When the tops change color

A natural change in the color of the tops occurs when the potatoes are technically ripe and ready for harvesting. In late summer, the bushes dry out, the leaves turn yellow-brown and may fall off. This is a sign of healthy plants and quality tubers.

If potato tops wither and turn black at the height of the growing season, then it can be assumed that the plants are affected by the disease. Pathogenic changes can be caused by diseases such as:

• late blight on tops and tubers;
• fungal alternaria;
• dry rot;
• black scab;
• blackleg.

Potato tops and leaves gradually turn black, then they dry out or rot. The formation of chlorophyll in the cells is disrupted, and nutrients do not reach the tubers.

Late blight

Late blight is considered the most dangerous among all diseases.

When a disease occurs, the leaves are the first to suffer and its signs can be easily detected. A fluffy whitish coating appears at the bottom of each leaf blade, gradually expanding and turning into brown wet spots. If the weather is humid, the bush rots completely, and in dry and hot weather the plant dries out.

Infecting the above-ground part of the plant, the oomycete moves through the capillaries of the tops to the root system and infects the tubers. They also become stained, rot, and smell bad. The disease spreads when infected melt water enters the area or sporangia are carried on shoes and tools.

Alternaria blight

This fungal disease begins a couple of weeks before the formation of buds, when the potatoes are growing vigorously.

Necrotic black spots appear on the lower leaves and spread up the stems.

It is almost impossible to save the crop because, penetrating into the tubers, the fungus destroys the structure of the pulp. The fruits rot and cause soil contamination by pathogenic fungi. The spores enter the site in the same way as the late blight pathogen.

Fusarium

The cause of this disease is a fungus that invades the plant tissue during the period of mass opening of buds.

The leaves dry from bottom to top, curl and fall off.

Infected tubers, during storage, become covered with dry rot and black spots appear on them. The period of intense damage occurs in the middle of winter.

Rhizoctoniosis

The black scab fungus penetrates the vessels and capillaries of the plant.

The veins on the stems and leaves become brownish. The young plant can completely rot, and the woody shoots thicken and dry out.

It is difficult to notice fungal damage on tubers. Its sclerotia look like small lumps of dirt. But if the dirt is easy to wash off, then the spore colonies are firmly attached to the peel.

Blackleg

During rainy weather this disease most often develops.

It affects young shoots at the base of the bush. The tops and leaves turn black, become covered with fluffy rot and die, becoming the source of a new wave of the disease.

The plant begins to rot from below, black wet spots appear and the nutrition of the tubers that have managed to form stops. Therefore, the fruits rot as soon as they appear. If the stolons have not had time to form, then the above-ground part and root system rot completely.

Control of potato diseases

When the first signs of disease are detected, it is necessary to immediately begin treating the plants. Various methods for saving potatoes are suitable for this.

1. Spray with a solution of Bordeaux mixture.
2. Copper oxychloride is used for foliar treatment.
3. Plants are treated using traditional methods.
4. Protect plantings with chemicals.

In a small area, you can remove the affected parts of the plants and then process the potato tops. It is not possible to do such work on industrial potato fields.

Solutions of Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride are prepared according to the instructions. Spray the leaves very carefully, covering both sides of the leaf blade. Repeat the procedure every 7 days.

Traditional methods

TO folk methods Treatments include treating bushes with substances such as:

• milk;
• serum;
• water infusion of garlic;
• iodine solution;
• tincture of trichopolum on superphosphate.

Dairy products are diluted warm water 1:1 and spray the area with a spray bottle, covering all surfaces of the bush and leaves.

Chopped garlic is poured with water 1:1 and left at room temperature for 2 days. Strain and dilute with water 1:10. After this, the plants are sprayed.

Sometimes iodine treatment is combined with spraying milk or whey solutions. When using iodine alone and when combining it with other drugs, it is necessary to introduce 15 drops per 1 liter of liquid, which will be enough not to burn young leaves and shoots.

A weak solution of superphosphate is infused for 1 day and 1 tablet of trichopolum is added to it per 1 liter. Mix and treat the plants well.

Prevention

Rather than treating plants, it is better to prevent the development of pathogenic fungi and viruses. To do this, you need to follow the rules for preparing the site and seed material.

Fitosporin-M is used to disinfect the soil; it is prepared according to the instructions on the packages. You can spill the soil with a solution of copper sulfate, a concentration of no more than 1%.

Before planting potatoes, it is advisable to sow green manure in the fall. Legumes such as beans, beans and peas are considered the best predecessors of potatoes. You can also sow winter grains or white mustard.

When planting tubers, pre-treat them with copper sulfate. For 1 liter of water you need 0.3 g of the substance. You can use the chemical drug Maxim, and for disinfection with organic biofungicides, choose Agat-25K. It disinfects tubers and stimulates the formation of sprouts.

Processing the potato plot

After the emergence of seedlings, you can begin to work on protecting plants from viruses and fungi. Prevention against diseases, using any of the drugs, must be carried out throughout the potato growing season, with intervals of 2 weeks.

Good results are achieved by mulching the beds with chopped straw or hay. In this case, the hay bacillus develops in the mulch, which can destroy sporangia of any type of fungus.

After harvesting, tubers should not be left to dry directly on the site. It is better to first prepare a shaded place and transfer the potatoes there. All tops and root systems of plants must be burned, even if you know that there are no pathogens on your site.

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Conclusion

Considering methods of combating such dangerous diseases, we found out that it is best to engage in disease prevention. By following all the recommendations for caring for potato plantings and protecting young bushes during the budding period, you can preserve the tops and prevent the development of viruses. Healthy bushes will produce a full harvest of tasty and healthy vegetables, which can be prepared in different ways.

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Nowhere is there more light, warmth and moisture than in West Africa, Southeast Asia, the islands of the Western Pacific and South America - from Panama and through the Amazon to southern Brazil. It is not surprising that all these areas are covered with the most dense and lush vegetation, which cannot be found in other parts of the Earth. Its scientific name is tropical rainforest, or hylea. But for simplicity, they use the word “jungle”, although, strictly speaking, this term only refers to forest thickets South-East Asia.

Compared to more northern regions, conditions there change quite little over the year. The proximity to the equator means that the amount of light and day length remain almost the same throughout the twelve months. The only variation in rainfall is quite relative - from heavy to heavy. And this went on for so long that all other habitat options, with the exception of the World Ocean, seem fragile and transient. Lakes silt up and become swamps in a few decades, green plains turn into deserts over centuries, even mountains are worn away by glaciers over millennia. But hot, humid jungles have covered the land along the Earth's equator for tens of millions of years.

Perhaps this very stability was one of the reasons for the truly incredible diversity of life that we see there now. Forest giants do not at all belong to the same species, although their equally smooth trunks and spear-shaped leaves may suggest such an idea. Only when they bloom do you clearly see how little kinship there is between them. The number of species reaches a truly astronomical figure. On one hectare of jungle there are over a hundred different types tall trees. And this wealth is not limited to plants. More than one thousand six hundred species of birds live in the thickets of the Amazon basin, and the species of insects there are almost innumerable. In Panama, entomologists collected over nine hundred and fifty species of beetles alone from trees of one species. Scientists estimate that one hectare of South American forest can be home to forty thousand species of insects and other small invertebrates such as spiders and centipedes. It seems that in the process of evolution, which lasted without interruption in this stable habitat for so many millions of years, specialized creatures managed to arise to fill the tiniest ecological niches.

However, most of them live in that part of the tropical forest, which until very recently was beyond the reach of humans and remained unexplored, at least nearby: in dense crowns intertwined into a single leafy canopy at a height of 40-50 meters above the ground. That this canopy is inhabited by a variety of creatures becomes clear immediately: all sorts of clicks, crackles, buzzing, howls, squeals, sonorous trills and coughing rattles among the branches during the day, and especially at night. But who exactly makes what sounds... This is where a vast field of speculation opens up. The ornithologist, who, with his head thrown back, searches with binoculars along a leafy arch, can consider himself lucky if he sees something more definite than a silhouette dimly glimpsed in the gap between the branches. Botanists, confused by the monotony of the smooth column-like trunks, broke branches with a shot to examine the buds and identify the surrounding trees from them. One enthusiast, who decided at all costs to compile the most complete catalog of trees in the forests of Kalimantan, even trained a monkey that climbed the specified tree, plucked a flowering branch and threw it down.

But a few years ago, someone developed a system for climbing trunks on ropes, borrowing the idea from rock climbers, and systematic direct research began on the canopy of the tropical rainforest.

The method is simple. First you need to throw a thin rope onto a higher branch, either by simply throwing it there, or by tying it to an arrow and shooting it upward from a bow. To the end of the thin rope you now tie a finger-thin climbing rope that can support a load many times a person's weight. The thin rope is pulled down, and the thick rope hangs from the branch. Having tied it securely, you put two metal hand clamps on it: they can be moved up, but a special pawl prevents them from crawling down. Having inserted your feet into the stirrups connected to the clamps, you slowly move up the rope, transferring all the weight to one leg, and with the other lifting the clamp a few centimeters closer to the cherished goal. Through much tedious effort you reach the first branch, throw another rope onto the branch above it, climb over there, repeat the operation, and in the end you have one very long rope at your disposal up to the branch at the very top. And you can finally climb to the top of the canopy.

The impression is as if you climbed a dark, stuffy staircase to the tower and came out onto its roof. Suddenly the damp gloom gives way to fresh air and sunshine. All around you is an endless meadow of foliage, all bumpy and pitted, like an incredibly enlarged head of cauliflower. Here and there the top of some forest colossus rises about ten meters above it. Such trees live a different life than their lower neighbors because the wind blows freely through their crowns and they use it to transport pollen and seeds. The giant South American ceiba, also called the cotton tree, throws out a huge number of seeds on light, dandelion-like fluffs, which scatter for many kilometers around. In the ceiba-like giants of Southeast Asia, as well as Africa, the seeds are equipped with wings, so they fall slowly, spinning, and the wind, having time to catch them, carries them far enough before the foliage of the canopy closes over them.

But you can also expect trouble from the wind. It can rob the tree of vital moisture reserves, increasing evaporation from the leaves. Lone giants, in response to this danger, have acquired narrow leaves, the surface area of ​​which is much less than that of leaves in a canopy or even leaves of the same tree, but located on lower branches that remain in the shade.

The crowns of these colossi serve as a favorite nesting place for the most predatory birds of the jungle - huge eagles. Each tropical forest has its own species: the monkey-eating harpy in Southeast Asia, the harpy in South America, the long-eared falcon in Africa. They all have lush crests, wide, relatively short wings and long tails. Such wings and tail provide significant maneuverability in flight. These birds build large platforms from branches, to which they return from season to season. On such a platform they usually raise a single chick, which feeds on the prey of its parents for almost a year. They all hunt inside the canopy, fast and furious. The harpy, the largest eagle in the world (even if only by a little), chases the monkeys, maneuvering and diving among the branches, and finally, snatching a desperately resisting victim from the flock fleeing in panic, carries it to the nest. There, the eagle family carefully tears apart the corpse for several days and eats it piece by piece.

The canopy itself, the roof of the jungle, is a continuous vault of greenery six to seven meters thick. Each sheet in it is turned exactly at the angle that provides it maximum amount Sveta. Many have a kind of joint at the base of the petiole that allows them to turn with the sun as it makes its daily journey across the sky from east to west. All leaves, except those that make up the roof, are sheltered from the wind, and the air around them is hot and humid. The conditions are so favorable for plants that moss and algae grow there in abundance. They cling to the bark and hang from the branches. If they grew on a leaf, they would deprive it of the necessary sunlight and clog the stomata through which it breathes. But the leaves are protected from this threat by a glossy waxy surface, which is difficult for both rhizoids and hyphae to cling to. In addition, almost all leaves end with graceful spines - tiny drains, thanks to which rainwater, without lingering on the plate, rolls down, and the upper part of the leaf, well washed, immediately dries.

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The tropical rainforest zone, commonly known as the hylaea, or jungle, is located mainly between 10°N. w. and 10° S. w.

The jungle covers vast areas of Equatorial Africa, Central and South America, the Greater Antilles, Madagascar and the southwestern coast of India, the Indochinese and Malay Peninsulas. The islands of the Greater Sunda Archipelago, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea are covered in jungle. For example, in Africa, an area of ​​almost 1.5 million km 2 is covered with jungle (Butze, 1956). Forests occupy 59% of the area of ​​Brazil (Rodin, 1954; Kalesnik, 1958), 36-41% of the territory of southeast Asia (Sochevko, 1959; Maurand, 1938).

Feature tropical climate are high air temperatures, characterized by extraordinary constancy throughout the year. Average monthly temperatures reach 24-28°, and its annual fluctuations do not exceed 1-6°, only slightly increasing with latitude (Dobbie, 1952; Kostin, Pokrovskaya, 1953; Büttner, 1965). The annual amount of direct solar radiation is 80-100 kcal/cm2 (in the middle zone at latitudes 40-50° - 44 kcal/cm2) (Berg, 1938; Alekhine, 1950).

Air humidity in the tropics is very high - 80-90%, but at night it often reaches 100% (Elagin, 1913; Brooks, 1929). The tropics are rich in precipitation. Their average annual amount is approximately 1500-2500 mm (Table 9). Although in some places, such as Debunja (Sierra Leone), Gerrapudja (Assam, India), precipitation amounts to 10,700-11,800 ml throughout the year (Khromov, 1964).

Table 9. Characteristics of climatic zones of tropical regions.

In the tropics there are two periods of rain, coinciding with the time of the equinox. Streams of water fall from the sky to the ground, flooding everything around. The rain, only slightly weakening, at times can pour continuously for many days and even weeks, accompanied by thunderstorms and squalls (Humboldt, 1936; Friedland, 1961). And there are 50-60 such days with thunderstorms a year (Guru, 1956; Yakovlev, 1957).

All the characteristic features of a tropical climate are clearly expressed in the jungle zone. At the same time, the microclimate of the lower layer of the tropical forest is particularly constant and stable (Alle, 1926).

A classic picture of the microclimate of the jungle is given by the famous explorer of South America, botanist A. Wallace (1936) in his book “Tropical Nature”: “There is a kind of fog above the forest. The air is humid, warm, it’s hard to breathe, like in a bathhouse, in a steam room. This is not the scorching heat of a tropical desert. The air temperature is 26°, at most 30°, but there is almost no cooling evaporation in the humid air, and there is no refreshing breeze. The languid heat does not subside throughout the night, not giving a person rest.”

Dense vegetation prevents the normal circulation of air masses, as a result of which the speed of air movement does not exceed 0.3-0.4 m/sec (Morett, 1951).

The combination of high temperature and air humidity with insufficient circulation conditions leads to the formation of dense ground fogs not only at night, but also during the day (Gozhev, 1948). “A hot fog envelops a person like a cotton wall; you can wrap yourself in it, but you cannot break through it” (Gascard, 1960).

The combination of these conditions also contributes to the activation of putrefactive processes in fallen leaves. As a result of this, the content of carbon dioxide in the surface air layers increases significantly, reaching 0.3-0.4%, which is almost 10 times higher than its normal content in the air (Avanzo, 1958). This is why people who find themselves in a tropical forest often complain of attacks of suffocation and a feeling of lack of oxygen. “Under the treetops there is not enough oxygen, suffocation is increasing. I was warned about this danger, but it’s one thing to imagine, and another thing to feel,” wrote the French traveler Richard Chappelle, who went to the Amazon jungle along the path of his compatriot Raymond Maufret (Chapelle, 1971).

A special role in the autonomous existence of the crew landing in the jungle is played by tropical flora, which in abundance and diversity has no equal on the globe. For example, the flora of Burma alone has more than 30,000 species - 20% of the world flora (Kolesnichenko, 1965).

According to the Danish botanist Warming, there are more than 400 species of trees per 3 square miles of forest area and up to 30 species of epiphytes per tree (Richards, 1952). Favorable natural conditions and the absence of long periods of dormancy contribute to the rapid development and growth of plants. For example, bamboo grows at a rate of 22.9 cm/day for two months, and in some cases the daily growth of shoots reaches 57 cm (Richard, 1965).

Characteristic feature The jungle is evergreen multi-layered vegetation (Dogel, 1924; Krasnov, 1956).

The first tier consists of single perennial trees - giants up to 60 m high with a wide crown and a smooth, branchless trunk. These are mainly representatives of the myrtle, laurel and legume families.

The second tier is formed by groups of trees of the same families up to 20-30 m high, as well as palm trees.

The third tier is represented by 10-20-meter trees, mainly palm trees of various types.

And finally, the fourth tier is formed by a low undergrowth of bamboo, shrubs and herbaceous forms, ferns and mosses.

The peculiarity of the jungle is the extraordinary abundance of so-called extra-tiered plants - vines (mainly from the family of begonias, legumes, malpighians and epiphytes), bromeliads, orchids, which are closely intertwined with each other, forming a single, continuous green massif. As a result, it is often impossible to distinguish individual elements of the plant world in a tropical forest (Grisebach, 1874; Ilyinsky, 1937; Blomberg, 1958; etc.) (Fig. 89).

Rice. 89. Jungles of Southeast Asia.

However, when examining the characteristics of a tropical forest, one should be absolutely clear about the significant differences that exist between the so-called primary and secondary tropical forest. This is necessary to understand the conditions of autonomous human existence in one or another type of jungle.

It should be noted, and this seems especially important, that the primary tropical forest, despite the abundance of tree forms, lianas and epiphytes, is completely passable. Dense thickets are found mainly along river banks, in clearings, in areas of deforestation and forest fires (Yakovlev, 1957; Gornung, 1960). Difficulties in moving in such a forest are caused not so much by dense vegetation, but by wet, swampy soil, an abundance of fallen leaves, trunks, branches, and tree roots spreading along the surface of the ground. According to calculations by D. Hoore (1960), for the territory of primary tropical forest in Yangambi (Congo), the amount of dry matter of the standing forest (trunks, branches, leaves, roots) is 150-200 t/ha, of which annually 15 t/ha returns back to soil in the form of dead wood, branches, leaves (Richard, 1965).

At the same time, the dense crowns of trees prevent the penetration of sunlight into the soil and its drying out. Only 1/10-1/15 of the sunlight reaches the earth. As a result, damp twilight constantly reigns in the tropical forest, creating the impression of gloom and monotony (Fedorov et al., 1956; Junker, 1949).

It is especially difficult to address livelihood issues in secondary tropical forests. As a result of a number of reasons, vast expanses of virgin tropical forest were replaced by secondary forests, representing a chaotic accumulation of trees, shrubs, vines, bamboos and grasses (Schumann, Tilg, 1898; Preston, 1948; etc.).

They are so thick and tangled that they cannot be overcome without an ax or machete knife. Secondary forest does not have the pronounced multi-layered structure of virgin rain forest. It is characterized by giant trees located at a great distance from each other, which rise above the general level of vegetation (Verzilin, 1954; Haynes, 1956) (Fig. 90). Secondary forests are widespread in Central and South America, Congo, the Philippine Islands, Malaya, and many large islands of Oceania and Southeast Asia (Puzanov, 1957; Polyansky, 1958).

Rice. 90. Giant tree.

The fauna of tropical forests is not inferior to tropical flora in its richness and diversity. As D. Hunter (1960) put it figuratively, “A man can spend his whole life studying the fauna of one square mile of jungle.”

Almost all the largest species of mammals (elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, buffalos), predators (lions, tigers, leopards, pumas, panthers, jaguars), and amphibians (crocodiles) are found in tropical forests. The tropical forest abounds in reptiles, among which various species of poisonous snakes occupy a significant place (Bobrinsky et al., 1946; Bobrinsky, Gladkov, 1961; Grzimek, 1965; etc.).

The avifauna is very rich. The world of insects is also very diverse.

The fauna of the jungle is of significant interest in terms of the problem of survival and rescue of pilots and cosmonauts who made an emergency landing, since, on the one hand, it serves as a kind of “living storehouse” of nature, and on the other, it is a source of danger. True, most predators, with the exception of the leopard, avoid humans, but careless actions when meeting them can provoke their attack (Ackley, 1935). But some herbivores, for example the African buffalo, are unusually aggressive and attack people unexpectedly and for no apparent reason. It is no coincidence that not tigers and lions, but buffaloes are considered one of the most dangerous animals in the tropical zone (Putnam, 1961; Mayer, 1959).

Jungle. An ocean of undulating greenery. What to do when plunging into its emerald waves? A parachute can lower a pilot into the arms of thorny bushes, into bamboo thickets and to the top of a giant tree. In the latter case, a lot of skill is required to descend from a height of 50-60 meters using a rope ladder connected from parachute lines. For this purpose, American engineers even designed a special device in the form of a frame with a block through which a hundred-meter nylon cord is passed. The end of the cord, placed in the parachute pack, is hooked with a carbine to the harness, after which the descent can begin, the speed of which is controlled by the brake (Holton, 1967; Personal lowering device, 1972). Finally, the dangerous procedure is over. There is solid ground underfoot, but all around is an unfamiliar, inhospitable forest in the middle zone.

“Heavy dampness oozing through the branches, squelching like a swollen sponge, greasy soil, sticky thick air, not a sound, not a leaf moving, not a fly, not a bird chirping. The green, dense, elastic mass froze dead, immersed in cemetery silence... How to know where to go? Even some sign or hint - nothing. A green hell full of hostile indifference,” is how the famous French publicist Pierre Rondier describes the jungle (1967).

This originality and unusualness of the environment, combined with high temperature and humidity, affect the human psyche (Fiedler, 1958; Pfeffer, 1964; Hellpach, 1923). A pile of vegetation, surrounding on all sides, hindering movement, limiting visibility, causes a person to fear closed spaces. “I longed for open space, fought for it as a swimmer fights for air so as not to drown” (Ledge, 1958).

“The fear of closed space took possession of me,” writes E. Peppig in his book “Through the Andes to the Amazon” (1960), “I wanted to scatter the forest or move it to the side... I was like a mole in a hole, but, unlike him, couldn’t even climb up to take a breath of fresh air.”

This condition, aggravated by the twilight reigning around, filled with thousands of faint sounds, manifests itself in inadequate mental reactions: inhibition and, in connection with this, inability to carry out correct sequential activity (Norwood, 1965; Rubben, 1955) or in strong emotional arousal, which leads to rash, irrational actions (Fritsch, 1958; Cowell, 1964; Castellany, 1938).

A person who finds himself in the jungle for the first time and does not have a true idea about its flora and fauna, about the peculiarities of behavior in these conditions, shows even more self-doubt, the expectation of an unconscious danger, depression and nervousness. But you must not give in to them, you must cope with your condition, especially in the first, most difficult, hours after a forced landing, because as you adapt to the environment of the tropical forest, this condition passes the sooner, the more actively a person fights it. Knowledge about the nature of the jungle and survival methods will greatly contribute to this.

On October 11, 1974, a Peruvian Air Force helicopter taking off from the Intuto base crashed over the Amazon rainforest - the jungle. Day after day, the crew made their way through impenetrable forest thickets, eating fruits and roots, quenching their thirst from swampy forest reservoirs. They walked along one of the tributaries of the Amazon, not losing hope of getting to the river itself, where, according to their calculations, they could meet people and get help. Exhausted by fatigue and hunger, swollen from the bites of countless insects, they persistently made their way to their intended goal. And then, on the 13th day of the grueling march, the modest houses of the village of El Milagro, lost in the jungle, flashed through the thinning thicket. Courage and perseverance helped to overcome all the difficulties of autonomous existence in the jungle (“Three in the Village”, 1974).

From the first minutes of autonomous existence in the jungle, a person finds himself in an environment that strains all his physical and mental strength.

Dense vegetation impedes visual search, as smoke and light signals cannot be detected from the air, and interferes with the propagation of radio waves, complicating radio communications, so the most correct solution would be to go to the nearest populated area or river if they were noticed along the flight route or during parachute descent.

At the same time, the transition in the jungle is extremely difficult. Overcoming dense thickets, numerous rubble from fallen trunks and large tree branches, vines and disc-shaped roots creeping along the ground requires great physical effort and forces you to constantly deviate from the direct route. The situation is aggravated by high temperature and humidity, and the same physical activity in temperate and tropical climates turns out to be qualitatively different. Under experimental conditions, after one and a half to two hours of being in a heat chamber at a temperature of 30°, subjects noted rapid decline performance and the onset of fatigue when working on a treadmill (Vishnevskaya, 1961). In the jungle, according to L. E. Napier (1934), energy expenditure on the march at temperatures of 26.5-40.5 ° and high air humidity increases almost three times compared to conditions in a temperate climate. An increase in energy expenditure, and therefore an increase in heat production, puts the body, which is already experiencing a significant heat load, in an even more unfavorable position. Sweating increases sharply, but the sweat does not evaporate (Sjögren, 1967), flowing down the skin, it floods the eyes and soaks clothes. Excessive sweating not only does not bring relief, but exhausts a person even more.

Water losses on the march increase several times, reaching 0.5-1.0 l/hour (Molnar, 1952).

It is almost impossible to break through the dense thickets without a machete knife, an indispensable companion for a resident of the tropics (Fig. 91). But even with its help, it is sometimes possible to cover no more than 2-3 km in a day (Hagen, 1953; Kotlow, 1960). Along forest paths made by animals or humans, you can walk at a much higher speed (2-3 km/h).

Rice. 91. Samples (1-4) of machete knives.

But if there is not even such a primitive path, you should move along the ridges of hills or along rocky stream beds (Barwood, 1953; Clare, 1965; Surv. in the Tropics, 1965).

The primary rainforest is less dense, but in the secondary rainforest, visibility is limited to a few meters (Richardt, 1960).

It is extremely difficult to navigate in such an environment. It is enough to take a step away from the path to get lost (Appun, 1870; Norwood, 1965). This is fraught with serious consequences, since a person, having lost his way in the thicket of a forest, loses orientation more and more and easily crosses the line between sober prudence and feverish panic. Distraught, he rushes through the forest, stumbles over heaps of windfall, falls and, having risen, again hurries forward, no longer thinking about the right direction, and finally, when physical and mental stress reaches the limit, he stops, unable to take a single step (Collier, 1970).

The leaves and branches of the trees form such a dense canopy that you can walk through the rainforest for hours without seeing the sky. Therefore, astronomical observations can only be carried out on the shore of a reservoir or a vast clearing.

When marching in the jungle, the machete knife should always be in your hand at the ready, and the other hand should remain free. Careless actions sometimes lead to serious consequences: by grabbing a grass stem, you can get deep cuts that take a long time to heal (Levingston, 1955; Turaids, 1968). Scratches and wounds caused by thorns of bushes, saw-toothed edges of pandanus leaves, broken branches, etc., if not immediately lubricated with iodine or alcohol, become infected and fester (Van-Riel, 1958; Surv. in the Tropics, 1965).

Sometimes, after a long, tiring journey through thickets and forest rubble, a river suddenly flashes through the trees. Of course, the first desire is to plunge into cool water, wash off the sweat and fatigue. But to plunge in “on the spot,” while heated, means exposing yourself to great risk. Rapid cooling of an overheated body causes a sharp spasm of blood vessels, including the heart, the successful outcome of which is difficult to guarantee. R. Carmen in his book “Light in the Jungle” described a case when cameraman E. Mukhin, after a long trek in the jungle, did not cool down and dived into a river. “The bathing turned out to be fatal for him. As soon as he finished filming, he dropped dead. His heart sank; they barely got him to the base” (Carmen, 1957).

The real danger to humans when swimming in tropical rivers or when wading them are crocodiles, and in South American reservoirs pirayas, or piranhas (Serrasalmo piraya) (Fig. 92) are small, about the size of a human palm, black, yellowish or purple fish with large scales, as if sprinkled with sparkles. The protruding lower jaw, lined with sharp teeth like razor blades, gives it a special predatory quality.

Rice. 92. Piranha.

Piranhas usually travel in schools, numbering from several dozen to several hundred and even thousands of individuals.

The bloodthirstiness of these small predators is sometimes somewhat exaggerated, but the smell of blood causes an aggressive reflex in piranhas, and, having attacked the victim, they do not calm down until only a skeleton remains (Ostrovsky, 1971; Dahl, 1973). Many cases have been described in which people and animals attacked by a school of piranhas were literally torn to pieces alive within a few minutes.

It is not always possible to determine in advance the distance of the upcoming transition and the time it will take. Therefore, the plan for the upcoming trip (walking speed, duration of transitions and rests, etc.) should be drawn up taking into account the physical capabilities of the weakest crew member. A rationally drawn up plan will ensure the preservation of the strength and performance of the entire group for the maximum possible time.

Regardless of the speed of march, which will be determined by various reasons, a 10-15 minute stop is recommended every hour for a short rest and adjustment of equipment. After about 5-6 hours. a big halt is arranged. One and a half to two hours will be enough to gain strength, prepare hot food or tea, and put clothes and shoes in order.

Damp shoes and socks should be dried thoroughly and, if possible, your feet should be washed and the spaces between the toes should be powdered with drying powder. The benefits of these simple hygiene measures are extremely great. With their help, it is possible to prevent various pustular and fungal diseases that occur in the tropics due to excessive sweating of the feet, maceration of the skin and subsequent infection (Haller, 1962).

If during the day, making your way through the jungle, every now and then you come across obstacles, then at night the difficulties increase a thousandfold. Therefore, 1.5-2 hours before darkness approaches, you need to think about setting up a camp. Night in the tropics comes immediately, almost without any twilight. As soon as the sun sets (this happens between 17 and 18 hours), the jungle plunges into impenetrable darkness.

They try to choose a place for camp that is as dry as possible, preferably away from stagnant bodies of water, away from the path made by wild animals. After clearing the area of ​​bushes and tall grass, a shallow pit for a fire is dug in the center. The place for setting up a tent or building a temporary shelter is chosen so that there is no dead wood or trees with large dry branches nearby. They break off even with small gusts of wind and, falling, can cause serious damage.

Before going to bed, with the help of a smoker - a used tin can filled with smoldering coals and fresh grass, mosquitoes and mosquitoes are driven out of the home, and then the can is placed at the entrance. A shift watch is set up for the night. The duties of the duty officer include maintaining the fire throughout the night to prevent attacks by predators.

The fastest and least physically demanding method of transportation is river swimming. In addition to large water arteries, such as the Amazon, Parana, Orinoco - in South America; Congo, Senegal, Nile - in Africa; Ganges, Mekong, Red, Perak - in Southeast Asia, the jungle is crossed by many rivers that are quite passable for rescue craft - rafts, inflatable boats. Perhaps the most reliable and comfortable raft for sailing along tropical rivers is made of bamboo, a material with high buoyancy. For example, a bamboo leg 1 m long and 8-10 cm in diameter has a lifting force of 5 kg (Surv. in the Trop., 1965; The Jungl., 1968). Bamboo is easy to process, but if you are not careful, you can get deep, long-lasting cuts from the razor-sharp edges of bamboo slivers. Before starting work, it is recommended to thoroughly clean the joints under the leaves from fine hairs that cause long-term irritation of the skin of the hands. Often, various insects and, most often, hornets, whose bites are very painful, nest in the trunks of dry bamboo. The presence of insects is indicated by dark holes on the trunk. To drive out insects, it is enough to hit the trunk several times with a machete knife (Vaggu, 1974).

To build a raft for three people, 10-12 five- or six-meter trunks are enough. They are fastened together with several wooden crossbars, and then carefully tied with slings, vines, and flexible branches (Fig. 93). Before sailing, several three-meter bamboo poles are made. They measure the bottom, push off obstacles, etc. The anchor is a heavy stone to which two parachute lines are tied, or several smaller stones tied into parachute fabric.

Rice. 93. Building a raft from bamboo.

Sailing along tropical rivers is always fraught with surprises, for which the crew must always be prepared: collisions with driftwood and snags, floating logs and large mammals. The rapids and waterfalls that you often encounter along the way are extremely dangerous. The growing roar of falling water usually warns of approaching them. In this case, the raft is immediately moored to the shore and they go around the obstacle on dry land, dragging the raft. Just as during transitions, swimming stops 1-1.5 hours before dark. But before setting up camp, the raft is securely tied to a thick tree.

Despite the richness of the fauna, providing yourself with food in the jungle through hunting is much more difficult than it seems at first glance. It is no coincidence that African explorer Henry Stanley noted in his diary that “...animals and large birds are something edible, but, despite all our efforts, we very rarely managed to kill anything” (Stanley, 1956).

But with the help of an improvised fishing rod or net, you can successfully supplement your diet with fish, which tropical rivers often abound. For those who find themselves “face to face” with the jungle, the method of fishing, which is widely used by residents of tropical countries, is not without interest. It is based on the poisoning of fish with plant poisons - rotenones and rotecondas, contained in the leaves, roots and shoots of some tropical plants. These poisons, which are completely safe for humans, cause constriction of small blood vessels in the gills in fish and disrupt the breathing process. The gasping fish rushes about, jumps out of the water and, dying, floats to the surface (Bates and Abbott, 1967). Thus, South American Indians use for this purpose the shoots of the Lonchocarpus vine (Lonchocarpus sp.) (Geppi, 1961), the roots of the Brabasco plant (Peppig, 1960), the shoots of the vines Dahlstedtia pinnata, Magonia pubescens, Paulinia pinnata, Indigofora lespedezoides, called timbo (Cowell, 1964; Bates, 1964; Moraes, 1965), assaku juice (Sapium aucuparin) (Fosset, 1964). The Veddas, the ancient inhabitants of Sri Lanka, also use a range of plants for fishing (Clark, 1968). The pear-shaped fruits of Barringtonia (Fig. 94), a small tree with rounded dark green leaves and fluffy bright pink flowers, inhabiting the forests of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands (Litke, 1948) are distinguished by a high content of rotenones.

Rice. 94. Barringtonia.

In the jungles of Burma and Laos, the Indochina and Malay Peninsulas, along the banks of reservoirs and in wetlands, many similar plants are found, sometimes forming dense thickets. You can recognize them by the unpleasant, suffocating odor that occurs when the leaves are rubbed.

Sha-nyang(Amonium echinosphaera) (Fig. 95) is a low shrub 1-3 m high with pointed oblong leaves of dark green color, 7-10 on one stem, reminiscent in its appearance of a separate pinnate leaf of a palm tree.

Rice. 95. Sha-nyang.

Ngen, or Ngen-ram(botanical affiliation not determined) (Fig. 96) - bushes reaching 1-1.5 m, with thin red branches. Small oblong leaves, pointed at the ends, are pale green in color and rough to the touch.

Rice. 96. Ngen.

Kay-koy(Pterocaria Tonconensis Pode) (Fig. 97) is a dense shrub that looks like an elderberry. The stems of the bush are greenish-red and have small lanceolate leaves.

Rice. 97. Kay-koy.

Shak-shche(Poligonium Posumbii Hamilt (Fig. 98) - bushes 1-1.5 m tall with oblong dark green leaves.

Rice. 98. Shak-shche.

Than-mat(Antheroporum pierrei) (Fig. 99) is a small tree with small dark green leaves and fruits resembling dark brown bean pods of irregular shape, 5-6 cm long, with black bean fruits inside.

Rice. 99. Than-mat.

In South Vietnam, monogars fish using the roots of the cro plant (Milletia pirrei Gagnepain) (Condominas, 1968). The method of catching fish with poisonous plants is not complicated. Leaves, roots or shoots, previously soaked by blows from stones or a wooden club, are thrown into a pond or dam made of stones and branches until the water turns a dull green color. This requires approximately 4-6 kg of plant. After 15-25 minutes. The “dormant” fish begins to float up to the surface of the water, belly up, and all that remains is to collect it in a fish tank. Catching goes with that more successful the higher the water temperature. The optimal temperature is 20-21°. At lower temperatures, the action of rotenones slows down. The simplicity of the method led specialists to the idea of ​​including rotenone tablets in NAZ.

The prejudice that exists among people sometimes forces them to pass by food indifferently because of its unfamiliarity. However, under the current unfavorable circumstances, it should not be neglected. It is quite high in calories and nutrition.

For example, 5 grasshoppers provide 225 kcal (New York Times Magazin, 1964). Tree crab contains 83% water, 3.4% carbohydrates, 8.9% protein, 1.1% fat. The calorie content of crab meat is 55.5 kcal. The snail's body contains 80% water, 12.2% protein, 0.66% fat. The calorie content of food prepared from snail is 50.9. The silkworm pupa consists of 23.1% carbohydrates, 14.2% proteins, and 1.52% fats. The calorie content of the food mass from the pupae is 206 kcal (Stanley, 1956; Le May, 1953).

In the jungles of Africa, in the impenetrable Amazon thickets, in the wilds of the Indochina Peninsula, in the archipelagos of the Pacific Ocean, there are many plants whose fruits and tubers are rich in nutrients(Table 10).

Table 10. Nutritional value (%) of wild edible plants (per 100 g of product).

One of these representatives of tropical flora is the coconut palm (Cocos nucufera) (Fig. 100). It is easily recognized by its slender 15-20-meter trunk, smooth, like a column, with a luxurious crown of feathery leaves, at the very base of which clusters of huge nuts hang. Inside the nut, the shell of which is covered with a thick fibrous shell, contains up to 200-300 ml of a transparent, slightly sweet liquid - coconut milk, cool even on the hottest day. The kernel of a mature nut is a dense, white mass, unusually rich in fat (43.3%). If you don’t have a knife, you can peel the nut using a sharpened stick. It is dug into the ground with its blunt end, and then, hitting the tip with the top of the nut, the shell is torn off piece by piece with a rotational movement (Danielsson, 1962). To get to nuts hanging at a height of 15-20 meters along a smooth, branchless trunk, you should use the experience of residents of tropical countries. A belt or parachute line is wrapped around the trunk and the ends are tied so that the feet can be threaded through the resulting loop. Then, holding the trunk with your hands, pull your legs up and straighten. When descending, this technique is repeated in the reverse order.

Rice. 100. Coconut tree.

The fruits of the deshoy tree (Rubus alceafolius) are very peculiar. Resembling a cup up to 8 cm in size, they are located singly at the base of oblong dark green leaves. The fruit is covered with a dark, dense peel, under which lie large green grains. The grain kernels are edible raw, boiled and fried.

In the clearings and edges of the jungle of the Indochinese and Melaka Peninsulas, a low (1-2 m) shim tree (Rhodomirtus tomendosa Wiglit) grows with oblong leaves - dark green slippery on top and brown-green “velvety” on the underside. The purple, plum-shaped fruits are fleshy and sweet in taste.

The tall 10-15 meter tall causoca (Garcinia Tonconeani) attracts attention from afar with its thick trunk covered with large white spots. Its oblong leaves are very dense to the touch. Kauzok fruits are large, up to 6 cm in diameter, unusually sour, but quite edible after boiling (Fig. 101).

Rice. 101. Kau-zok.

In young jungles, the sunny slopes of the hills are covered with shrubs of the genus Anonaceae with thin dark green oblong leaves that emit a sweetish, cloying odor when rubbed (Fig. 102). The dark pink, characteristic teardrop-shaped fruits are sweet and juicy.

Rice. 102. Zoya leaves.

The low, mossy-looking tree (Rubus alceafolius poir) loves open, sunny clearings. Its wide, serrated leaves are also covered with “moss.” The ripe fruit resembles a small reddish apple with fragrant, sweetish pulp.

Along the banks of rivers and streams of the Indochinese jungle, high above the water, branches with long, dense, dark leaves of the cuacho tree (Aleurites fordii) extend. The yellow and yellow-green fruits are similar in appearance to quince. Only ripe fruits that have fallen to the ground can be eaten raw. Unripe fruits have an astringent taste and require cooking.

Mango (Mangifera indica) is a small tree with peculiar shiny leaves that have a high rib in the middle, from which parallel ribs run obliquely (Fig. 103).

Large, 6-12 cm in length, dark green fruits, shaped like a heart, are unusually fragrant. Their sweet, bright orange, juicy flesh can be eaten immediately after picking the fruit from the tree.

Rice. 103. Mango.

Breadfruit(Artocarpus integrifolia) is perhaps one of the richest food sources. Huge, knobby, with dense glossy leaves, sometimes dotted with round pimply yellow-green fruits, sometimes weighing up to 20-25 kg (Fig. 104). The fruits are located directly on the trunk or large branches. This is the so-called cauliflory. The mealy, starch-rich flesh can be boiled, fried and baked. The grains, peeled and roasted on a skewer, taste like chestnuts.

Rice. 104. Breadfruit.

Ku-mai(Dioscorea persimilis) is a creeping plant found in the jungles of Southeast Asia in February-April. Its faded green trunk with a gray stripe in the middle, spreading along the ground, is decorated with heart-shaped leaves, yellow-green on the outside and faded gray on the inside. Ku-mai tubers are edible fried or boiled.

melon tree– Papaya (Carica papaya) is found in the tropical forests of Africa, Southeast Asia and South America. This is a low tree, with a thin trunk without branches, crowned with an umbrella of palmately dissected leaves on long cuttings (Fig. 105). Large, melon-like fruits hang directly on the trunk. As they ripen, their color changes from dark green to orange. Ripe fruits are edible raw. The taste also resembles melon, but not very sweet. In addition to the fruits, you can eat flowers and young shoots of papaya, which should be cooked for 1-2 hours before cooking. soak in water.

Rice. 105. Papaya.

Cassava(Manihot utilissima) is an evergreen shrub with a thin knotty trunk, 3-7 palmately dissected leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers collected in panicles (Fig. 106). Cassava is one of the most widespread tropical crops.

Large tuberous roots, weighing up to 10-15 kg, which are easily found at the base of the stem, are used for food. In their raw form, the tubers are very poisonous, but they are tasty and nutritious when boiled, fried and baked. For instant cooking leave the tubers for 5 minutes. into the fire, and then 8-10 minutes. baked on hot coals. To remove the burnt skin, make a screw-shaped cut along the length of the tuber, and then cut off both ends with a knife.

Rice. 106. Cassava.

In the jungles of Southeast Asia, among dense tropical thickets, you can see heavy brownish clusters hanging like grape clusters (Fig. 107). These are the fruits of the tree-like vine kei-gam (Gnetum formosum) (Fig. 108). The fruits are hard-shelled nuts, roasted over a fire, with a taste reminiscent of chestnuts.

Rice. 107. Key-gam.

Rice. 108. Kei-gam fruits.

Banana(Musa from the Musaceae family) is a perennial herbaceous plant with a thick elastic trunk formed from wide (80-90 cm) up to 4 m long leaves (Fig. 109). Triangular, sickle-shaped banana fruits are located in one cluster, weighing 15 kg or more. Beneath the thick, easy-to-remove skin is sweet, starchy flesh.

Rice. 109. Banana.

A wild relative of the banana can be found among the greenery of the tropical forest by its bright red flowers that grow vertically, like Christmas tree candles (Fig. 110). Wild banana fruits are not edible. But the flowers (their inner part tastes like corn), buds, and young shoots are quite edible after soaking in water for 30-40 minutes.

Rice. 110. Wild banana.

Bamboo(Bambusa nutans) is a tree-like grass with a characteristic smooth geniculate trunk and narrow, lanceolate leaves (Fig. 111). Bamboo is widespread in the jungle and sometimes forms dense impenetrable thickets up to 30 m or more in height. Often bamboo trunks are arranged in huge, unique “bundles”, at the base of which you can find edible young shoots.

Rice. 111. Bamboo.

Sprouts no longer than 20-50 cm long, resembling an ear of corn in appearance, are suitable for food. The dense multilayer shell is easily removed after a deep circular cut made at the base of the “cob”. The exposed greenish-white dense mass is edible raw and cooked.

Along the banks of rivers and streams, on soil saturated with moisture, there is a tall tree with a smooth brown trunk, small dark green leaves - guava (Psidium guaiava) (Fig. 112). Its pear-shaped fruits, green or yellow in color, with a pleasant sweet and sour pulp, are a real living multivitamin. 100 g contains: A (200 units), B (14 mg), B 2 (70 mg), C (100-200 mg).

Rice. 112. Guayava.

In young jungles, along the banks of streams and rivers, a tree with a disproportionately thin trunk, topped with a spreading bright green crown of dense leaves with a characteristic elongation at the end, attracts attention from afar. This is a queo (botanical identity not determined). Its pale green triangular fruits, similar to an elongated plum, with golden juicy pulp, are unusually aromatic and have a pleasant sour-sweet taste (Fig. 113).

Rice. 113. Kueo fruits.

Mong Nghia- horse's hoof (Angiopteris cochindunensis), a small tree, the thin trunk of which seems to consist of two different parts: the lower one is gray, slippery, shiny, at a height of 1-2 m it turns into a bright green upper one with black vertical stripes.

The oblong, pointed leaves are edged with black stripes. At the base of the tree, underground or directly on the surface, lie 8-10 large, 600-700 gram tubers (Fig. 114). They need to be soaked for 6-8 hours and then boiled for 1-2 hours.

Rice. 114. Mong-ngya tubers.

In the young jungles of Laos and Kampuchea, Vietnam and the Malacca Peninsula, in dry, sunny areas you can find the thin-trunked dai-hai vine (Hadsoenia macrocarfa) with dark green, three-fingered leaves (Fig. 115). Its 500-700 gram, spherical, brownish-green fruits contain up to 62% fat. They can be eaten boiled or fried, and the large bean-shaped grains, roasted over a fire, taste like peanuts.

Rice. 115. Give-hai.

The collected plants can be boiled in an improvised pan made of bamboo with a diameter of 80-100 mm. To do this, two through holes are cut in the upper open end, and then a banana leaf is inserted into the bamboo, folded so that the shiny side is on the outside. The peeled tubers or fruits are finely chopped and placed in a “pan” and filled with water. Having plugged the knee with a plug of leaves, it is placed over the fire, and so that the wood does not burn out, it is turned clockwise (Fig. 116). After 20-30 minutes. food is ready. You can boil water in the same “pan”, but you don’t need a stopper.

Rice. 116. Cooking food in a bamboo knee.

High temperatures combined with high air humidity in the tropics place the human body in extremely unfavorable heat exchange conditions. It is known that at a water vapor pressure of about 35 mm Hg. Art. heat transfer by evaporation practically stops, and at 42 mm it is impossible under any conditions (Guilment, Carton, 1936).

Thus, since at high temperature environment heat transfer by convection and radiation is impossible, moisture-saturated air closes the last path through which the body could still get rid of excess heat (Witte, 1956; Smirnov, 1961; Yoselson, 1963; Winslow et al., 1937). This state can occur at a temperature of 30-31°, if the air humidity has reached 85% (Kassirsky, 1964). At a temperature of 45°, heat transfer completely stops even at a humidity of 67% (Guilment, Charton, 1936; Douglas, 1950; Brebner et al., 1956). The severity of subjective sensations depends on the tension of the sweating apparatus. When 75% of the sweat glands are working, the sensations are assessed as “hot”, and when all glands are involved in the work - as “very hot” (Winslow, Herrington, 1949).

As can be seen in the graph (Fig. 117), already in the third zone, where heat transfer is carried out by constant, albeit moderate, tension of the sweating system, the state of the body approaches discomfort. Under these conditions, any clothing makes you feel worse. In the fourth zone (the zone of high sweating intensity), evaporation no longer provides complete heat transfer. In this zone, a gradual accumulation of heat begins, accompanied by a deterioration in the general condition of the body. In the fifth zone, in the absence of airflow, even the maximum voltage of the entire sweat-excretory system does not provide the necessary heat transfer. Prolonged stay in this zone inevitably leads to heat stroke. Within the sixth zone, when the temperature rises by 0.2-1.2° per hour, overheating of the body is inevitable. In the seventh, most unfavorable, zone, survival time does not exceed 1.5-2 hours. Despite the fact that the graph does not take into account the connection between overheating and other factors (insolation, air speed, physical activity), it still gives an idea of ​​the influence of the main factors of the tropical climate on the body, depending on the degree of tension in the sweating system, on the temperature and humidity of the environment air (Krichagin, 1965).

Rice. 117. Graph of objective assessment of a person’s tolerance to high environmental temperatures.

American physiologists F. Sargent and D. Zakharko (1965), using data obtained by different researchers, compiled a special graph that allows one to judge the tolerance of various temperatures depending on air humidity and determine optimal and permissible limits (Fig. 118).

Rice. 118. High temperature tolerance chart. Thermal load limits: A-1, A-2, A-3 – for acclimatized people; NA-1, NA-2, NA-3, NA-4 – non-acclimatized.

Thus, curve A-1 shows the conditions under which people can do light work (100-150 kcal/hour) without discomfort, losing up to 2.5 liters of sweat in 4 hours (Smith, 1955). Curve A-2 separates very warm conditions, which have a known risk of heatstroke, from unbearably hot conditions, which threaten heatstroke (Brunt, 1943). E. J. Largent, W. F. Ashe (1958) derived a similar safety limit curve (A-3) for workers in mines and textile factories. The HA-2 curve, built on data obtained by E. Schickele (1947), determines the limit below which the author did not register a single case of thermal injuries in 157 military units. The HA-3 curve reflects the difference between warm and too hot conditions at a temperature of 26.7° and a wind of 2.5 m/sec (Ladell, 1949). The upper limit of the thermal load is indicated by the HA-4 curve, derived by D. N. K. Lee (1957), for the daily work of a non-acclimatized person in the mesothermic zone.

Intense sweating during heat stress leads to depletion of fluid in the body. This negatively affects the functional activity of the heart. vascular system(Dmitriev, 1959), affects muscle contractility and the development of muscle fatigue due to changes physical properties colloids and their subsequent destruction (Khvoinitskaya, 1959; Sadykov, 1961).

To maintain a positive water balance and ensure thermoregulation, a person in tropical conditions must constantly replenish lost fluid. In this case, not only the absolute amount of liquid and drinking regimen are important, but also its temperature. The lower it is, the longer the time during which a person can be in a hot environment (Veghte, Webb, 1961).

J. Gold (1960), studying human heat exchange in a thermal chamber at temperatures of 54.4-71°, found that drinking water cooled to 1-2° increased the time subjects spent in the chamber by 50-100%. Based on these provisions, many researchers consider it extremely useful in hot climates to use water with a temperature of 7-15° (Bobrov, Matuzov, 1962; Mac Pherson, 1960; Goldmen et al., 1965). The greatest effect, according to E.F. Rozanova (1954), is achieved when water is cooled to 10°.

In addition to its cooling effect, drinking water increases sweating. True, according to some data, its temperature in the range of 25-70° does not have a significant effect on the level of sweating (Frank, 1940; Venchikov, 1952). N.P. Zvereva (1949) found that the intensity of sweating when drinking water heated to 42° is significantly higher than when using water with a temperature of 17°. However, I. N. Zhuravlev (1949) points out that the higher the temperature of the water, the more it is needed to quench thirst.

No matter what recommendations are given regarding the normalization of the drinking regime, the dosage of water and its temperature, in any case, the amount of fluid taken should fully compensate for the water loss caused by sweating (Lehman, 1939).

At the same time, it is not always possible to establish the amount of the body’s true need for fluid with the necessary accuracy. It is usually believed that drinking until thirst is completely quenched is this necessary limit. However, this point of view is, to say the least, erroneous. Studies have shown that in high temperature conditions, a person who drinks water as they become thirsty gradually develops dehydration of 2 to 5%. For example, soldiers in the desert replaced only 34-50% of true water losses by drinking “as needed” (Adolf et al., 1947). Thus, thirst turns out to be a very inaccurate indicator of the water-salt state of the body.

To avoid dehydration, excess drinking is necessary, i.e., additional intake of water (0.3-0.5 l) after satisfying thirst (Minard et al., 1961). In chamber experiments at a temperature of 48.9°, subjects who received excess amounts of water had half as much weight loss as subjects in the control group, lower body temperature, and lower heart rate (Moroff and Bass, 1965).

Thus, drinking in excess of water loss helps to normalize the thermal state and increase the efficiency of thermoregulation processes (Pitts et al., 1944).

In the chapter “Survival in the Desert” we already dwelled on the issues of water-salt metabolism at high temperatures.

In conditions of autonomous existence in the desert with limited water supplies, the salts contained in the diet almost completely, and sometimes even more than compensate for the loss of chlorides through sweat. Observing a large group of people in a hot climate at an air temperature of 40° and a humidity of 30%, M. V. Dmitriev (1959) came to the conclusion that with water losses not exceeding 3-5 liters, there is no need for a special water-salt regime. The same idea is expressed by many other authors (Shek, 1963; Steinberg, 1963; Matuzov, Ushakov, 1964; etc.).

In the tropics, especially during heavy physical exertion during treks in the jungle, when sweating is profuse, the loss of salts through sweat reaches significant values ​​and can cause salt exhaustion (Latysh, 1955).

Thus, during a seven-day hike in the jungle of the Malacca Peninsula at a temperature of 25.5-32.2° and air humidity of 80-94%, in persons who did not receive an additional 10-15 g of table salt, already on the third day the chloride content in blood and signs of salt wasting appeared (Brennan, 1953). Thus, in tropical climates, with heavy physical activity, additional salt intake becomes necessary (Gradwhol, 1951; Leithead, 1963, 1967; Malhotra, 1964; Boaz, 1969). Salt is given either in powder or in tablets, adding it to food in an amount of 7-15 g (Hall, 1964; Taft, 1967), or in the form of a 0.1-2% solution (Field service, 1945; Haller, 1962; Neel, 1962). When determining the amount of sodium chloride that should be given additionally, one can proceed from the calculation of 2 g of salt for each liter of fluid lost through sweat (Silchenko, 1974).

Physiologists have different opinions regarding the advisability of using salted water to improve water-salt metabolism. According to some authors, salted water quickly quenches thirst and promotes fluid retention in the body (Yakovlev, 1953; Grachev, 1954; Kurashvili, 1960; Shek, 1963; Solomko, 1967).

Thus, according to M.E. Marshak and L.M. Klaus (1927), adding sodium chloride (10 g/l) to water reduced water loss from 2250 to 1850 ml, and salt loss from 19 to 14 g.

This fact is confirmed by the observations of K. Yu. Yusupov and A. Yu. Tilis (Yusupov, 1960; Yusupov, Tilis, 1960). All 92 people who performed physical work at a temperature of 36.4-45.3°, thirst was quickly quenched with water, to which 1 to 5 g/l sodium chloride was added. At the same time, the body's true need for fluid was not covered and latent dehydration developed (Table 11).

Table 11. Water losses when consuming fresh and salted water. Number of subjects – 7.

Thus, V.P. Mikhailov (1959), studying water-salt metabolism in subjects in a heat chamber at 35° and relative air humidity of 39-45% and on a march at 27-31° and humidity 20-31%, came to the conclusion that, other things being equal, drinking salted (0.5%) water does not reduce sweating, does not reduce the risk of overheating, and only stimulates diuresis.

Issues of water supply in the jungle are resolved relatively simply. There is no need to complain about the lack of water here. Streams and streams, depressions filled with water, swamps and small lakes are found at every step (Stanley, 1958). However, water from such sources must be used with caution. It is often infected with helminths and contains various pathogenic microorganisms that cause severe intestinal diseases (Grober, 1939; Haller, 1962). The water of stagnant and low-flowing reservoirs has high organic pollution (the coli index exceeds 11,000), so its disinfection with pantocid tablets, iodine, cholazone and other bactericidal drugs may not be effective enough (Kalmykov, 1953; Gubar, Koshkin, 1961; Rodenwald, 1957) . The most reliable way to make jungle water safe for health is to boil it. Although it requires a certain investment of time and energy, it should not be neglected for the sake of one's own safety.

The jungle, in addition to the above water sources, has one more - biological. It is represented by various water-carrying plants. One of these water carriers is the Ravenala palm (Ravenala madagascariensis), called the traveler's tree (Fig. 119).

Rice. 119. Ravenala. Botanical Garden, Madang, Papua New Guinea.

This woody plant, found in the jungles and savannas of the African continent, is easily recognized by its wide leaves located in the same plane, which resemble a blossoming peacock's tail or a huge bright green fan.

Thick leaf cuttings have containers in which up to 1 liter of water accumulates (Rodin, 1954; Baranov, 1956; Fiedler, 1959).

A lot of moisture can be obtained from vines, the lower loops of which contain up to 200 ml of cool, clear liquid (Stanley, 1958). However, if the juice appears lukewarm, tastes bitter, or is colored, it should not be drunk as it may be poisonous (Benjamin, 1970).

The king of African flora, the baobab, is a kind of water repository, even during periods of severe drought (Hunter, 1960).

In the jungles of Southeast Asia, on the Philippine and Sunda Islands, there is an extremely curious water-carrying tree known as malukba. By making a V-shaped notch on its thick trunk and using a piece of bark or banana leaf as a trench, you can collect up to 180 liters of water (George, 1967). This tree has an amazing property: water can be obtained from it only after sunset.

And, for example, the inhabitants of Burma get water from reeds, the one and a half meter stem of which provides about a glass of moisture (Vaidya, 1968).

But perhaps the most common water-bearing plant is bamboo. True, not every bamboo trunk stores a supply of water. Bamboo, which contains water, is yellowish-green in color and grows in damp places obliquely to the ground at an angle of 30-50°. The presence of water is determined by a characteristic splash when shaking. One meter bend contains from 200 to 600 ml of clear, pleasant-tasting water (The Jungle, 1968; Benjamin, 1970). Bamboo water has a temperature of 10-12° even when the ambient temperature has long exceeded 30°. Such a knee with water can be used as a flask and carried with you, having on hand a supply of fresh water that does not require any preliminary treatment. fresh water(Fig. 120).

Rice. 120. Transporting water in bamboo “flasks”.

The climatic and geographical features of tropical countries (constantly high temperatures and air humidity, the specificity of flora and fauna) create extremely favorable conditions for the emergence and development of various tropical diseases (Maksimova, 1965; Reich, 1965). “A person, falling into the sphere of influence of a focus of vector-borne diseases, due to the nature of his activity, becomes a new link in the chain of biocenotic connections, paving the way for the pathogen to penetrate from the focus into the body. This explains the possibility of human infection with certain vector-borne diseases in wild, poorly developed nature.” This position, expressed by the greatest Soviet scientist, Academician E.N. Pavlovsky (1945), can be entirely attributed to the tropics. Moreover, in the tropics, due to the lack of seasonal climate fluctuations, diseases also lose their seasonal rhythm (Yuzats, 1965).

However, in addition to favorable conditions external environment can play a significant role in the occurrence and spread of tropical diseases social factors and, first of all, poor sanitary conditions settlements, especially rural ones, lack of sanitary cleaning, centralized water supply and sewerage, non-compliance with basic hygiene rules, lack of sanitary educational work, insufficient measures to identify and isolate sick people, bacteria carriers, etc. (Ryzhikov, 1965; Lysenko et al., 1965; Nguyen Tang Am, 1960).

If we classify tropical diseases according to the principle of causality, they can be divided into 5 groups. The first will include all diseases associated with human exposure to unfavorable factors of the tropical climate (high insolation, temperature and air humidity) - burns, heat and sunstroke, as well as fungal skin infections, which are facilitated by constant hydration of the skin caused by increased sweating.

The second group includes diseases of a nutritional nature caused by a lack of certain vitamins in food (beriberi, pellagra, etc.) or the presence of toxic substances in it (poisoning with glucosides, alkaloids, etc.).

The third group includes diseases caused by the bites of poisonous snakes, arachnids, etc.

Diseases of the fourth group arise due to the specific soil and climatic conditions that promote the development of certain pathogens in the soil (hookworm disease, strongyloidiasis, etc.).

And, finally, the fifth group of tropical diseases proper - diseases with pronounced tropical natural focality (sleeping sickness, schistosomiasis, yellow fever, malaria, etc.).

It is known that heat exchange disturbances are often observed in the tropics. However, the threat of heat stroke arises only during heavy physical activity, which can be avoided by following a rational regimen. labor activity. Measures to provide assistance are limited to creating peace for the victim, providing him with drink, administering cardiac and tonic drugs (caffeine, cordiamine, etc.). Fungal diseases (especially of the toes) caused by various types of dermatophytes are especially widespread in the tropical zone. This is explained, on the one hand, by the fact that the acidic reaction of the soil favors the development of fungi in them that are pathogenic for humans (Akimtsev, 1957; Yarotsky, 1965); on the other hand, the occurrence of fungal diseases is facilitated by increased sweating of the skin, high humidity and ambient temperature (Jacobson, 1956; Moszkowski, 1957; Finger, 1960).

Prevention and treatment of fungal diseases consists of constant hygienic care of the feet, lubricating the interdigital spaces with nitrofugin, sprinkling with a mixture of zinc oxide, boric acid, etc. Excessive sweating often leads to the development of tropical miliaria with a profuse rash of small blisters filled with clear liquid, accompanied by itching (Yarotsky, 1963; etc.). Treatment for miliaria consists of regular hygienic skin care (Borman et al., 1943).

Very common skin lesions in hot conditions, humid climate is tropical lichen (Miliaria rubra). Ego superficial dermatitis of unknown etiology, with sharp redness of the skin, profuse vesicular and papular rashes, accompanied by severe itching and burning of the affected areas (Klimov, 1965; etc.). For the treatment of tropical lichen, a powder consisting of 50.0 g of zinc oxide is recommended; 50.5 g talc; 10.0 g bentonite; 5.0 g camphor powder and 0.5 g menthol (Macki et al., 1956).

Considering the second group of tropical diseases, we will touch only on those that are acute in nature, that is, caused by the ingestion of toxic substances (glucosides, alkaloids) contained in wild plants into the body (Petrovsky, 1948). A measure to prevent poisoning when using unfamiliar plants of tropical flora for food would be to take them in small portions, followed by waiting tactics. If signs of poisoning appear: nausea, vomiting, dizziness, cramping abdominal pain, measures should be taken immediately to remove food taken from the body (gastric lavage, drinking plenty of 3-5 liters of a weak solution of potassium permanganate, as well as administering drugs that support cardiac activity, stimulating the respiratory center).

This group also includes lesions caused by guao-type plants, widespread in the tropical forests of Central and South America and the islands of the Caribbean Sea. White plant juice after 5 minutes. turns brown, and after 15 minutes. takes on a black color. When the sap comes into contact with the skin (especially damaged skin) with dew, raindrops, or touching leaves and young shoots, numerous pale pink bubbles appear on it. They grow quickly and merge, forming spots with jagged edges. The skin swells, itches unbearably, headaches and dizziness appear. The disease can last for 1-2 weeks, but always ends in a successful outcome (Safronov, 1965). This type of plant includes mancinella (Hippomane mancinella) from the Euphorbiaceae family with small, apple-like fruits. After touching its trunk during rain, when water flows down it, dissolving the juice, through a short time severe headaches appear, pain in the intestines, the tongue swells so much that it is difficult to speak (Sjögren, 1972).

In Southeast Asia similar action has the juice of the khan plant, somewhat reminiscent in appearance of large nettles, causing very deep painful burns.

Poisonous snakes pose a terrible danger to humans in the tropical forest. English authors consider snake bites to be one of the “three most important emergencies that occur in the jungle.”

Suffice it to say that every year 25-30 thousand people fall victim to poisonous snakes in Asia, 4 thousand in South America, 400-1000 in Africa, 300-500 in the USA, 50 people in Europe (Grober, 1960). According to WHO, only in 1963 from snake venom More than 15 thousand people died (Skosyrev, 1969).

In the absence of specific serum, about 30% of those affected die from the bite of poisonous snakes (Manson-Bahr, 1954).

Of the 2,200 known snakes, approximately 270 species are venomous. These are mainly representatives of two families - colubridae and viperinae (Nauck, 1956; Bannikov, 1965). On the territory of the Soviet Union there are 56 species of snakes, of which only 10 are poisonous (Valtseva, 1969). The most poisonous snakes in the tropical zone:

Poisonous snakes are usually small in size (100-150 cm), but there are specimens reaching 3 m or more (Fig. 121-129). Snake venom is complex in nature. It consists of: albumins and globulins, coagulating from high temperature; proteins that do not coagulate from high temperature (albumosis, etc.); mucin and mucin-like substances; proteolytic, diastatic, lipolytic, cytolytic enzymes, fibrin enzyme; fats; formed elements, random bacterial impurities; salts of chlorides and phosphates of calcium, magnesium and aluminum (Pavlovsky, 1950). Toxic substances, hemotoxins and neurotoxins, which act as enzymatic poisons, affect the circulatory and nervous systems (Barkagan, 1965; Borman et al., 1943; Boquet, 1948).

Rice. 121. Bushmaster.

Rice. 122. Spectacled snake.

Rice. 123. Asp.

Rice. 124. Efa.

Rice. 125. Gyurza.

Rice. 126. Mamba.

Rice. 127. African viper.

Rice. 128. Snake of death.

Rice. 129. Tropical rattlesnake.

Hemotoxins cause a strong local reaction in the bite area, which is expressed in severe pain, swelling and hemorrhages. After a short period of time, dizziness, abdominal pain, vomiting, and thirst appear. Blood pressure drops, temperature drops, and breathing quickens. All these phenomena develop against the background of strong emotional arousal.

Neurotoxins, affecting the nervous system, cause paralysis of the limbs, which then spread to the muscles of the head and torso. Disorders of speech, swallowing, incontinence of feces, urine, etc. occur. In severe forms of poisoning, death occurs after a short time from respiratory paralysis (Sultanov, 1957).

All these phenomena develop especially quickly when the poison enters directly into the main vessels.

The degree of poisoning depends on the type of snake, its size, the amount of poison that has entered the human body, and the period of the year. For example, snakes are most poisonous in the spring, during the mating period, after hibernation(Imamaliev, 1955). The general physical condition of the victim, his age, weight, and location of the bite are important (bites on the neck and large vessels of the extremities are the most dangerous) (Aliev, 1953; Napier, 1946; Russel, 1960).

It should be noted that some snakes (black-necked and king cobra) can hit their prey at a distance (Grzimek, 1968). According to some reports, the cobra spits a stream of venom at a distance of 2.5-3 m (Hunter, 1960; Grzimek, 1968). Contact of poison on the mucous membrane of the eyes causes the entire symptom complex of poisoning.

What does an attack victim feel? poisonous snake, dramatically described in his book “Through the Andes to the Amazon” by the famous German naturalist Eduard Peppg, who was bitten by one of the most poisonous South American snakes - the bushmaster (crotalus mutus) (see Fig. 121). “I was about to cut down a nearby trunk that was bothering me, when I suddenly felt a sharp pain in my ankle, as if molten sealing wax had been dropped on it. The pain was so strong that I involuntarily jumped on the spot. My leg was very swollen and I could not step on it.

The bite site, which had become cold and had almost lost sensitivity, was marked by a blue spot the size of a square inch and two black dots, as if from a pin prick.

The pain kept getting worse, and I kept losing consciousness; the ensuing unconscious state could be followed by death. Everything around me began to plunge into darkness, I lost consciousness and felt no more pain. It was already well after midnight when I came to my senses - the young organism had won a victory over death. A severe fever, profuse perspiration and excruciating pain in my leg indicated that I was saved.

For several days the pain from the resulting wound did not stop, and the consequences of the poisoning were felt for a long time. Only two weeks later, with outside help, I was able to get out of the dark corner and stretch out on the skin of a jaguar at the door of the hut" (Peppig, 1960).

For snake bites, various first aid methods are used, which should either prevent the spread of venom through the blood vessels (application of a tourniquet proximal to the bite site) (Boldin, 1956; Adams, Macgraith, 1953; Davey, 1956; etc.), or remove part of the venom from the wound (cutting the wounds and sucking out the poison) (Yudin, 1955; Ruge und and., 1942), or neutralize the poison (sprinkling with potassium permanganate powder (Grober, 1939). However, studies conducted in recent years cast doubt on the effectiveness of some of them .

According to K. I. Ginter (1953), M. N. Sultanov (1958, 1963) and others, applying a tourniquet to a bitten limb is not only useless, but even harmful, because a short-term ligature cannot prevent the spread of poison, and leaving the tourniquet on a long period of time will contribute to the development of stagnation of blood circulation in the affected limb. As a result, destructive changes develop, accompanied by tissue necrosis, and gangrene often occurs (Monakov, 1953). Experiments conducted by Z. Barkagan (1963) on rabbits, in which, after injection of snake venom into the muscles of the paw, a ligature was applied for various times, showed that constriction of the limb for 1.0-1.5 hours significantly accelerates the death of the poisoned animals.

And yet, among scientists and practitioners there are many supporters of this method, who see the benefit of applying a tourniquet, at least for a short time, until the circulation of blood and lymph completely stops, in order to be able to remove as much poison as possible from the wound before it has time to spread throughout the body (Oettingen, 1958; Haller, 1962; etc.).

Many domestic and foreign authors point out the inadmissibility of injuring a wound by cauterization with hot objects, potassium permanganate powder, etc., believing that this method not only has no benefit, but leads to the destruction of already affected tissue (Barkagan, 1965; Valtseva, 1965; Mackie et al., 1956; etc.). At the same time, a number of works indicate the need to remove at least part of the poison from the wound. This can be achieved using deep cross-shaped incisions made through the wounds, and subsequent suction of the poison with the mouth or a medical jar (Valigura, 1961; Mackie et al., 1956, etc.).

Suctioning out the venom is one of the most effective treatment methods. This is quite safe for the person providing assistance if there are no wounds in the mouth (Valtseva, 1965). For safety reasons, in case of erosions of the oral mucosa, a thin rubber or plastic film is placed between the wound and the mouth (Grober et al., 1960). The degree of success will depend on how quickly the venom is sucked out after the bite (Shannon, 1956).

Some authors suggest injecting the bite site with a 1-2% solution of potassium permanganate (Pavlovsky, 1948; Yudin, 1955; Pigulevsky, 1961), and for example, N. M. Stover (1955), V. Haller (1962) believe that you can limit yourself to abundantly washing the wound with water or a weak solution of any antiseptic available on hand, followed by applying a lotion from a concentrated solution of potassium permanganate. It should be taken into account that a very weak solution does not inactivate the poison, and a too concentrated solution is harmful to tissues (Pigulevsky, 1961).

The opinions found in the literature regarding the ingestion of alcohol for snake bites are very contradictory. Even in the works of Marcus Porcius, Cato, Censorius, Celsius, cases of treating those bitten by snakes with large doses of alcohol are mentioned. This method is widely used among residents of India and other countries of Southeast Asia.

Some authors recommend giving victims of snake bites 200-250 g of alcohol daily (Balakina, 1947). S.V. Pigulevsky (1961) believes that alcohol must be used in an amount that stimulates the nervous system. However, most modern researchers are very skeptical about such recommendations. Moreover, in their opinion, ingesting alcohol can significantly worsen general state bitten by a snake (Barkagan et al. 1965; Haller, 1962). The reason for this is seen in the fact that the nervous system reacts more acutely to the stimulus after the introduction of alcohol into the body (Khadzhimova et al., 1954). According to I. Valtseva (1969), alcohol taken firmly fixes snake venom in the nervous tissue.

Whatever therapeutic measures are carried out, one of the mandatory conditions is to create maximum rest for the victim and immobilize the bitten limb as if it were fractured (Novikov et al., 1963; Merriam, 1961; etc.). Absolute rest contributes to the rapid elimination of the local edematous-inflammatory reaction (Barkagan, 1963) and a more favorable outcome of poisoning.

The most effective method of treating a person bitten by a snake is the immediate administration of a specific serum. It is administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly, and if symptoms develop rapidly, intravenously. In this case, there is no need to inject serum into the bite site, since it gives not so much a local as a general antitoxic effect (Lennaro et al., 1961). The exact dose of serum depends on the type of snake and its size, the strength of the poisoning, and the age of the victim (Russell, 1960). M. N. Sultanov (1967) recommends dosing the amount of serum depending on the severity of the case: 90-120 ml - in severe cases, 50-80 ml - in moderate cases, 20-40 ml - in mild cases.

Thus, a set of measures when providing assistance in case of a snake bite will consist of the administration of serum, providing the victim with complete rest, immobilization of the bitten limb, giving plenty of fluids, painkillers (except for morphine and its analogues), administration of cardiac and respiratory analeptics, heparin (5000- 10,000 units), cortisone (150-500 mg/kg body weight), prednisolone (5-10 mg) (Deichmann et al., 1958). M. W. Allam, D. Weiner. F. D. W. Lukens (1956) believe that hydrocortisone and adrenocorticotropic hormone have an antihyaluronidase effect. These drugs, on the one hand, block the enzymes contained in snake venom (Harris, 1957), on the other hand, enhance the reactive effect of the serum (Oettingen, 1958). True, W. A. ​​Shottler (1954), based on laboratory research data, does not share this point of view. Blood transfusions are recommended (Shannon, 1956), novocaine blockade, 200-300 ml of a 0.25% novocaine solution (Kristal, 1956; Berdyeva, 1960), intravenous influence of a 0.5% novocaine solution (Ginter, 1953). Considering the severe mental state of people bitten by snakes, it may be advisable to give the victim tranquilizers (trioxazine, etc.). In the subsequent period, changes in blood pressure, urine, hemoglobin and hematocrit, as well as urinary hemolysis should be carefully monitored (Merriam, 1961).

Prevention of bites consists, first of all, in following the safety rules when moving through the forest and inspecting the camp site. If you are not careful, you can be attacked by reptiles while crossing. Snakes often take a hunting position on tree branches overhanging paths trodden by animals. As a rule, a snake attacks only when a person accidentally steps on it or grabs it with his hand. In other cases, when meeting a person, the snake usually flees, rushing to take refuge in the nearest shelter.

When meeting a snake, sometimes it is enough to retreat so that it leaves the “battlefield” behind the person. If the attack still cannot be avoided, you must immediately inflict a sharp blow to the head.

A real danger to humans comes from encounters with poisonous animals - representatives of the class of arachnids (Arachnoidea), which “permanently or temporarily contain in their bodies substances that cause varying degrees of poisoning in humans” (Pavlovsky, 1931). These include, first of all, the order of scorpions (Scorpiones). Scorpions usually do not exceed 5-15 cm in size. But in northern forests The Malay Archipelago is home to giant green scorpions, reaching 20-25 cm (Wallace, 1956). In appearance, the scorpion resembles a small crayfish with a black or brown-brown body, with claws and a thin, jointed tail. The tail ends in a hard curved sting into which the ducts of the poisonous glands open (Fig. 130). Scorpion venom causes a sharp local reaction: redness, swelling, severe pain (Vachon, 1956). In some cases, general intoxication develops. After 35-45 minutes. after the injection, colicky pain appears in the tongue and gums, the act of swallowing is disrupted, the temperature rises, chills, convulsions, and vomiting begin (Sultanov, 1956).

Rice. 130. Scorpio.

Rice. 131. Phalanx.

In the absence of anti-scorpion or anti-karakurt serum, which are the most effective means treatment (Barkagan, 1950), it is recommended to inject the affected area with a 2% solution of novocaine or a 0.1% solution of potassium permanganate, apply lotions with potassium permanganate, and then warm the patient and give him plenty of drink (hot tea, coffee) (Pavlovsky , 1950; Talyzin, 1970; etc.).

Among the numerous (more than 20,000 species) order of spiders (Araneina), there are quite a few representatives that are dangerous to humans. The bite of some of them, for example Licosa raptoria, Phormictopus, living in the Brazilian jungle, gives a severe local reaction (gangrenous tissue breakdown), and sometimes ends fatal(Pavlovsky, 1948). The small spider Dendrifantes nocsius is considered especially dangerous, its bite is often fatal.

Various species of karakurt (Lathrodectus tredecimguttatus) are widespread in countries with hot climates. The female spider is especially poisonous. It is easily recognized by its round, 1-2 cm black abdomen with reddish or whitish spots.

As a rule, a karakurt bite causes a burning pain that spreads throughout the body. Swelling and hyperemia quickly develop at the site of the bite (Finkel, 1929; Blagodarny, 1955). Often, karakurt poison leads to severe general intoxication with symptoms reminiscent of an acute abdomen (Aryaev et al., 1961; Ezovit, 1965).

Painful phenomena are accompanied by an increase in blood pressure up to 200/100 mm Hg. Art., decline in cardiac activity, vomiting, convulsions (Rozenbaum, Naumova, 1956; Arustamyan, 1956).

Antikarakurt serum gives excellent healing effect. After intramuscular injection of 30-40 cm 3, acute phenomena quickly subside. We recommend lotions of 0.5% solution of potassium permanganate, injection of 3-5 ml of 0.1% solution of potassium permanganate into the bite area (Barkagan, 1950; Blagodarny, 1957; Sultanov, 1963) or taking it orally (Fedorovich, 1950) . The patient should be warmed, calmed and given plenty of fluids.

As emergency measure in the field, to destroy the poison, cauterization of the arthropod bite site is used with a flammable match head or a hot metal object, but no later than 2 minutes. from the moment of the attack (Marikovsky, 1954). Quick cauterization of the bite site destroys the superficially injected poison and thereby facilitates the course of intoxication.

As for tarantulas (Trochos singoriensis, Lycosa tarantula, etc.), their toxicity is significantly exaggerated, and bites, except for pain and a small tumor, rarely lead to serious complications (Marikovsky, 1956; Talyzin, 1970).

To avoid attacks by scorpions and spiders, carefully inspect the temporary shelter and bed before going to bed, clothing and shoes are inspected and shaken before putting on.

Making your way through the thicket of a tropical forest, you can be attacked by land leeches of the genus Haemadipsa, which hide on the leaves of trees and shrubs, on plant stems along paths made by animals and people. In the jungles of Southeast Asia, there are mainly several types of leeches: Limhatis nilotica, Haemadipsa zeylanica, H. ceylonica (Demin, 1965; etc.). The sizes of leeches vary from a few millimeters to tens of centimeters.

The leech can be easily removed by touching it with a lit cigarette, sprinkling it with salt, tobacco, or a crushed panthocide tablet (Darrell, 1963; Surv. in the Tropics, 1965). The bite site must be lubricated with iodine, alcohol or another disinfectant solution.

A leech bite usually does not pose any immediate danger, but the wound can be complicated by a secondary infection. Much more serious consequences occur when small leeches enter the body with water or food. By sticking to the mucous membrane of the larynx of the esophagus, they cause vomiting and bleeding.

Entry of leeches into the respiratory tract can lead to mechanical blockage and subsequent asphyxia (Pavlovsky, 1948). You can remove a leech using a cotton swab moistened with alcohol, iodine or a concentrated solution of table salt (Kots, 1951).

Prevention of helminthic infestations is quite effective with strict adherence to precautions: prohibition of swimming in stagnant and low-flowing waters, mandatory wearing of shoes, careful heat treatment of food, use of only boiled water for drinking (Hoang Thich Chi, 1957; Pekshev, 1965, 1967; Garry, 1944 ).

The fifth group, as we indicated above, consists of diseases transmitted by flying blood-sucking insects (gnats, mosquitoes, flies, midges). The most important of them include filariasis, yellow fever, trypansomiasis, and malaria.

Filariasis. Filariasis (wuchereriasis, onchocerciasis) refers to vector-borne diseases of the tropical zone, the causative agents of which - nematodes of the suborder Filariata Skrjabin (Wuchereria Bancrfeti, w. malayi) - are transmitted to humans by mosquitoes of the genera Anopheles, Culex, Aedes of the suborder Mansonia and midges. The distribution zone covers a number of regions of India, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Indochina. A large area of ​​the African and South American continents is endemic for filariasis due to favorable conditions (high temperature and humidity) for the breeding of mosquito vectors (Leikina et al., 1965; Kamalov, 1953).

According to V. Ya. Podolyan (1962), the infection rate of the population of Laos and Kampuchea ranges from 1.1 to 33.3%. In Thailand, the defeat rate is 2.9-40.8%. 36% of the population of the former Federation of Malaya is affected by filariasis. On the island of Java, the incidence is 23.3, on Celebes - 39.3%. This disease is also widespread in the Philippines (1.3-29%). In the Congo, 23% of the population is affected by filariasis (Godovanny, Frolov, 1961). Wuchereriasis after a long (3-18 months) incubation period manifests itself in the form of severe damage to the lymphatic system, known as elephantiasis, or elephantiasis.

Onchocerciasis manifests itself in the form of the formation under the skin of the extremities of dense, mobile, often painful nodes of various sizes. This disease is characterized by damage to the organs of vision (keratitis, iridocyclitis), often resulting in blindness.

Prevention of filariasis consists of prophylactic administration of hetrazan (dytrozine) and the use of repellents that repel blood-sucking insects (Leikina, 1959; Godovanny, Frolov, 1963).

Yellow fever. It is caused by the filterable virus Viscerophilus tropicus, carried by mosquitoes Aedes aegypti, A. africanus, A. simpsony, A. haemagogus, etc. Yellow fever in its endemic form is widespread in the jungles of Africa, South and Central America, Southeast Asia (Moszkowski, Plotnikov, 1957; etc.).

After a short incubation period (3-6 days), the disease begins with tremendous chills, fever, nausea, vomiting, headaches, followed by an increase in jaundice, damage to the vascular system: hemorrhages, nose and intestinal bleeding (Carter, 1931; Mahaffy et al ., 1946). The disease is very severe and in 5-10% ends in death.

Prevention of the disease consists of the constant use of repellents to protect against mosquito attacks and vaccination with live vaccines (Gapochko et al., 1957; etc.).

Trypanosomiasis(Tripanosomosis africana) is a natural focal disease common in Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, South Sudan, in the river basin. Congo and around the lake. Nyasa.

The disease is so widespread that in a number of regions of Uganda in 6 years the population decreased from three hundred to one hundred thousand people (Plotnikov, 1961). In Guinea alone, 1,500-2,000 deaths were observed annually (Yarotsky, 1962, 1963). The causative agent of the disease, Trypanosoma gambiensis, is transmitted by blood-sucking tsetse flies. Infection occurs through bites; when the pathogen enters the bloodstream with the saliva of an insect. The incubation period of the disease lasts 2-3 weeks.

The disease occurs against the background of fever of the wrong type and is characterized by erythematous, papular rashes, lesions nervous system, anemia.

Prevention of the disease itself consists of preliminary administration of pentaminisothionate into a vein at a dose of 0.003 g per 1 kg of body weight (Manson-Bahr, 1954).

Malaria. Malaria is caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, transmitted to humans by mosquito bites. genus Anopheles. Malaria is one of the most common diseases on the globe, the distribution area of ​​which is entire countries, for example, Burma (Lysenko, Dang Van Ngy, 1965). The number of patients registered by the UN WHO is 100 million people per year. The incidence is especially high in tropical countries, where the most severe form, tropical malaria, is widespread (Rashina, 1959). For example, in the Congo, for a population of 13.5 million in 1957, 870,283 cases were registered (Khromov, 1961).

The disease begins after a more or less long incubation period, manifesting itself in the form of periodically occurring attacks of tremendous chills, fever, headaches, vomiting, etc. Tropical malaria is characterized by muscle pain and general symptoms of damage to the nervous system (Tarnogradsky, 1938; Kassirsky , Plotnikov, 1964).

In tropical countries, malignant forms are often found, which are very severe and have a high mortality rate.

It is known that the amount of heat required for sporogony is extremely important for the development of mosquitoes. When average daily temperatures increase to 24-27°, the development of the mosquito occurs almost twice as fast as at 16°, and during the season the malaria mosquito can give 8 generations, breeding in countless quantities (Petrishcheva, 1947; Prokopenko, Dukhanina, 1962).

Thus, the jungle with its hot, moisture-saturated air, slow circulation and abundance of stagnant bodies of water is an ideal place for the breeding of flying blood-sucking mosquitoes and mosquitoes (Pokrovsky, Kanchaveli, 1961; Bandin, Detinova, 1962; Voronov, 1964). Protection from flying bloodsuckers in the jungle is one of the most important issues of survival.

Over the past decades, numerous repellent preparations have been created and tested in the Soviet Union: dimethyl phthalate, RP-298, RP-299, RP-122, RP-99, R-162, R-228, hexamidekuzol-A, etc. (Gladkikh, 1953; Smirnov, Bocharov, 1961; Pervomaisky, Shustrov, 1963; new disinfectants. Diethyltoluolamide, 2-butyl-2-ethyl-1,3-propenediol, N-butyl-4, cyclohexane-1, 2-dicarboximide, and gencenoid acid were widely used abroad (Fedyaev, 1961; American Mag., 1954).

These drugs are used both in pure form and in various combinations, such as a mixture of NIUV (dimethyl phthalate - 50%, indalone - 30%, metadiethyltoluolamide - 20%), DID (dimethyl phthalate - 75%, indalone - 20%, dimethyl carbate – 5%) (Gladkikh, 1964).

The drugs differ from each other in terms of their effectiveness against various types flying bloodsuckers, and in terms of the time of protective action. For example, dimethyl phthalate and RP-99 repel Anopheles gircanus and Aedes cinereus better than Aedes aesoensis and Aedes excrucians, and the drug RP-122 does the opposite (Ryabov, Sakovich, 1961).

Pure dimethyl phthalate protects against mosquito attacks for 3-4 hours. at a temperature of 16-20°, but its action time is reduced to 1.5 hours. when it increases to 28°. Ointment-based repellents are more reliable and durable.

For example, dimethyl phthalate ointment, consisting of dimethyl phthalate (74-77%), ethylcellulose (9-10%), kaolin (14-16%) and terpineol, persistently repels mosquitoes for 3 hours, and in the following hours only isolated bites are noted (Pavlovsky et al., 1956). The repellent effect of the drug "DID" was 6.5 hours, despite high temperatures (18-26°) and high air humidity (75-86%) (Petrishcheva et al., 1956). In conditions where supplies of repellents are small, nets developed by Academician E. N. Pavlovsky turn out to be very useful. Such a net, made from a piece of fishing net, from threads of parachute lines, is impregnated with repellent and worn over the head, leaving open face. Such a net can effectively protect against attacks by flying blood-sucking insects for 10-12 days (Pavlovsky, Pervomaisky, 1940; Pavlovsky et al., 1940; Zakharov, 1967).

For skin treatment, from 2-4 g (dimethyl phthalate) to 19-20 g (diethyltoluolamide) of the drug is required. However, these standards are acceptable only for conditions when a person sweats little. When using ointments, approximately 2 g are required to rub into the skin.

In the tropics during the daytime, the use of liquid repellents is ineffective, since profuse sweat quickly washes the drug off the skin. That is why it is sometimes recommended to protect exposed parts of the face and neck with clay during transitions. Once it dries, it forms a dense crust that reliably protects against bites. Mosquitoes, woodlice, sandflies are crepuscular insects, and in the evening and at night their activity increases sharply (Monchadsky, 1956; Pervomaisky et al., 1965). That is why, when the sun sets, you need to use all available means of protection: put on a mosquito net, lubricate your skin with repellent, make a smoky fire.

In stationary conditions, malaria is prevented by taking chloroquine (3 tablets per week), haloquine (0.3 g per week), chloridine (0.025 g once a week) and other drugs (Lysenko, 1959; Gozodova, Demina et al., 1961 ; Covell et al., 1955).

In conditions of autonomous existence in the jungle, it is also necessary, for preventive purposes, to take the antimalarial drug available in the NAZ first aid kit from the very first day.

Only the strictest adherence to the rules of personal hygiene and the implementation of all preventive and protective measures can prevent the crew from becoming infected with tropical diseases.

Notes:

Compiled according to data from S.I. Kostin, G.V. Pokrovskaya (1953), B.P. Alisov (1953), S.P. Khromov (1964).