History of Italy from ancient times to the present day. History of Italy - a short excursion

Undoubtedly, Italy can be safely called one of the cradles of civilization on earth, and the Great Roman Empire, whose artifacts are still scattered in the most different corners world, is one of the most powerful states that has ever existed on Earth. Another gift from Italy to the world can be considered the Renaissance, which brought a huge contribution to the culture and history of all mankind and discovered the talents of such great people as Leonardo Da Vinci and Michelangelo.

The history of the Italian state dates back more than four thousand years ago, when the first settlers from northern Europe crossed the Alpine mountains and began to settle in the areas around the Padan Plain. It was in these lands (valleys of rivers such as the Tiber, Arno and Volturio) that soils were very favorable for agriculture.

Seven hundred and fifty-three BC is considered the year of the founding of the legendary and world-famous city on seven hills - Rome, which later became the capital of a great state. The hills served the settlement as natural defensive fortifications. That is why this place was chosen by cattle breeders and farmers even before the city was built on it. Legends say that the boundaries of the future city were determined by Romulus. This date can be considered the starting point in the development of the Roman Empire.

A little over two and a half thousand years ago, a republican form of government arose in Rome, in which the supreme power was vested in the Senate and two consuls. At the same time, the institution of tribunes was founded, which expressed the interests of the poorest segments of the population.

In four hundred and fifty BC, the first Roman code of laws, called the Twelve Tables, was published. A few decades after this event, the Gauls invaded Rome and partially plundered the city. But by the year two hundred and seventy BC, the Roman tribes would completely subjugate the lands of the Apennine Peninsula. Six years later, the First Punic War against Carthage would begin. Victory in it will belong to the Roman troops.

A little later, Rome would annex Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily to its possessions, and would also unleash the Second Punic War, from which it would again emerge victorious. After this, the lands of Spain will be annexed to the territory of the Roman Empire.

Having unleashed the Third Punic War in the middle of the second century BC, the Roman state annexed the lands of Macedonia and North Africa to its possessions. This happened after a series of defeats of the great commander Hannibal. By the end of the same century, the territory of Asia was declared a province of Rome.

The seventy-third year BC will go down in history as the year of the beginning of the Spartacus uprising, which will be brutally suppressed by Crassus. By the middle of the first century BC, the state was led by the greatest commander, Caesar, who was killed by his comrades a few years later. It was during his reign that the situation within the empire stabilized and numerous civil wars were stopped. After the death of Caesar, Octivian ascended the throne and received the title “Augusta” (literally translated as “honored by the gods”). It is with his name that the peak of glory of the Roman state, which at that time united all the Mediterranean countries, is associated.

It was Augustus who, a little later, conquered Egypt, ruled by Cleopatra, and made it a Roman province.

In the thirteenth year of our era, Augustus was proclaimed Pontifex Maximus - the leading cleric in the Roman religion. A year later the emperor dies.

After his death, the state was ruled first by Tiberius and then by Caligula. After Guy Caligula, the throne was taken by Nero, during whose reign there was a nine-day fire in Rome. In 1980, the grand opening of the Colosseum took place, but a new fire destroyed the famous Capitoline Temple.

Emperor Caracalla in two hundred and twelve granted Roman citizenship to all inhabitants of the empire. After his death (he was killed by ill-wishers), a time of unrest begins in the empire - in a few decades more than twenty emperors will change.

In 260, Christianity was officially allowed on the territory of the empire. In the year three hundred and six, Constantine the First came to power and restored some order after many years of internal strife. He moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople, and made Rome the capital of the western lands of the empire. During his reign, Christianity becomes the official religion of the empire.

In the sixties of the fourth century, Emperor Julian came to power, returning to the lands of the country pagan rituals and again began to eradicate Christianity. He is also known for his relatively successful wars against the British tribes. In the year three hundred and ninety-five, Emperor Theodore ascended the throne, known primarily for the fact that during his reign one once powerful state was divided into two parts - the Eastern and Western Empires.

The year four hundred and seventy-six is ​​considered the year of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. One hundred and ten years later, the Lombard tribes captured the northern part of Italy, Tuscany, as well as the lands of Campania and Umbria.

In the year 800, Charlemagne became Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Due to political intrigues, Italy becomes directly dependent on the French crown. It was during these times that a huge number of monasteries were built on the territory of the state, which provided shelter to everyone who worked for the benefit of their lands.

The ninth and tenth centuries saw the rise of well-fortified and economically developed city-states, which began to receive an influx of people from rural areas. Coastal city-states acquired their own powerful fleet, capable of not only trading with overseas powers, but also protecting military power city ​​walls from the sea.

In the middle of the fifteenth century, a significant treaty was signed for the once integral country, according to which its lands were divided between the Florentine and Venetian republics, the Duchy of Milan, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. In addition to these states, the document included a number of small states and cities that also tried to secure certain freedoms for their lands.

By the end of the fifteenth century, Italy had effectively fallen victim to the political intrigues of France and Spain. Only Florence, Venice and the Papal States remained independent. The Kingdom of Naples and the Duchy of Milan came under the rule of the Spanish crown. This same time was marked by the rise of the Duchy of Savoy, ruled by Emanuele Filiberto in the mid-sixteenth century.

In the eighteenth century, the lands of Italy alternately passed from the Spanish crown to the Savoy dukes and, partly, to the Habsburgs. Until, at the turn of the nineteenth century, Napoleon's army seized power.

In one thousand seven hundred and ninety-seven, the possessions of the Venetian Republic passed into the hands of Austria.

In the sixtieth year of the nineteenth century, King Vittorio Emmanuel II of the Savoy dynasty attempted to unify Italy. His comrades manage to take possession of Naples.

In one thousand nine hundred and twenty-two, Benitto Mussolini, known in world history as well as Duce, came to power in the country. The era of fascist rule begins in the country. In 1935, Italian troops invaded the territory of Ethiopia, declaring it part of the Italian empire, which led to aggravation with England and France, but brought Italy closer to Nazi Germany, with which Mussolini would sign the Anti-Comintern Pact the following year.

In one thousand and forty, Italy entered the Second World War, siding with Germany.

In one thousand forty-three, Mussolini's government fell and a number of political forces and parties were created again. In September of the same year, the Badoglio government that came to power signed a peace treaty with Eisenhower, but a few days later, almost the entire mainland of the country was occupied by German soldiers. During the period of German occupation, anti-fascist resistance unfolded in Italy. King Vittorio Emanuel III was forced to flee the country to the territories occupied by Allied troops, along with his government. Italy was again divided into two parts - the southern part, which was ruled by an agreement between the parties by the king, and the larger part of the country occupied by German troops, called at that time the Italian Social Republic. The government that controlled the liberated part of Italy entered into an agreement with the Allied countries, according to which Italy entered the war against Nazi Germany and supported the Allied troops in every possible way.

After the end of World War II, a referendum was held in Italy, according to the results of which the country was proclaimed a republic.

The eighties of the last century in Italy are remembered throughout the world, thanks to the struggle of the authorities against the so-called “red brigades” and numerous mafia clans.

Celebrations dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the formation of the state took place in Italy. Surprisingly, in a political sense, one of the oldest countries in the world is relatively “young”. And with all the great history and large sizes Italy cannot be considered a superpower.

It is believed that it was on March 17, 1861 that the process of uniting the disparate lands of the Apennine Peninsula into a single state was completed, and from that moment we can truly talk about the history of a united Italy. However, consider that political life originated in this region 150 years ago, it would be funny. The Italians themselves rightly consider their country to be much more ancient and are rightly proud of it.

Starting point Italian history(and even then conditionally) can be considered the year 753 BC, when, according to legend, Rome was founded. Century after century, from a small settlement it turned first into a city on seven hills, and then into the center of a power, the size of which was the envy of all future empires. Julius Caesar, the classics of ancient Roman poetry, and the great historians of antiquity are considered part of the historical heritage of Italy.

In the Middle Ages, Italy was the most developed part of Europe. It would not be an exaggeration to say that almost all new trends came from there and the entire continent borrowed its achievements. Petrarch and Boccaccio remained the guiding star for writers, for artists - Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo, for scientists - Galileo and Giordano Bruno. It was the Italians who created modern musical notation and taught other Europeans to eat with forks...

The maritime republics that existed in the Middle Ages in Venice and Genoa had powerful fleets, and there was an industry that was advanced for its time. But with the discovery of America, their importance came to naught. In the 16th-18th centuries, centralized powers came to the forefront of history - first Spain and Portugal, then Holland, then England and France. And fragmented Italy is nestled on the outskirts of Europe.

The whole point is that the country was fragmented. Venice had its own rulers, Genoa had its own, Florence had its own. The Florentine Medici or Milanese Sforzas were famous as philanthropists, but they failed to unite the country. The northeast of Italy gradually came under the control of the Austrian Empire, while the south came under Spanish rule for some time. The center of the country was ruled personally by the Popes. The fragmentation of the country ultimately slowed down its development and threw it into the second echelon of Europe.

The desire for unification in Italy existed for many centuries, but this idea was brought to life only in the middle of the 19th century. By this time, the kingdom of Piedmont had been formed in the north-west of the country with its capital in Turin, which acted as a collector of lands. The co-founder of the country is rightfully considered the Prime Minister of Piedmont Camilo Benso Cavour, King Victor Immanuel and, of course, the fiery revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi. Garibaldi roused the people and led the regiments into battle, Cavour played a subtle diplomatic game.

During the Second Italian War of Independence (1859-1860), Piedmont had to fight with Austria, which owned the northeastern Apennines. Cavour found a valuable ally in France (which, however, had to cede Savoy and Nice). At the same time, more and more Italian lands swore allegiance to Piedmont. Austria admitted defeat, after which it became possible to hold a meeting of the all-Italian parliament in Turin, which on March 17, 1861 announced the creation of Italy.

True, the unification of the country was not completed there. The Venetian region was annexed only in 1866, the Papal region with its center in Rome - only in 1870. Capital of the new single state“moved many times” until the “eternal city” finally became her. By the way, those events made the word “Piedmont” a household word. Since then, every region that gathers around itself scattered closely related lands is now called this name. So the unification of Italy itself can, in a sense, be considered a household word.

It seemed that a great future awaited a united Italy, but it did not happen. She got few colonies (Libya, Somalia), and she failed to become one of the main arbiters of world destinies. Benito Mussolini tried to create an empire in the 20th century. He managed to take control of Ethiopia and annex part of modern Slovenia and South Tyrol to Italy. But the Second World War ended in defeat for the country, the loss of all colonies and part of the territory.

Modern Italy seems to be one of the leading powers. Her companies are known far beyond the Apennines. It is considered one of the pillars of the European Union. Its place in the G8 and G20 is not in dispute. However, its voice in the international arena still sounds weak - in any case, it cannot be compared even with France and Great Britain, which are comparable in population to Italy.

Perhaps the reason for this is the endless political leapfrog. Governments in the country have changed like gloves since its founding. Only Duce Mussolini sat in the chair of the head of the cabinet for almost 21 years (1922-1943), but this is the exception that confirms the rule. Since World War II, the country has had 61 governments. Silvio Berlusconi became prime minister three times, and one of his predecessors, Giulio Andreotti, seven times.

What prevents Italy, which has a great and amazing history, from becoming a world power? Reflects on this topic in an interview with Pravda.Ru senior researcher at the Institute of Europe of the Russian Academy of Sciences Sergei Fedorov:

“Italy, indeed, is not a great global power, unlike, say, the United States. One of the main reasons for this is the previous course of its history and its too late deliverance from fragmentation. And imperial ambitions were buried during the time of Mussolini, so the role political leader It doesn’t claim a planet right now. Moreover, it does not have nuclear weapons.

At the same time, we cannot ignore the state of the economy. In order to decide the fate of the world, Italy simply does not have enough resources. Disproportions in development also noticeably pull it back different parts countries. Thus, with a developed industrial north, there is an underdeveloped, predominantly agricultural south with all the “charms”, including increased level corruption and the world-famous mafia.

However, there is no need to give up on Italy and say that it is an outsider. Unlike Belgium, it is not in danger of disintegration, although there are separatist echoes here. This country is developing, and I do not exclude that in the future it will occupy a higher position than it does now.

Fortunately, Italy has something to build on. First, she is a universally recognized cultural leader. This is a museum country that can be proud of this alone. Secondly, it, like Germany, is a regional superpower both economically and politically. No wonder she is a member of " big eight"Not a single significant decision within the European Union can be made without her approval.

Largely thanks to Italy and its current leadership in the person of Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, the West has to reckon with the opinion of Russia. Thanks to Italy, it is possible to challenge the demonic image of our country that some sometimes try to impose there. So the role of this country in the world is not so small."

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The history of Italy is so ancient that one could devote a lifetime to studying it. Italy is without a doubt the cradle of one of the greatest civilizations on earth. The famous ancient Roman Empire was one of the most powerful empires in history, she left a rich legacy to subsequent generations, and her artifacts are kept in many museums around the world.

Ancient history of Italy

Although the climate on the Apennine Peninsula is somewhat harsher than in North Africa and the Middle East, it is here that several famous civilizations arose. After some, only fortifications remained, after others, beautiful architecture in the form of temples and palaces, and after the Middle Ages, it was here that the Renaissance arose, which began a new round in the development of modern civilization, and not only endowed museums with countless masterpieces.
The oldest major Italian cities are no more than 3,000 years old. At first, compact, well-fortified, round settlements were built, and chaotic developments arose on the edges of inaccessible cliffs. Some of this has survived to this day, although historians cannot find out who they belonged to.
Latins and Etruscans, Veneti and Gauls, Hellenes and Ligurians, Rheti settled on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula and other nations . In the city of San Felice Circeo there are grottoes where Neanderthal sites discovered, they also settled in the provinces of Verona and Vicenza back in Paleolithic times. About 10 thousand years ago, during the Neolithic era, the territory of Italy began to be more actively populated; some ruins remained from ancient cultures (Vilanova, Camuna, Remedello, Canegrate, Terramare).
The high seismic and volcanic activity of the peninsula destroyed many castles and substantial buildings of ancient peoples, so there are fewer traces left of them than of civilizations in other parts. If you compare the maps of ancient navigators with modern ones, the difference will be noticeable - and not because the ancestors were inaccurate, but because the Apennines are constantly changing their geographical outlines. For example, during the last glaciation, the islands surrounding the peninsula were one with it. Climate change caused the plains to flood, so the tribes were forced to move. Enough warm climate and very fertile soil made it possible to develop agriculture, and thanks to this, nomadic hunters switched to sedentary lifestyle life.
The movement of peoples throughout Italy was observed until the end of the Middle Ages. The lands of the north and south of the Apennines were called differently by the Hellenes and the Romans. Emperor Diocletian annexed the lands south of the Alps to Rome, as a result of which three more were added to the dozen scattered regions.

Italy as the cradle of civilizations

Agriculture developed in the south of the peninsula, fishing villages arose on the coast, however, the mountainous areas were mostly empty. Mindful of earthquakes, local residents learned to build houses on solid stone foundations or on stilts.
Different civilizations arose in the Apennines:

• Etruscans, who lived in central and northern regions, left their alphabet to the Romans;
• the northeast was inhabited Veneti;
• settled in the northwest Ligures;
• reached Sicily Sicans and Siculi;
• the southeast was chosen Iapyges;
• warlike Gauls after the raids they settled along river beds.

In Etruria (present-day Tuscany), the Etruscans built cities, some of them (Arezzo, Perugia) still exist today. Developed culture and economy allowed local peoples prosper. The Hellenes and Phoenicians brought great cultural contributions here, as they actively settled here in the 7th-5th centuries BC. e.

Ancient Roman era

The future of European civilization began to ripen on a few scattered hills. The settlements that were at war with each other gradually united into a single city after the Forum appeared there. The Latins founded it in 754 BC. e. These people were very warlike, discord blossomed within them between the plebeians and patricians, but all this did not prevent them from conquering neighboring lands, winning glorious victories. As a result of wars of conquest in 290 BC e. Central Italy was conquered. And although in 279 BC. e. The Greek army of King Pyrrhus, at the cost of almost complete extermination, defeated the Romans, but could not prevent their conquest of southern Italy.
Story Ancient Rome replete with the cruelty of tyrants in the person of emperors and generals and wars. But at the same time, the Romans could have fun and build architectural masterpieces, such as The huge Colosseum, completed in 96 under Emperor Domitian, in which all of Rome wanted to enjoy “bread and circuses.” True, it was much later...
And before, from 264 to 146 BC e. there have been endless Punic Wars with the Kingdom of Carthage, the conquest of the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica. Gradually, the empire spread to the east and west, forming the most powerful power in the Mediterranean.
Some people remember important milestones in the history of Ancient Rome from school:

• Third slave revolt in 73-71 BC. e., which was headed by Spartak.
• Conquest of the northern regions of Italy and Gaul in 58-51 BC e., as well as most of Britain in 43 BC. e.
• Accession in 30 BC e. Egyptian kingdom.
• Conquest of Judea and the destruction of Jerusalem.
• ABOUTgeneral economic progress of the empire, the construction of roads throughout Rome-controlled Europe, the rapid development of new cities, the introduction of a unified monetary system throughout the empire.

Starting from the 3rd century, a crisis began in the empire, since the constantly changing emperors were more concerned with palace intrigues than with governing the state and lost real power over it. Taking advantage of this, Visigoth tribes captured decrepit Rome in 455 and plundered it - many temples and palaces were destroyed, works of art were destroyed. A similar fate befell other cities of the empire. The Lombards and Ostrogoths completed what they started.

Middle Ages and the time of papal rule

As history shows, in any country religious power strengthens during a period of crisis, which precedes significant reforms. This happens because peoples do not see any other support. A similar situation arose after the fall of the Roman Empire in Italy, which had become Catholic, and the pope had unlimited power in his hands. In the 10th century, the time of the Holy Roman Empire began. But the luxury and unlimited power of the pope did not suit many monarchs, which is why conflicts began to arise between secular and spiritual authorities.
After the decline of the prosperous state, a new redistribution of land caused feudal relations with a primitive economy in the form natural exchange. Europe plunged into the Dark Ages for a long time, there was no one to restore the previously majestic cities, and more or less strong buildings were turned into monasteries. The priests imposed ingenious taxes on the population and traded indulgences.
The Papal States were formed in the basin of the Tiber and Ravenna rivers, and the dark Middle Ages, Gothic and Inquisition loomed ahead. A fragmented Italy gradually attracted more powerful European monarchs. As a result of numerous wars, the map of the country was constantly redrawn, because the interests of several empires collided there.
After the end of the Middle Ages, during the Renaissance, individual cities and regions began to strengthen: Florence, Venice, Genoa, forming their own culture and establishing colonies in the Mediterranean basin. The strong fleet and developed economy of the Genoese and Venetian republics allowed them to grow rich and successfully withstand the onslaught Ottoman Empire in the XV-XVI centuries. Later, Napoleonic troops invaded Italy.

Renaissance Time

Looking at the masterpieces of the masters of the Renaissance, our contemporaries wonder how it was possible to create this without Photoshop. The concept of “Renaissance”, i.e., “rebirth” appeared in the 16th century. This spiritual reformation coincided with the Church Reformation initiated by the German monk Martin Luther. Medieval Europe, suppressed by the oppression of Catholicism, began to awaken, science, medicine and art took a breath of fresh air. Such titans of the Renaissance as Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Michelangelo, Raphael Santi, Caravaggio, Donatello and Giordone entered the history of art in golden letters. The Renaissance infused art with the spirit of the celebration of life, natural proportions, dynamic lines, real emotions on the faces depicted, and an abundance of colors. In the Middle Ages, such images were not allowed by priests. If previously art depicted only biblical scenes, now it was able to illustrate secular subjects, myths and legends, and genre scenes. Still lifes with fruits, game and flowers appeared on the canvases. Portraiture also changed, although only rich nobles still ordered portraits from poor artists.

Italy in modern times

The Reformation and the European Protestant movement in XIV-XV centuries significantly limited the power of the Vatican, but the rest of Italy began to rise. From the Renaissance to the 18th century active development art continued. Suffice it to mention Florentine painting and Milanese opera. New and reconstructed temples were decorated more magnificently with frescoes, tapestries, paintings and sculptural masterpieces.
Talented craftsmen begin to come to Rome to fulfill generously paid orders from the secular nobility and clergy. Cheerfulness is gaining strength baroque art, behind which the poverty of the population is not so clearly visible. But at the same time, the difference in the development of the north and south of Italy is growing. In the 1860s, Garibaldi fought against the Habsburgs, defending the independence of a united Italy. Rome was finally liberated in 1870 and again became the capital of a single country.. Almost at the same time, papal authority was rejected and the church was separated from the state. Of the numerous lands the pope was left with, only the Vatican. King Umberto I of Italy entered into a triple alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary.