35.5 and 39, respectively (the difference is only 3.5 units). On the same letter, Mendeleev sketched symbols of other elements, looking for similar “paradoxical” pairs among them: fluorine F and sodium Na, bromine Br and rubidium Rb, iodine I and cesium Cs, for which the mass difference increases from 4.0 to 5.0, and then to 6.0. Mendeleev could not have known then that the “uncertain zone” between obvious non-metals And metals contains elements – noble gases, the discovery of which will subsequently significantly modify the Periodic Table. Gradually, the shape of the future Periodic Table of Chemical Elements began to emerge.

So, first he put a card with the element beryllium Be (atomic mass 14) next to the element card aluminum Al (atomic mass 27.4), according to the then tradition, mistaking beryllium for an analogue of aluminum. However, then, after comparing the chemical properties, he placed beryllium over magnesium Mg. Doubting the then generally accepted value of the atomic mass of beryllium, he changed it to 9.4, and changed the formula of beryllium oxide from Be 2 O 3 to BeO (like magnesium oxide MgO). By the way, the “corrected” value of the atomic mass of beryllium was confirmed only ten years later. He acted just as boldly on other occasions.

Gradually, Dmitry Ivanovich came to the final conclusion that elements arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses exhibit a clear periodicity of physical and chemical properties.

Throughout the day, Mendeleev worked on the system of elements, breaking off briefly to play with his daughter Olga and have lunch and dinner.

On the evening of March 1, 1869, he completely rewrote the table he had compiled and, under the title “Experience of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity,” sent it to the printing house, making notes for typesetters and putting the date “February 17, 1869” (this is the old style). So it was opened Periodic law...

Russia is a country with rich history. Many famous pioneers glorified the great power with their achievements. One of these are the great Russian chemists.

Chemistry today is called one of the sciences of natural science, which studies the internal compositions and structure of matter, the decomposition and changes of substances, the pattern of formation of new particles and their changes.

Russian chemists who glorified the country

If we talk about the history of chemical science, we cannot help but recall greatest people definitely deserve everyone's attention. List famous personalities led by great Russian chemists:

Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov.
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.
Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov.
Sergei Vasilievich Lebedev.
Vladimir Vasilievich Markovnikov.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov.
Igor Vasilievich Kurchatov.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin.
Alexander Nikolaevich Nesmiyanov.

And many others.

Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich

Russian chemist scientists would not have been able to work in the absence of Lomonosov’s work. Mikhail Vasilyevich was from the village of Mishaninskaya (St. Petersburg). The future scientist was born in November 1711. Lomonosov - the founding chemist who gave the correct definition of chemistry, a natural scientist with capital letters, world physicist and famous encyclopedist.

The scientific work of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov in the mid-17th century was close to the modern program of chemical and physical research. The scientist developed the theory of molecular kinetic heat, which in many ways surpassed the then ideas about the structure of matter. Lomonosov formulated many fundamental laws, among which was the law of thermodynamics. The scientist founded the science of glass. Mikhail Vasilyevich was the first to discover the fact that the planet Venus has an atmosphere. He became professor of chemistry in 1745, three years after receiving an equal title in physical science.

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev

An outstanding chemist and physicist, Russian scientist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was born at the end of February 1834 in the city of Tobolsk. The first Russian chemist was the seventeenth child in the family of Ivan Pavlovich Mendeleev, the director of schools and gymnasiums in the Tobolsk region. A metric book with a record of the birth of Dmitry Mendeleev has still been preserved, where the names of the scientist and his parents appear on an ancient page.

Mendeleev was called the most brilliant chemist of the 19th century, and this was the correct definition. Dmitry Ivanovich is the author of important discoveries in chemistry, meteorology, metrology, and physics. Mendeleev studied isomorphism. In 1860, the scientist discovered the critical temperature (boiling point) for all types of liquids.

In 1861, the scientist published the book “Organic Chemistry”. He studied gases and derived the correct formulas. Mendeleev designed the pycnometer. The great chemist became the author of many works on metrology. He researched coal and oil, and developed systems for irrigation of land.

It was Mendeleev who discovered one of the main natural axioms - the periodic law of chemical elements. We still use it now. He gave characteristics to all chemical elements, theoretically determining their properties, composition, size and weight.

Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov

A. M. Butlerov was born in September 1828 in the city of Chistopol (Kazan province). In 1844 he became a student at Kazan University, Faculty of Natural Sciences, after which he was left there to receive a professorship. Butlerov was interested in chemistry and created a theory of the chemical structure of organic substances. Founder of the “Russian Chemists” school.

Markovnikov Vladimir Vasilievich

The list of “Russian chemists” undoubtedly includes another famous scientist. Vladimir Vasilyevich Markovnikov, a native of the Nizhny Novgorod province, was born on December 25, 1837. Chemist in the field of organic compounds and author of the theory of the structure of oil and the chemical structure of matter in general. His works played an important role in the development of science. Markovnikov laid down the principles of organic chemistry. He conducted a lot of research at the molecular level, establishing certain patterns. Subsequently, these rules were named after their author.

At the end of the 60s of the 18th century, Vladimir Vasilyevich defended his dissertation on the mutual influence of atoms in chemical compounds. Soon after this, the scientist synthesized all the isomers of glutaric acid, and then cyclobutanedicarboxylic acid. Markovnikov discovered naphthenes (a class of organic compounds) in 1883.

For his discoveries he was awarded a gold medal in Paris.

Sergey Vasilievich Lebedev

S. V. Lebedev was born in November 1902 in Nizhny Novgorod. The future chemist received his education at the Warsaw Gymnasium. In 1895 he entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.

In the early 20s of the 19th century, the Council of National Economy announced an international competition for the production of synthetic rubber. It was proposed not only to find an alternative method for its manufacture, but also to provide the result of the work - 2 kg of finished synthetic material. The raw materials for the production process also had to be cheap. Rubber was required to be of high quality, no worse than natural rubber, but cheaper than the latter.

Needless to say that Lebedev took part in the competition, in which he became the winner? He developed a special chemical composition of rubber that was accessible and cheap to everyone, earning himself the title of great scientist.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov

Nikolai Semenov was born in 1896 in Saratov in the family of Elena and Nikolai Semenov. In 1913, Nikolai entered the Department of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University, where, under the guidance of the famous Russian physicist Ioffe Abram, he became the best student in the class.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Semenov studied electric fields. He conducted research on the passage of electric current through gases, on the basis of which the theory of thermal breakdown of a dielectric was developed. Later he put forward a theory about thermal explosion and combustion of gas mixtures. According to this rule, the heat released when chemical reaction, may lead to an explosion if certain conditions are met.

Nikolai Nikolaevich Zinin

On August 25, 1812, Nikolai Zinin, a future organic chemist, was born in the city of Shushi (Nagorno-Karabakh). Nikolai Nikolaevich graduated from the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at St. Petersburg University. Became the first president of the Russian Chemical Society. which was detonated on August 12, 1953. This was followed by the development of the RDS-202 thermonuclear explosive, the yield of which was 52,000 kt.

Kurchatov was one of the founders of the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.

Famous Russian chemists then and now

Modern chemistry does not stand still. Scientists from all over the world are working on new discoveries every day. But we should not forget that the important foundations of this science were laid back in the 17th-19th centuries. Outstanding Russian chemists became important links in the subsequent chain of development of chemical sciences. Not all contemporaries use, for example, Markovnikov’s laws in their research. But we still use the long-discovered periodic table, the principles of organic chemistry, the conditions for the critical temperature of liquids, and so on. Russian chemists of yesteryear left an important mark on world history, and this fact is undeniable.

(1867 – 1934 )

– Polish chemist and physicist. By order - a female scientist, and not just a woman, but the “face” of a woman in science. Wife of the French scientist Pierre Curie.

Maria grew up in a large family. Lost my mother early. Since childhood I have been interested in chemistry. A great future in science for Mary was prophesied by the Russian chemist and creator of the periodic system of chemical elements, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.

The path to science was difficult. And there are two reasons for this. Firstly, the Curie family was not very rich, which made training a challenge. Secondly, this is, of course, discrimination against women in Europe. But, despite all the difficulties, Curie graduated from the Sorbonne, became the first female Nobel laureate, not only that: Marie Curie became a two-time Nobel laureate.

In the periodic table of D.I. Mendeleev there are three elements associated with Marie Curie:

Po(polonium),
Ra(radium),
Cm(curium).

Polonium and radium were discovered by Marie Curie and her husband in 1898. Polonium was named after Curie's homeland, Poland (lat. Polonium). And curium was artificially synthesized in 1944, and named after Marie and Pierre (her husband) Curie.

For study of the phenomenon of radioactivity The Curies received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903.

For the discovery of the elements curium and radium and for studying their properties, Maria received second Nobel Prize, but this time in chemistry. Her husband was unable to receive the prize together with Maria; he died in 1906.

Work with radioactive elements did not pass without a trace for Marie Curie. She became seriously ill with radiation sickness and died in 1934.

20,000 zloty banknote with a portrait of Marie Skłodowska-Curie.

As promised, an article about scientist from Israel, and not about a simple scientist, but l Laureate in Chemistry 2011 which he received for discovery of quasicrystals.

Daniel Shechtman

(born 1941 in Tel Aviv) – Israeli physical chemist.

Israel Institute of Technology

Daniel Shechtman graduated from the Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa. There he received a bachelor's degree, then a master's degree, then a Ph.D.

Shekhtman later moved to the USA. It was there that he did the most important discovery in your life. While working at the US Air Force Research Laboratory, he studied a “specially prepared” alloy of aluminum and magnesium through an electron microscope. This is how Daniel Shechtman discovered quasicrystals. This is a special form of existence of a solid substance, something between a crystal and an amorphous body. The very idea of the existence of such objects went against all the ideas of that time about solid bodies. Then it was such a revolutionary discovery as the discovery of quantum mechanics had once been. That is, in the ideas of that time, quasicrystals were simply not possible; Daniel, when he looked at them for the first time through a microscope, said: “This is impossible in principle!”

Linus Pauling

But no one believed the discovery. Shekhtman was generally laughed at. And later they fired me. The main opponent of the existence of quasicrystals was the American chemist Linus Pauling. He died in 1994 without ever knowing that Shekhtman was right.

But no matter what disputes people drown in, the truth will sooner or later become obvious.

After failure in the USA, Daniel returned to the Land of Zion to work at the Israel Institute of Technology. And already there he published the results of his research.

At first it was thought that quasicrystals can only be obtained artificially and cannot be found in nature, but in 2009, during an expedition to the Koryak Highlands in Russia, Have quasicrystals of natural origin been discovered?. There are not and were not conditions for their “birth” on earth; this allows us to confidently assert that quasicrystals are of cosmic origin and were most likely brought in by meteorites. The approximate time of their “arrival” is the last ice age.

The Nobel Prize was a long time coming its owner, from the moment of opening (1982) until Shekhtman was awarded the prize, quite a few 29 years passed.

“Every Israeli and every Jew in the world is proud of Shechtman’s achievement today.”

Prime Minister of Israel - Benjamin Netanyahu

Daniel Shechtman walked alone. One made a discovery, one defended it (and defended it!), one was awarded for it.

The Torah, the sacred scripture of the Jews, says: “And the Lord G‑d said: It is not good for the man to be alone; I will help him in proportion to him.” (Genesis 2:18).

Shekhtman is not lonely; he has a wife and three children.

State of Israel- this is real country of scientists. In 2011, five Nobel Prize winners were Jewish. Four of the Nobel Prize laureates in Chemistry are Israeli. A Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, was a chemist. As they say in advertising, but that's not all! The most famous scientist of the 20th century, and indeed in the entire history of mankind, Albert Einstein, after the death of Chaim Weizmann in 1952, was offered the post of President of Israel. But Einstein was too politically detached to agree. And this post was taken by Isaac Ben-Zvi.

The “failed” president of Israel on a banknote.

Let's say "Thank you!" Israel for the scientists!

Alexander Fleming

– British microbiologist. Laureate Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology 1945 with Howard and Ernst Chain.

Since childhood, Alexander was distinguished by exceptional curiosity and... sloppiness. It is these qualities that shape a successful researcher. In his work, he adhered to the principle: “never throw anything away.” His laboratory was always in disarray. Well, in general, Fleming had a cheerful scientific life. I blew my nose in the wrong place and discovered lysozyme. I left the Petri dish unwashed for a long time and discovered penicillin. And this is not a joke. It really was like that.

One day Fleming caught a cold, but it was nothing serious. And only a true genius in such a situation could have the thought: “Let me blow my nose on a colony of bacteria.” After some time, it was discovered that the bacteria had died. Fleming did not ignore this. I started doing research. It turned out that the enzyme lysozyme, which is found in some body fluids, including nasal mucus, was to blame for the death of microbes. Alexander Fleming isolated lysozyme in its pure form. But its application was not as wide as the scientist’s next discovery.

Fleming had in his laboratory ordinary mess. The scientist went to spend August with his family. And he didn't even clean up. When he returned, he discovered that in a Petri dish, where there was a colony of bacteria, mold had grown and this mold killed the bacteria living in the dish. And it was not simple mold, but Penicillium notatum. Fleming found out that this mold contains a certain substance that has a special effect on the cell walls of bacteria, thereby preventing them from multiplying. Fleming named this substance penicillin.

It was the first antibiotic in history .

Alexander was unable to personally isolate pure penicillin. His work was continued and completed by other scientists. For which they were awarded the Nobel Prize. The antibiotic penicillin became especially popular during World War II. When various infections got into the wounds, and an accidentally discovered substance was the most effective method of combating them.

The great scientist Sir Alexander Fleming died of a myocardial infarction at home at 74. His name remains forever in the history of medicine and microbiology.

The best way to find good ideas- find a lot of ideas and throw out the bad ones

Lomonosov became the founder of physical chemistry.

Observing Venus through a telescope, the scientist assumed the presence of an atmosphere.

In addition to these, Lomonosov made a number of other “smaller” discoveries and observations, which were subsequently developed by other scientists.

Lomonosov had complex character. During his life he quarreled with many people, he had enough enemies. It is known that he punched one of his “opponents” in the nose... At the same time. he knew how to communicate with superior people

Lomonosov, in addition to science, studied poetry. And it was thanks to laudatory odes (Empress Catherine II especially loved them) that he achieved favor in the courtyard and received everything necessary for his scientific work and the needs of the University.