Humphry Davy (1778-1829) was born in the small town of Penzance in southwest England. There is an old saying about this area: “The south wind brings showers there, and the north wind brings them back.”

Humphrey's father was a woodcarver who "didn't know how to count money," and so the family had difficulty making ends meet, and his mother... adopted daughter local doctor of Tonkin.

Humphrey surprised everyone with his extraordinary abilities as a child. After the death of his father, he became a pharmacist's apprentice and was able to fulfill his long-time dreams of doing what he loved - chemistry.

In 1798, Davy, who had gained a reputation as a good chemist, was invited to the Pneumatic Institute, where the effect of various gases - hydrogen, methane, carbon dioxide - on the human body was studied. Davy is credited with the discovery of “laughing gas” (dianitrogen oxide) and its physiological effect on humans.

In the early years of the 19th century, Davy became interested in the study of action electric current on various substances, including molten salts and alkalis. The thirty-year-old scientist managed to obtain six previously unknown metals in free form within two years: potassium, sodium, barium, calcium, magnesium and strontium. This was one of the most outstanding events in the history of the discovery of new chemical elements, especially considering that alkalis at that time were considered simple substances(of the chemists of that time, only Lavoisier doubted this).

This is how Davy described his experiment in which potassium metal was first obtained: “A small piece of caustic potassium... was placed on an insulated platinum disk connected to the negative pole of a high-voltage battery... at the same time a platinum wire connected to the positive pole, was brought into contact with the upper surface of the alkali... Kali began to melt at both points of electrification, and at the upper surface there was a vigorous release of gas; at the lower, negative surface, no gas was released, instead small balls with a strong metallic luster appeared, outwardly no different from mercury. Some of them immediately after their formation burned with an explosion and the appearance of a bright flame, others did not burn, but only dimmed, and their surface was eventually covered with a white film.”

Once, during experiments with unknown metals, an accident occurred: molten potassium fell into the water, causing an explosion, as a result of which Davy was severely injured. His carelessness resulted in the loss of his right eye and deep scars on his face.

Davy tried to decompose many natural compounds, including alumina, by electrolysis. He was sure that this substance also contained an unknown metal. The scientist wrote: “If I were lucky enough to receive metallic substance, which I am looking for, I would suggest a name for it - aluminum." He managed to obtain an alloy of aluminum with iron, and pure aluminum was isolated only in 1825, when Davy had already stopped his experiments, by the Danish physicist H. K. Oersted.

During his life, Humphry Davy repeatedly returned to the problems of obtaining metals, although his interests were very diverse. So, in 1815 he designed a safe mine lamp with a metal mesh, which saved the lives of many miners, and in 1818 he received pure form Another alkali metal is lithium.

In 1812, at the age of thirty-four, Davy was awarded the title of Lord for his scientific services. At the same time, he also discovered a poetic talent; he joined the circle of English romantic poets of the so-called “Lake School.” Soon Lady Jane Apris, a relative, became his wife famous writer Walter Scott, but this marriage was not a happy one.

Since 1820, Davy became president of the Royal Society of London - the English Academy of Sciences.

At the beginning of 1827, Davy, feeling unwell, left London for treatment in France and Italy with his brother. The wife did not consider it necessary to accompany her sick husband. In 1829, in Geneva, on the way back to England, Davy was struck by an apoplexy, from which he died at the age of 51. Only his brother was next to him. Davy was buried in Westminster Abbey in London, where the ashes of the distinguished sons of England rest.

Humphry Davy went down in history as the founder new science electrochemistry and the author of the discovery of many new substances and chemical elements.

Achievements

English chemist and physicist, member of the Royal Society of London (since 1803), its president in 1820-1827.

Born in Penzance (Cornwall). In 1795-1798 - a pharmacist's student, from 1798 - head of the laboratory at the Pneumatic Institute near Bristol, from 1802 - professor at the Royal Institution in London.

In 1807-1812 - Permanent Secretary of the Royal Society of London.

Scientific works in the field of chemistry relate to inorganic chemistry and electrochemistry, of which he is the founder.

He discovered (1799) the intoxicating and analgesic effects of nitrous oxide and determined its composition.

He studied (1800) the electrolysis of water and confirmed the fact of its decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen.

Proposed (1807) the electrochemical theory of chemical affinity, according to which, when a chemical compound is formed, mutual neutralization, or equalization, occurs of the electrical charges inherent in the connecting simple bodies; Moreover, the greater the difference between these charges, the stronger the connection.

By electrolysis of salts and alkalis he obtained (1808) potassium, sodium, barium, calcium, strontium amalgam and magnesium.

Independently of J.L. Gay-Lussac and L.J. Tenard discovered (1808) boron by heating boric acid.

Confirmed (1810) the elemental nature of chlorine.

Independently of P. L. Dulong created (1815) the hydrogen theory of acids.

Simultaneously with Gay-Lussac he proved (1813-1814) the elementary nature of iodine.

Designed (1815) a safe mine lamp.

Discovered (1817-1820) the catalytic effect of platinum and palladium. Received (1818) metal lithium.

Scientific research in physics is devoted to elucidating the nature of electricity and heat.

Based on the determination of the temperature of water formed by friction of pieces of ice against each other, he characterized (1812) the kinetic nature of heat.

Established (1821) dependence electrical resistance conductor on its cross-section and length.

Foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1826).

Based on materials from the biographical reference book "Outstanding Chemists of the World" (authors V.A. Volkov and others) - Moscow, "Higher School", 1991.

Humphry Davy (1788-1829) was one of the most prominent explorers early XIX V. He did not receive a systematic education. As a doctor's student, from 1797 he independently studied chemistry using A. Lavoisier's textbook. Then he worked as an assistant at the Pneumatic Institute. Here G. Davy did his first discovery, establishing the intoxicating effect on humans of nitric oxide (II) - laughing gas. This discovery made his name known throughout England. A year later, G. Davy was invited as an assistant and head of the chemical laboratory at the Royal Institution in London, and a year later he took the place of professor of chemistry at this institute.

G. Davy's brilliant lectures at the Royal Institution attracted many listeners from various strata of London society. At the same time, he conducted major research at the institute. In 1803 he was elected a member of the Royal Society, and in 1820 he became president of this society and received many other scientific honors.

Electrochemical experiments by G. Davy were devoted to the decomposition of water. He found that this produced twice as much hydrogen as oxygen. At the same time, he made some generalizations about the mechanism of electrolysis. In 1805, G. Davy began experiments on the decomposition of caustic alkalis. At first, he tried unsuccessfully to isolate the metals contained in alkalis by electrolysis of solutions and melts. After this, he took a small piece of dried caustic potassium, which was exposed to the action for a few seconds humid air, placed it on the platinum disk of the negative pole of the battery and closed the current through this piece. Immediately he noticed the formation of a ball of metal similar to mercury. Metallic potassium (potassium) and sodium (sodium) were first obtained in this way.

This discovery of G. Davy made a huge impression on scientists in Europe. It aroused a natural interest in unusual properties alkali metals and to search for ways to obtain them by chemical methods. Continuing his research, G. Davy also obtained alkaline earth metals, slightly modifying the experimental conditions and using mercury as a cathode so that an amalgam of these metals was obtained through electrolysis. He also tried to decompose boric acid using a voltaic column. But he failed, and he attempted to isolate free boron chemically. He eventually succeeded in obtaining the "elementary principle" of boracidic (boric) acid, and he named it boracium. J. Gay-Lussac and L. Thénard, who worked in the same direction, also obtained this “principle” and proposed to call it boron.

G. Davy spent a lot of time and effort on isolating free ammonium, which gives salts similar in properties to potassium and sodium. In 1808, J. Berzelius, together with M. Pontin, also made an attempt to obtain free ammonium. They managed to isolate only ammonium amalgam, which was later confirmed by G. Davy. At the beginning of the 19th century. It was believed that xAor is a product of the oxidation of muric (hydrochloric) acid, and they called it oxidized muric acid. By heating potassium metal in hydrochloric acid vapor, G. Davy obtained potassium chloride. The same result was obtained when burning potassium in oxymuric acid (chlorine) vapor. At the same time (1809), J. Gay-Lussac and L. Thénard, wanting to remove oxygen from oxymuric acid, passed the dehydrated gas through a porcelain tube with hot coal and came to the conclusion that this acid may be an elemental substance. However, decisive experiments in this direction were carried out by G. Davy. He obtained hydrochloric acid from a mixture of oxymuric acid and hydrogen (in the light with an explosion). He also tried to decompose oxymuric acid in the flame of a voltaic arc between carbon electrodes. Based on the results of these experiments, G. Davy came to the conclusion (1810) that oxymuric acid is an elementary substance. G. Davy called the new element chlorine (Gay-Lussac shortened this name to chlorine) and tried to isolate free fluorine as well. In 1812, he expressed the opinion that boron fluoride and silicon fluoride were compounds of an unknown element similar to chlorine and also contained in hydrofluoric acid. His attempts to isolate this element ended in failure. But the element, unknown in its free form, was called “fluorin”.

In 1815, G. Davy began developing a safety lamp for miners. In those days, explosions in mines caused the death of many miners.

The process of development of chemistry in the first decades of the 19th century. took place under the influence of the needs of rapidly developing industry, in the context of the ongoing industrial revolution, which put forward new and important tasks for science.

English physicist and chemist, president of the Royal Society of London, one of the founders of electrochemistry.

Davy became interested in chemistry already in his youth. In 1798, he began working at the Pneumatic Institute, located in the suburbs of Bristol. During 3 years of work there, Davy studied the physiological effects of various gases: methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and especially nitrous oxide, which was then considered the source of various diseases. The scientist discovered the analgesic effect of nitrous oxide and established the composition of this compound - nitric oxide (I).

In 1800, Davy was one of the first to carry out the electrochemical decomposition of water using a voltaic column and confirmed the idea of ​​A.L. Lavoisier that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

In 1800-1806. Davy studied the effect of galvanic electricity on various substances and came to the following conclusions:

1) the formation of chemical compounds occurs due to the mutual attraction of oppositely charged (positive and negative) particles;

2) the effect of galvanic electricity on solutions of substances is explained by the fact that their positively and negatively charged particles are repelled from poles of the same name batteries are attracted to opposite ones;

3) there is a close connection between the magnitude and sign of the charges of substances and their chemical affinity.

Numerous experiments on the electrolytic production of pure substances that the scientist conducted were based on the electrochemical theory. Subjecting molten potassium and caustic soda to electrolysis, Davy observed the formation of metallic balls of potassium and sodium on the negative electrode. In 1808, Davy developed a method for electrolysis of alkaline earth metal salts on a platinum anode surrounded by a mercury cathode. The scientist then separated the resulting amalgams of alkaline earth metals into mercury and metal by sublimation. Thus, in 1808, Davy obtained magnesium, calcium and barium in a pure state, and established the metallic nature of strontium. After 2 years, using an electrolyte, he was able to prove the elemental nature of chlorine. In 1813, Davy and, independently of him, J. L. Gay-Lussac established that iodine is a chemical element, not a compound. Davy was the first to use electrolysis to study the properties of fluorine. But to release fluorine in free state I couldn't.

At the beginning of the 19th century. Davy gave the first course of lectures on agricultural chemistry. His idea about the important role of mineral salts in plant nutrition became fundamental in agrochemistry.

The Soviet scientist academician V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “Humphry Davy, a brilliant experimenter, physicist and chemist, who embraced all the science of his time, is one of the most prominent figures of the first half of the 19th century, so rich in them.”

HUMPHRY DAVY

IN Very early age he showed extraordinary talent. At just over two years old he spoke quite fluently. At the age of six he could read and write. At the age of seven he entered high school in his hometown of Truro (Cornwall).
The family did not have material wealth, and Humphry Davy never received higher education. In 1795, he graduated from the Grammar School (such an educational institution existed in England at that time). Perhaps his studies there developed in him a passion for poetry. True, regarding his creations, the biographer noted with some irony: “The feelings he discovered in his poems were very worthy of praise, but the poetic technique barely exceeded the level required of a poet laureate.”
In general, throughout his life, the dreamer Davy felt relaxed in the “humanitarian” spheres. He even created an impressive poetic work, “The Epic of Moses,” a tribute to the author’s deep religiosity. Davy considered the "small globe as a point serving as the beginning of development, limited only by infinity.”
Then his life developed like this. He was apprenticed to a pharmacist in the city of Penzance. It is not known how successful Davy was in fulfilling his immediate duties, but it is known that he took up self-education with extraordinary zeal. He compiled detailed plan, which is so curious that it makes sense to present it in its entirety. This is the sequence in which the “assault” of knowledge was planned:

1. Theology, or religion, studied through nature.
2. Geography.
3. My profession:
1) botany; 2) pharmacy; 3) zoology; 4) anatomy; 5) surgery; 6) chemistry.
4. Languages:
1) English; 2) French; 3) Latin; 4) Greek;
5) Italian; 6) Spanish; 7) Jewish.
5. Logic.
6. Physics:
1) doctrines and properties of natural bodies;
2) about the operations of nature; 3) the doctrine of liquids;
4) properties of organized matter; 5) about the organization of matter;
6) elementary astronomy.
7. Mechanics.
8. History and chronology.
9. Rhetoric.
10. Mathematics.

Perhaps none of the scientists either before or after Humphrey built such Homeric projects in his youth. And he himself soon realized their fantastic nature. But at first he followed what he wrote with his pen quite punctually.
In January 1798, the pharmacist's apprentice got to chemistry. His textbooks were A. Lavoisier’s “Course of Chemistry,” just translated into English, and W. Nicholson’s “Chemical Dictionary.” For practical work, he created a home laboratory. Lavoisier's idea regarding the material nature of light fascinated Davy, but it only served as a reason for him to make an erroneous assumption, for which he had to blush all his life: oxygen is a compound of light with an unknown element. An article with this “revelation” was even published. But every cloud has a silver lining... So “originally” thinking young man in October 1798 he was invited to the Pneumatic Institute in Bristol. There, in particular, studies were carried out on the physiological effects of various gases.

IN Bristol Davy made his first real discovery: he discovered the intoxicating effect of “laughing gas” (nitrous oxide) on humans. At the turn of the century (1799–1801) he developed a vigorous activity: he determined the composition of nitrogen oxides, nitric acid, ammonia and began experiments with a source of electric current - a galvanic battery, which was the beginning of his future remarkable discoveries. Over the course of two years, he published about a dozen articles.
Davy's experimental talent quickly emerged. The “ideology” of his work prioritized the accumulation of facts rather than the development of theoretical concepts. Although his electrochemical theory is an exception to this rule.
The first publications of the results of his work made Davy's name widely known in England. In February 1801, he was invited to the Royal Institution of London as an assistant lecturer and head of the chemical laboratory, and the following year he filled the vacancy of a professor. His brilliant lectures were extremely popular. In 1803, Davy became a member of the Royal Society, in 1807–1812. serves as his secretary, and in 1820 he is elected president.
Davy entered the history of science as one of the founders of electrochemistry. While still at the Pneumatic Institute, he conducted research on the effect of electric current on various objects. He was one of the first to carry out the electrolysis of water and confirmed the fact of its decomposition into hydrogen and oxygen (1801).
Such research was especially widespread at the Royal Institution. He presented their preliminary results in a lecture given on November 20, 1806. In it, he developed ideas, although not always clear enough, which later formed the basis of the “electrochemical theory.” In particular, he explained the chemical affinity of bodies entering into compounds by the energy of their electrical (positive and negative) charges: “Among the bodies that give chemical compounds, all those whose electrical energies are well known turn out to be oppositely charged; examples include copper and zinc, gold and mercury, sulfur and metals, acidic and alkaline substances... we must assume that these bodies will attract each other under the influence of their electrical forces. At current state From our knowledge, it would be useless to attempt to draw conclusions as to the source of electrical energy, or as to the causes by which bodies brought into contact become electrified. In any case, the connection between electrical energy and chemical affinity is quite obvious. Perhaps they are identical in nature and are the basic properties of matter?
These considerations cannot yet be considered the complete foundations of the electrochemical theory, for Davy rejects the very possibility of the occurrence of current as a result chemical reactions. And it is quite logical that his “electrochemical achievements” primarily lay in the field of practice.
P Perhaps Davy's most significant achievement was the isolation of alkali and alkaline earth metals - the result of the electrolytic decomposition of alkalis. Thus, one of the most important chemical problems was resolved.
Back at the end of the 18th century. It was believed that barite and lime contained metallic bases, while caustic alkalis were generally considered simple substances. True, Lavoisier himself assumed that they too would be decomposed over time.
What conventional chemical operations were powerless to overcome was possible thanks to electric current.
Initially, Davy took the wrong path. He tried to isolate metals from solutions and melts of alkalis. Dozens of experiments did not lead to success. Then an idea arose: to test the effect of electric current on solid alkali: “Kali, completely dried by heating, is not a conductor, but it can be made so by adding minimum quantity moisture, which does not noticeably affect it physical state, and in this form it easily melts and decomposes by powerful electrical forces...” During the experiments, “small balls with a strong metallic luster appeared... These balls consist of exactly the substance that I was looking for and which is the highly flammable base of potassium.” Davy reported this to the Royal Society on October 19, 1807.
Davy obtained sodium in a similar way. He proposed for free alkali metals - new chemical elements - the names "potassium" and "sodium" (from English words "potach" And "soda"); The Latin names for these elements are written as "potassium" and "sodium".
The isolation of alkali metals in free form can rightfully be considered one of the greatest chemical discoveries of the early 19th century. and as one of the first practical triumphs of electrochemistry.

In 1808, Davy electrolytically decomposed the alkaline earths and obtained the free alkaline earth metals - barium, strontium, calcium and magnesium. However, he had to fundamentally change the experimental methodology, since dry alkaline earths did not conduct current and became conductors only in melts.
Davy made an attempt to isolate elemental boron from boric acid, for which he built a large electric battery consisting of 500 pairs of copper and zinc plates. But even such a powerful current source did not lead to success.
TO The scientist's greatest achievement is the establishment of the elemental nature of chlorine. K. Scheele, who discovered chlorine in 1774, being an ardent supporter of the phlogiston theory, proposed the name “dephlogisticated hydrochloric acid” for it. A. Lavoisier, relying on his theory of acids, expressed the idea that the “acid” contains a special radical - “murium” - in combination with oxygen. In 1785, K. Berthollet, having acted with manganese dioxide on hydrochloric acid, received nothing more than “dephlogisticated hydrochloric acid.” From this he concluded that it is a product of the oxidation of hydrochloric acid, and called chlorine “oxidized hydrochloric acid» ( acide muriatique oxygene). As a result, the hypothesis about the existence of the element “murium” became generally accepted, as well as the name “hydroxymuric acid” became widespread. Many researchers, including the French chemists J. Gay-Lussac and L. Thénard, tried to figure out its nature, but only Davy, at the end of 1810, as a result of numerous experiments, finally came to the conclusion that “hydroxymuric acid” is of an elementary nature. He gave the new element the name “chlorin” (translated from Greek meaning “yellow-green”). Modern name"chlorine" was proposed in 1811 by Gay-Lussac.
Davy also tried to isolate free fluorine. In 1812, he suggested that hydrofluoric acid and its compounds contained a certain “principle” similar to chlorine. Davy even proposed a name for this hypothetical elemental substance - “fluorine”, by analogy with “chlorine”. However, he did not achieve what he wanted, but was seriously poisoned while working with fluoride-containing products. Trouble never comes alone: ​​the scientist almost lost his sight during experiments with nitrogen chloride.
The year 1812 turned out to be a turning point for Humphry Davy. In the remaining 17 years of his life, he did not make any significant discoveries, and in some matters of chemistry he remained a retrograde. For example, he supported the idea of ​​the complex composition of some elementary substances (nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, carbon, etc.). In fact, he was indifferent to Dalton’s chemical atomism, calling it “an ingenious conjecture.” However, he used Dalton atomic scales, calling them proportions. In the same year he published the book Elements of Chemical Philosophy. Davy considered it only as the first part of a large work he planned, which should cover all of chemistry. This work remained unfinished.
Davy left a good memory of himself with the invention of a safety lamp for miners in 1815. It was used in mines for over a century until electric lighting was introduced.
The scientist died on May 29, 1829, having barely crossed the half-century mark. The obituary noted: “Davie...represented shining example what the Romans called a man favored by happiness. His success, however, even from this point of view was not a matter of chance, but he owed it to his profundity, foresight of the future when creating his plans and the talent and perseverance with which he brought them to a successful end ... "
P Let us repeat that Davy went down in the history of science as one of the founders of electrochemistry, who actually created the first electrochemical theory. He confirmed the fact of electrolytic decomposition of solutions complex substances and the fact that hydrogen, metals and alkalis are released at the negative pole, and oxygen and acids at the positive pole. He concluded that chemical compounds– a product of electrical neutralization of oppositely charged substances that interact. J. Berzelius embodied this postulate in his dualistic theory.
It is perhaps not an exaggeration to say that Davy was “programmed for more.” Unfortunately, illness decimated him in his prime. The scientist's character was by no means easy: ambition and pride were clearly expressed in his nature. That is why he essentially had no students left, except for Michael Faraday, who played a significant role in Davy’s fate. By the way, they met in 1812.
Faraday acquired knowledge on his own. While working as a bookbinder's apprentice, he carefully became familiar with the contents of books. He was especially interested in books on chemistry. Michael attended Davy's popular lectures at the Royal Institution. Then he copied them completely, provided them with drawings and sent them to the venerable scientist with a request to accept him as an assistant for laboratory work. Davy soon became convinced of the brilliant abilities of the young employee and even took him with him as an assistant on a trip to Europe in 1813–1815.
Over the years, Faraday became increasingly independent. He performed several noteworthy works in chemistry and already in 1821 was elected a member of the Royal Society, which Davy, oddly enough, actively prevented. Was it envy of the rapid creative growth of a young colleague or irritability caused by constant ailments? Who knows... After Davy's death, Faraday headed his laboratory and inherited lectures at the Royal Institution.

If Davy stood at the origins of electrochemistry, then Faraday contributed to laying a theoretical foundation for it. He formulated the basic laws of electrolysis and proposed the terms “electrode”, “anode”, “cathode”, “anion”, “cation”, “ion”...
However, Michael Faraday entered the history of science primarily as a physicist, and as one of the greatest physicists of all time. Suffice it to say that he established a connection between electricity and magnetism, which had enormous consequences for the development of natural science and technology.

- “goddess”), the main female deity of the Hindu pantheon. In classical Shaktism, Devi is transformed into an independent deity, and sometimes she is considered not only as the “second half” of Shiva, but also as an end-to-end source of world energies.

The origins of the image of Devi go back to the cult of fertility goddesses of the aboriginal proto-Indian civilization of the 3rd–2nd millennia BC. Among the figurines found during excavations of Harappan settlements, there are numerous standard female figurines made of clay, displaying the features of mother goddesses, whose cult is extremely widespread in the Indian village, and corresponding drawings. Archaeological data suggest that the phallic cult symbols of the male deity (Protoshiva) correspond to female symbols (yoni), corresponding to the mother cult. Hypotheses regarding the possible connection of these images with the mother cult of the Middle East are quite realistic, since research has revealed the presence of strong trade and other ties between the two regions.

The purely patriarchal religion of the Indo-Aryans left little space for the veneration of female deities, which are represented, in addition to the goddess Ushas, ​​mainly by abstract images that hypostatize human life manifestations (such as Speech), cosmic principles (such as Viraj), individual components of sacrifice (such as Svahi), and temporary “girlfriends” » the main Aryan gods. Davy's first real literary prototype - appearing in Kena Upanishad Uma, the daughter of Himavat (the god of the Himalayas), who acts here as a mentor to the gods, explaining to Indra that all their power is concentrated in Brahman and among them those who come into closest contact with it prevail.

In the Devi of classical Hinduism, light and dark halves are clearly distinguishable, which correspond to the character of Shiva. The initial cult of Devi dates back to the first centuries of the new era.

The image of Davy as a virtuous wife and mother of the family is represented by several significant “persons”. According to the order of mythological chronology, this is, first of all, Sati (“being”), the daughter of the deity Daksha, who, against his will, wished to become Shiva’s wife and, when choosing a groom, threw a garland around his neck. When even after this her father did not agree to their marriage, she provoked her chosen one to destroy her father’s sacrifice, and she threw herself into the fire (it was to this feat of hers that the mythological roots of the Hindu custom of self-immolation of widows went back). Having died in the flames, Sati was reborn in the person of Uma (“Shine”), who this time through asceticism achieved the favor of Shiva. In fact, this is just another name for Parvati (“Mountain Woman”), the daughter of Himavat and the apsara of Mena and the sister of the goddess Ganga, who settled next to Shiva on Mount Kailash, but for a long time could not attract the attention of the meditating ascetic god. The celestials, who set themselves the task of overthrowing the asura Taraka, sent Kamadeva (Indian Cupid), who shot a flower arrow of desire at Shiva and paid for it with his body. Parvati intensified her asceticism, and when the “merit” (punya) she received as a result of this turned out to be sufficient for her goal and Shiva also tested it (appearing in the form of a brahmana, who began to blaspheme him and was rejected by the ascetic), her dream came true, she became his wife and gave birth to Skanda, the killer of Taraka (the plot of the famous poem by Kalidasa Birth of the God of War), as well as (according to some versions) the elephant-headed Ganesha. Mythological synonyms of Uma-Parvati, sometimes indistinguishable from their epithets, should be considered Gauri (“Bright One”), Ambika (“Mother”), Annapurna (“Nurturer”).

However, Davy's menacing manifestations became more popular. These include, first of all, Durga (“Hard to Access”), whose veneration, according to Harivanshe, was originally widespread among backward tribes - the Shabars, Pulindas, as well as non-Indian “barbarians”.

Durga is a warrior goddess, protector of the gods and world order from demonic forces (with which, however, she herself has much in common). Her main feat was the destruction of the demon Mahisha, who took the form of a buffalo and expelled the gods from heaven. Parvati had to take on this work because Mahisha could not be killed by either her husband or the beast. The murder of Mahisha in a brutal fight has been the subject of numerous literary interpretations ( Skanda Purana, Markandeya Purana etc.), and also fine arts– Mahishasuramardani (“Killing Mahisha”). Durga is depicted with eight arms (in each hand there is a weapon belonging to different gods) and sitting on a lion (aka her “mount” - vahana), which is tormenting a buffalo, from whose carcass a demon is trying to jump out, hit by the arrows of the Indian Amazon.

It is believed that Durga lives in the Vindhyan Mountains, in a community of confidantes who participate in her bloody adventures and cannibalistic meals. The cult of Durga was widespread throughout medieval India. One of the forms of Durga is Kali (“black”), which received its name as being born from Durga’s face blackened with anger and representing a female monster dressed in the skin of a panther, in a necklace of skulls, with severed heads, a sword, a sacrificial knife in hands and with a long tongue, stained with the blood of victims - mainly demons. Since at the end of each next world period (kalpa) Durga envelops the world in impenetrable darkness, she receives the name Kalaratri (“Night of Time”). Other names - Chandi ("Wrathful"), Bhairavi ("Terrifying") - are also only epithets of Durga, while Kottravey ("Murderous") - the Tamil goddess of war and hunting, the embodiment of aggressive female sexuality - represents an aboriginal adaptation of the image of Durga or reflects the image of a local goddess who took the form of Durga (described as a woman with snakes and a crescent moon in her hair, covered with the skins of an elephant and a tiger and standing on the head of a bull with a sword in her hands). The Dravidian goddess, who received the Sanskrit name Bhagavati, should also be considered a rural variation of Durga.

In addition, Devi is the center of an entire female pantheon, which includes goddesses of non-Aryan origin, considered as potencies-energies of the leading male gods. The best known system is Saptamatrika (“seven mothers”), which, according to Devi-mahatmye, the personified energies of the seven gods produced to help Devi in ​​her fight against hostile forces: Brahmani (the energy of Brahma), Maheshwari (Devi herself), Kaumari (the energy of Skanda), Vaishnavi (the energy of Vishnu), Varahi (a manifestation of Vishnu the boar), Narasimha (manifestation of Vishnu the lion-man) and Aindri (Indra’s energy).

The cult of Devi extended to the esoteric practice of the Shaktas, which generally corresponds to Hindu tantrism (“left-hand tantra”), and the folk cult. The Shakta cult includes, along with the recitation of mantras dedicated to Devi, interpreted as Jaganmatri (“mother of the world”), also kundalini yoga - a system of psychotechnical exercises designed to force the hidden in human body the deified feminine energy of kundalini rises gradually through all subsequent chakras up to the highest (sahasrara), where its merger with Shiva should occur, and at the same time the cessation of the individual consciousness of the adept. “Left-hand Tantra” includes the famous “five “m”". The folk cult is represented by the veneration of female symbols of fertility in special sanctuaries of Devi, called pithas. The pithas dedicated to Kali were performed (in particular, in Bengal), in accordance with the nature of this manifestation Durgas, human sacrifices. One of them, Kalighat, gave the name to modern Calcutta. In the Dravidian south, the ritual slaughter of a buffalo was performed in honor of the mother goddess.