What kind of predatory mushrooms are there and how do they hunt? Mushroom predators name examples

Modern science About two hundred species of mushrooms are known that can attack small animals, kill them and even digest them. Their victims can be protozoa, microorganisms such as rotifers, small crustaceans and roundworms. Science knows more than six hundred species of plants that prey on animal food, insects, spiders and other arthropods; they can even eat small vertebrates - frogs, lizards, rats and birds.

Most plants obtain nitrogen through their root system, most often with the help of a special bacterium, and most fungi obtain their nutrients from the soil. But, living in environments where there is not enough nutrients, predatory mushrooms and plants have evolved - they have learned to make traps to attract prey. Some of them have “weapons” that are more complex than the torture chambers of the Middle Ages. You will go to great lengths to attract prey.

About one hundred and fifty species of tropical insectivorous plants of the Nepenthes species live in Southeast Asia, in the Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, Sri Lanka and the west coast of Madagascar. Some of them are quite large in size and can catch and digest various animals, including small vertebrates.

Three species living in tropical forests Borneo, which resemble a toilet in appearance are Nepenthes lowii, N. rajah, and N. macrophylla. In addition to the fact that with the help of trapping leaves that grow on the ground around them, they trap and digest small animals, some have toilet leaves located above the ground.

Nature invented these “toilets” as a kind of perch for a small mammal - the common tupaya, which licks the sweet nectar produced by the plant. To reach the nectar, the tupaya needs to climb into the hole in the trap leaf. The rain will wash the prey into the bowl, where the plant will digest it and receive the necessary amount of nitrogen.

Oyster mushroom

This type of mushroom loves to kill the worm

The oyster mushroom is a type of oyster mushroom that grows on the trunks of dying and dead trees and destroys them. Wood is rich in cellulose and lignin, but low in nitrogen, so this insidious mushroom releases a chemical lure to attract its prey - roundworms.

When a worm crawls onto a mushroom, the mycelium filaments release a toxin and paralyze the victim. Then enzymes are released that penetrate the body of the worm and the digestion process begins.

dung beetle

Another representative edible mushrooms- a ubiquitous dung mushroom. It self-dissolves (digests itself) to release a slippery, black liquid mass within 4-6 hours after the spores separate or after it is picked by a mushroom picker. This process can be prevented if the mushrooms are sautéed or placed in cold water. In the video above you can see the whole process.

Roundworms (nematodes) have more nitrogen than they need because they have a bacterium that retains it. They release most of the nitrogen in the form of ammonia, which is why they become victims of fungi. The dung fungus preys on only two types of nematodes - Panagrellus redivivus and Meloidogyne arenaria; upon contact with it, the processes on the body of the fungus strike the worm, the cup catches the prey and presses on it, as a result the contents of the insides come out. This mechanism, combined with a cocktail of poisons, kills the victim in a few minutes. The threads of the mycelium penetrate into his body and digest the remains of the flesh.

A mushroom that kills with a net

Using a sticky net, the mushroom catches its prey and digests it.

The fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora is an anamorphic (vegetatively reproduced) fungus and does not produce a fruiting body. It builds a sticky network of rod- and ring-shaped elements that adhere to the skin of the nematode as a result chemical reaction. Lectin (a special protein on the surface of the mesh) reacts with the secretion on the worm's skin, forming a bond that cannot be destroyed. No matter how hard the worm resists, it will not be able to get out.

As you know, the most common nematode-hunting fungus, A. oligospora, lives in soil, animal feces, and even in fresh and salt water, where it feeds on the products of rotting plants. Sticky networks appear only when there is a potential victim nearby, which the fungus identifies by smell. Worms secrete pheromones, with the help of which they communicate with each other, control their numbers and determine the location of their fellows. Thanks to this secret, Arthrobotrys oligospora can save its energy and not build networks in vain.

Different types of fungi respond to different sets of enzymes, depending on the type of nematode they prefer. But it's not that simple. Certain bacteria produce large amounts of urea, which ends up in the soil and fungi, which absorb it. The fungus converts urea into ammonia, which takes part in the creation of adhesive networks. Urea also attracts worms, which increase in number as they feed on the bacteria. The bacteria produce more urea, which stimulates the fungus to create more networks and regulate the number of worms. Thus, the bacterium organizes its protection from pests. In addition, this is beneficial for the fungus itself, since the worms produce the nitrogen it needs.

Mushroom cowboy and his lasso

Some types of fungi, for example Dreschlerella anchonia, hunt their prey using a lasso formed from three cells with a special compound, forming a ring with a diameter of 0.03 mm. The nematode crawls into the ring and breaks the line of least resistance on its inner wall. The osmotic pressure inside the ring draws in the liquid, and in a tenth of a second the volume triples. The ring pinches the victim, not giving her a chance to escape. It often happens that due to the resistance of the victim, he gets stuck only in the second ring.

After the victim is caught, the mushroom secretes a secretion that digests it alive from the inside. The ancestors of these mushrooms existed 100 million years ago in southwestern France. And lived in Cretaceous period next to dinosaurs and flying reptiles. But, unlike their contemporaries, the ring was formed from one cell and was even narrower (about 0.015 mm).

Pemphigus

More than two hundred species of the genus Utricularia live in small freshwater bodies and marshy soils on all continents except Antarctica. And all of them are carnivores. These plants are one of the few that do not have a stem or leaves, but only a flower and a trap bubble. This mechanism is present only in this plant species.

The bubble creates a kind of vacuum, pumping liquid from the inside out by contracting the walls. The trap is sealed with sticky mucus, which prevents water from penetrating inside. This mucus contains carbohydrates, which attract prey.

When a small crustacean or any other suitable prey touches the hairs of a predator, the “mouth” opens and the plant sucks in water along with the prey. All this happens at lightning speed, in about 0.001 seconds. The trap is instantly sealed, the plant spits out the remaining water and calmly digests the prey.

Zhiryanka

Insects in search of water land on shiny drops of butterwort secretion and stick tightly

The butterwort plant of the genus Pinguicula uses a mechanism for attracting prey like sticky tape for flies: on the surface of the leaves there are hair-like glands that secrete sparkling drops of mucus. These droplets attract insects that are looking for water.

Insects land on the leaf and stick. The insect's attempts to get out create vibration, and the leaf slowly curls up, absorbing prey and releasing more mucus. Special glands then secrete enzymes to digest the prey. The products of the digestion process are absorbed into the plant through holes in the surface of the leaf. Such holes are unusual for plants; thanks to them, butterworts are susceptible to dehydration.

Their brightly colored flowers with sweet nectar inside are located at the top of the stem, so pollinators are not trapped in the leaves, which are closer to the ground to attract midges, mosquitoes and other insects.

Sundew

The sundew's trap mechanism is even more elaborate than that of the butterwort. The shiny glandular hairs on the leaves (thanks to which the sundew got its name) are longer than those of the sundew, but the mechanism of operation is identical. The glands produce nectar to attract insects, sticky mucus to trap them, and enzymes to digest them.

Flies and other insects land on the leaves to drink dew and stick, then the leaf curls up and absorbs the prey. This rather long process can take up to several hours, but the victim will not go anywhere - it is firmly glued to the sheet.

Carnivorous plants that prefer insects

Carnivorous plants form leaf traps—tall, hollow, tube-like cups containing a mixture of acidic water and a surfactant. Their insect-catching leaves resemble flowers that turn purple-red due to the pigment anthocyanin, which is also responsible for the color of autumn leaves. Near the hole in the trap, the leaves produce sweet nectar that attracts flies, ants, beetles and other insects.

The vertical walls of the trapping leaf are covered from the inside with slippery wax, which helps the victim slide into the pool of water below. If the prey manages to jump out of the pool, it hits the walls of the trap and falls back into the water. A special secretion keeps insects at the bottom, where they are slowly digested. The process is accelerated by a bacterium that lives in this liquid and produces additional enzymes.

About a thousand species of similar plants live in the swamps in the east North America, and twice as many of their relatives of a slightly different family in South America, some of them are found in Northern California and Oregon.

Carnivorous bromeliad

Bromeliads attract small insects by offering them UV protection, but the price for such a beach umbrella is too high

The bromeliad family includes about 3,000 varieties of primitive plants belonging to grasses and sedges; they live only in the American tropics and subtropics. A rare specimen can be found in Africa. The same family includes pineapples, Spanish bearded moss and an endless number of epiphytes that live in the jungles of Central and South America. Many of these plants live on the tops of trees, where they absorb carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis. The leaves of these plants form something like a pool where water and tropical tree frogs can lay eggs in these pools, where tadpoles will then hatch. Some bromeliads are succulents and live in the deserts of the northwestern United States. These plants are ideally adapted to a carnivorous lifestyle, especially since insects often fall into water pools and drown. However, only three species are actually carnivorous. The upper leaves of these three varieties support a pool of water, and the outside is covered with a loose powder that reflects ultraviolet radiation and attracts bugs and insects sensitive to sunlight, with the help of a secretion similar to nectar, which these insects feed on. They land on leaves, lose their balance and fall into the water, where, under the influence of enzymes, the prey is digested.

The plant world is amazing in its diversity; some of us cannot even imagine that so many plants can be carnivorous. We advise you to take a closer look at your indoor flowers, perhaps they also prey on flies or butterflies.

Section contents: Mushrooms

Predatory mushrooms are human friends

Features and classification predatory mushrooms In mycology, predatory fungi were first classified as saprotrophs. Later they began to distinguish separate group. The predatory lifestyle, as is believed in mycology, appeared in these mushrooms in ancient times. This is indicated by the fact that representatives of imperfect fungi have the most complex trapping devices. The vegetative mycelium of predatory fungi consists of branching hyphae with a size of 5-8 microns. Chlamydospores and conidia of predator fungi are located on vertically standing conidiopses of various structures. The food of predatory fungi are nematodes - protozoan invertebrates and their larvae; less often, fungi catch amoebas or other small invertebrates. Accordingly, predatory mushrooms can be classified depending on their prey.

Trapper apparatus of a predatory mushroom Predatory mushrooms can be classified according to the type of trap. The first type of traps are hyphal outgrowths covered with an adhesive substance. The second type of traps are oval or spherical sticky heads sitting on mycelium branches. The third type of trap is adhesive nets, consisting of large number rings Such a trap is formed as a result of abundant branching of hyphae. For example, Arthrobotrys paucosporus has similar networks. Nematodes fall into such net traps and are captured by them. The hyphae of the fungus, which has a trap network, dissolve the cuticle of the immobilized nematode and also penetrate its body. This process of eating a nematode by a fungus lasts about a day. A large nematode can break the net and crawl away, but it dies because the hyphae of the fungus penetrate the body of the invertebrate, which leads to its death. The fourth type of trap is a mechanical trap, in which the victim is compressed due to an increase in cell volume and dies. The inner surface of special trap cells is sensitive to the touch of an animal caught in it and reacts quickly, increasing in volume and almost completely closing the lumen of the ring. An example of a mushroom with a similar trap is Dactylaria alba. The formation of a trap can be stimulated by the presence of a nematode or its metabolic products. Also, trapping rings are formed if the mushroom lacks food or water. Predatory fungi supposedly produce toxins.

Predatory mushrooms in the mushroom kingdom Predatory fungi are distributed throughout the globe and are widespread in all climatic zones. Most representatives of this group are imperfect fungi (hyphomycetes). Predatory fungi also include Zygomycetes and some Chytridiomycetes. Predatory fungi grow on mosses and in bodies of water, in the rhizosphere and on plant roots. Predatory fungi include imperfect fungi of the genera Arthrobotrys, Dactylaria, Monacroporium, Tridentaria, Trypospormna.

To combat nematodes when growing vegetables and champignons, methods have been developed for the use of biological products (preliminary name - “nematophagocide”), which are a mass of mycelium and spores combined with nutrient substrates: corn chaff, straw-manure composts and granules, a mixture of peat and straw, sunflower husk, etc. The biological product is obtained in two stages. First, a mother culture is grown in flasks on grain or a nutrient medium with the addition of agar-agar. Then it is used to sow the substrate in 2-3 liter glass jars. For example, when growing cucumbers, dried straw-manure compost biological product is applied twice at 300 g/m2 (at low humidity, for example, 58–60%, the dose is tripled). Before sowing the seeds, the biological product is evenly distributed over the surface, which is then dug up to a depth of 15–20 cm. When applied again (after 15–35 days), the biological product is embedded in the soil to a depth of 10–15 cm. In the same dose, a mixture of compost and fungus can be used for hilling , i.e. falling asleep at the bottom of the stem. This technique stimulates the formation of adventitious roots and extends the life of the plant. If the drug is prepared on sunflower husks, the technology for applying it to the soil is different: the first time is applied two weeks before planting the seedlings at a dose of 100–150 g/m2, the second time is 5–10 g in the hole during planting. The biological product can also be applied to developing plants. In this case, it is embedded in the furrows at the rate of 100–150 g/m2.

According to the All-Union Institute of Helminthology named after. K.I. Scriabin, the safety of the cucumber harvest using this biomethod can reach 100%. With a one-time application of a biological product on sunflower husks two weeks before planting, the incidence of root-knot nematodes, according to the All-Russia Research Institute biological methods plant protection, decreased by 30–35%, with prolonged application to seedlings - up to 30%. Accordingly, the intensity of damage to the root system decreased. In the case of champignons, a biological product grown on straw-manure compost and having a moisture content of 58–60% is used at a dose of 300 g/m2. First, a biological product is introduced into the hole, and the seed mycelium of champignons in the same dose is added on top. The use of predatory mushrooms when growing champignons increased the yield of fruiting bodies by an average of 33%. This biological product was tested by the All-Russian Research Institute of Nature Conservation and Reserve Affairs together with the All-Russian Scientific Research Institute molecular biology and the All-Russian Research Institute of Biological Methods of Plant Protection in the Belaya Dacha greenhouse complex and the subsidiary farm of the Levkovo boarding house.

A predatory fungus that destroys nematodes is undoubtedly a friend of man, but there are mushrooms that are his enemies. For a long time, approximately from the 10th to the 12th centuries, a human disease has been known in which general weakness, loss of appetite, vomiting, severe pain in the stomach and intestines.

In severe cases, patients experienced curvature of the arms and legs or their necrosis, and in very severe cases, the soft tissues on the extremities turned black and separated from the bones.

When grinding grain affected by ergot, ergotine turns into flour. Bread and other products made from such flour retain their poisonous properties and when eaten they cause such a serious disease. It was later called ergotism.

Tinder fungi are also interesting. Some of their properties are used to produce so-called decorative wood. At the beginning of its development, the tinder fungus, without disturbing the strength of the wood, deposits various pigments in it, resulting in the appearance of colored spots, stripes, and stains.

After polishing, such wood becomes especially beautiful and finds wide application in the manufacture of furniture, as well as in construction for various finishes and decorations. For example, walnut wood affected by tinder fungus from Kakheti and Guria is very highly valued. Under the influence of the fungus, black patterned stains appear in it. And maple wood in the initial stages of tinder fungus is used to make balalaikas and guitars.

In some northern regions Until recently, one of the types of polypores with a hoof-shaped perennial fruiting body was used as tinder when making fire. Abroad, very elegant things are made from its soft mass: handbags, gloves, frames, etc.

Some species of predatory fungi have adapted to live in aquatic environment. In the Oomycetes group, most of the representatives are saprophages (feed on organic remains), but among them there is also a predator - Zoophagus, which preys on rotifers. The name of the mushroom translates as “animal eater.”

The most popular soil predator mushroom is oyster mushroom. As it turns out, this edible mushroom preys on nematodes. True, its mechanism of predation is different: thin adventitious vegetative hyphae sprout from the mycelium of the fungus, producing a poison - a toxin.

The toxin paralyzes nematodes, at the same time, directed hyphae search for prey and grow through it, digesting the nematode according to the principle of all others predatory species. Moreover, the toxin ostreatin produced by oyster mushrooms also affects oribatid mites and enchytraeid worms (relatives of earthworms).

The toxin is not produced in the fruit parts that humans eat. And the role of ostreatin, programmed by nature, is protection against pests (ticks, springtails, tardigrades).
In addition to the listed prey, bacteria also get into the “nets” of oyster mushrooms. Direct hyphae of oyster mushrooms grow through microcolonies of bacteria, form specific feeding cells in them, which, with the help of enzymes, dissolve bacteria and assimilate their contents. As a result from bacterial cells only empty shells remain.

Several other wood-eating fungi, and even some champignons, also prey on bacteria. Like insectivorous plants, carnivorous fungi take into animals nitrogen and phosphorus contained in dead wood in minute quantities (in wood the ratio of carbon to nitrogen ranges from 300:1 to 1000:1, and for normal growth 30:1 is required).

Stem nematode

Stem nematode- These are microscopic round worms, 0.3–0.4 mm long. The male and female differ little from each other. The larva is similar to the adult, but smaller in size.

The stem nematode develops intensively in rainy years. However, vegetative potato plants affected by this nematode are appearance do not differ from healthy ones, only sometimes there is a thickening of the stem with cracks on it and shortened internodes.

The first signs appear on the tubers during the harvesting period. Under the skin, where the nematode penetrates, small brown spots with powdery tissue are visible. As the disease progresses, lead-gray spots appear on the skin of the tubers, the skin peels off and brown destroyed tissue (rotten mass) is visible underneath.

The entire development cycle of this nematode takes place inside the tuber, so the main source of spread is seed potatoes. Several generations of the pest develop throughout the year. The female lays about 250 eggs or more. The larvae emerging from the eggs go through several stages of development and turn into adults. The high fertility of the stem nematode leads to its massive accumulation in tubers. When planting infected tubers, nematodes move from the mother tuber to the stem (no higher than 10 cm above the ground), then enter the stolons, from which they move to young tubers. Another source of infection is the soil, where nematodes enter during the decomposition of post-harvest residues and mother tubers. In the soil, the stem nematode can survive for several years, affecting other crops, weeds and falling into a state of suspended animation when unfavorable conditions. The stem nematode rarely moves from tuber to tuber during storage. Late ripening varieties are less affected than early ripening ones.

Control measures. Carefully sorting the potatoes and planting only healthy tubers. Alternation of crops and return to their original place no earlier than after 3–4 years. Systematic removal of weeds, plant residues and digging of the soil in the fall.

When we talk about predators, we immediately imagine representatives of the animal world with large teeth.

Although then the second thought catches up with us: that not only animals are considered predators, because from the biology course at school we remember very well about plants - predators that feed small insects. So today we will talk about some more representatives flora, which are also fraught with danger and live by eating the flesh of living organisms - these are predatory mushrooms.

No matter how strange it may sound, among the fauna of our planet there are also mushroom monsters that, having neither mouth nor teeth, perfectly hunt and feed on their victims.

But let’s take it in order, let’s find out what types of mushrooms are classified as predators, what danger they pose and what their role is in nature.

What are these mushrooms like?

Predatory are representatives of the genus of fungi that catch and kill representatives of the animal world, of course we're talking about and their miniature forms. These mushrooms are classified in a special ecological group, which mycology has identified according to their feeding method.

Predators can also be considered saprotrophs, since in the absence of the opportunity to profit from animal organisms, they are completely satisfied with dead organic matter.

Predatory mushrooms are also called hunters, because in order to catch prey they have to perform certain manipulations.

There are mushrooms. Which can shoot their spores to hit the victim, while the flight range is one meter. Once in the body, the spore begins to germinate and feed on it.

But that’s not all, there are other types of mushroom hunting, according to which they are classified. Among them are:

• Monacrosporium ellipsosporum, which have round heads with a sticky substance on the mycelium, with which they capture their prey;
• Arthrobotrys perpasta, Monacrosporium cionopagum – their trapping apparatus is represented by sticky branched hyphae;
• Arthrobotrys paucosporus has a trap in the form of an adhesive network, which is obtained as a result of the ring-shaped branching of hyphae;
• Snow-white dactylaria has a mechanical device for capturing the victim, with the help of which the microorganism is grasped, compressed, as a result of which it dies and becomes food for the fungus.

Predatory mushrooms, however, like other representatives of this extensive genus, adapt with lightning speed to any changes in the environment.

Based on this, it is quite reasonable that they have existed since prehistoric times, although since then they have evolved and changed more than once, that is, they have adapted.

Today, hunter mushrooms are distributed throughout the world; they have perfectly adapted to any climatic zones. Predators include primarily representatives of imperfect fungi.

How do mushrooms lie in wait for their prey?

Using the example of mushrooms that arrange their sticky rings, let’s look at how prey is obtained.

And so, the mushroom grows and covers the soil a large number rings of hyphae that gather in a network and surround the mycelium. As soon as a nematode or other small animal comes into contact with this ring, instant adhesion occurs and the ring begins to crush its victim and after a few seconds hyphae penetrate the body and devour it from the inside.

Even when the nematode managed to escape, after contact there will already be hyphae in it, which grow at lightning speed and feed on flesh, as a result, within a day, only the shell remains of the prey.

Using the same principle, mushrooms hunt microorganisms that live in bodies of water, only they use special outgrowths as traps that catch victims.

Through them, hyphae penetrate into the body, which completely destroy it.

The fairly well-known oyster mushroom also feeds on microscopic worms. And she catches them with the help of a toxic substance, which is produced by accessory hyphae from the mycelium. Under the influence of toxins, the worm falls into a paralyzed state and the fungus digs into it and absorbs it. However, it should be noted that the fruiting body of the mushroom itself does not produce or contain toxic substances.

Mycologists consider predatory fungi as a special ecological subgroup, since in the absence of animal food, they feed on organic matter, assimilating mineral nitrogen compounds.

Hunter mushrooms are also of interest as a means of controlling nematode pests.

Mushroom predators

A distinctive feature of this peculiar group is its special way of feeding - predatory. Mushrooms catch and kill microscopic animals using special trapping devices. Predatory fungi are widespread in globe. Most representatives of this group are imperfect fungi (hyphomycetes), but this also includes zygomycetes and some chytridiomycetes.

Ten predatory mushrooms and plants that you had no idea existed (5 photos + 6 videos)

Their habitat is soil and rotting plant debris. Long time many predatory fungi were considered ordinary saprotrophs. Predation in fungi probably appeared in ancient times, especially among representatives of imperfect fungi - they have the most complex hunting devices. Evidence of this is also their wide distribution in all climatic zones.

Predatory fungi are found on mosses and in water bodies, as well as in the rhizosphere and on plant roots.

The vegetative mycelium of predatory fungi consists of branching hyphae (5-8 µm); chlamydospores and conidia are located on vertically standing conidiopses of various structures.

Predatory fungi include imperfect fungi of the genera Arthrobotrys, Dactylaria, Monacroporium, Tridentaria, and Trypospormna. The food of predatory fungi are nematodes - protozoan invertebrates and their larvae; less often, fungi catch amoebas or other small invertebrates.

Dactylaria under a microscope

The traps of predatory mushrooms are very diverse.

The most common traps are hyphal outgrowths covered with an adhesive substance. The second type of traps are oval or spherical sticky heads sitting on mycelium branches. The most common type of trap is the third type - sticky nets consisting of a large number of rings. This type of trap is formed as a result of abundant branching of hyphae. The nets of these fungi trap a very large number of nematodes. Nematodes stick to the sticky surface of the rings and, trying to free themselves, stick even more.

The fungal hyphae dissolve the cuticle of the immobilized nematode and penetrate its body. The process of absorption of the nematode lasts about a day.

Sometimes a large nematode breaks the nets and carries away the adhered fragments of hyphae on the body. Such a nematode is doomed: the hyphae of the fungus, penetrating the body of the invertebrate, kill it.

Traps in the form of spherical sticky heads

Predatory mushrooms also have a fourth type of trap - mechanical.

The principle of its action is simple: the victim is compressed due to an increase in cell volume. The inner surface of the trapping cells is sensitive to the touch of the prey, reacts very quickly, increasing in volume and almost completely closing the lumen of the ring (dactylaria snow-white). The mechanism of action of shrinking trap cells has not been fully studied. The presence of a nematode or its metabolic products stimulates the formation of a trap in the predator. Sometimes trapping rings form due to lack of food or water.

It is believed that predatory fungi release toxins. Predatory fungi, in the absence of prey, develop as saprotrophs, feeding organic compounds and assimilating, like many saprotrophs, mineral nitrogen compounds.

In the soil, predatory fungi compete well with other fungi and microorganisms. Apparently, predatory fungi are another ecological group of soil saprotrophic fungi. Predatory fungi are of interest in the biological control of nematodes pathogenic to plants, animals and humans.

Examples of predatory mushrooms

The vegetative mycelium of predatory fungi consists of abundantly branching septate hyphae no more than 5-8 microns thick. Chlamydospores are often formed in old hyphae. Various trapping devices develop on the mycelium, described below. Conidia in predatory fungi develop on vertically standing conidiophores of various structures and have one or more septa. The first conidium is formed blastogenically at the apex of the conidiophore, then a new point growth and new conidia develops.

This process is repeated many times, resulting in the formation of a cluster of conidia at the apex of the conidiophore, often thickened and warty. If the conidiophore proliferates at one of the successive growth points and this process is repeated, a series of thickened nodes containing conidia are formed on the conidiophore (Fig.

246). In addition, predatory hyphomycetes include representatives of the genera Tridentaria (Tridentaria) and Tryposporina (Tproprogsha) with star-shaped spores (Fig. 246) and other fungi.[...]

Sometimes nonspecific induction of the development of traps is observed by extracts from animal tissues, blood serum, CO3 ions and other influences.

In the culture of some nematodes, substances were discovered that stimulate the formation of traps in predatory hyphomycetes and were called nemin. It is believed that this is a low molecular weight peptide or amino acid. A protein with non-minic activity was obtained from the body of roundworms. In some predatory hyphomycetes, for example, in Arthrobothrys dactyloides (A. cactyloides), the development of traps occurs in the absence of nematodes under conditions of relative lack of food or water.

Perhaps in nature, these factors, along with morphogenetic compounds such as nemin, regulate the formation of traps in predatory fungi.[...]

What mushrooms are called carnivorous? How do they hunt? How do people use them?

Answers:

Predatory mushrooms (predatory mushrooms) are mushrooms that catch and kill microscopic animals using special trapping devices. This is a specialized environmental group mushrooms, distinguished in modern mycology by the way mushrooms feed - the food is microscopic animals captured by mushrooms. They may be classified as saprotrophic fungi that feed on dead organic matter, since in the absence of prey they feed like saprotrophs.

Some mushrooms hunt in water. the threads of the mycelium form outgrowths in the form of rings of three cells that respond to touch. If a nematode accidentally gets into such a loop, they swell three times in a tenth of a second and pull the victim so tightly that it dies.

Then the threads of the fungus grow inside the victim and digest it. Predatory mushrooms can be classified according to the type of traps. The first type of traps are hyphal outgrowths covered with a sticky substance. The second type of traps are oval or spherical sticky heads sitting on the branches of the mycelium. People seem to use it on the farm (vegetable garden).

The world of predators is so diverse that sometimes you can meet another “devourer” where you don’t expect it at all. For example, not everyone knows what mushrooms are called predatory, how they hunt, and how they are useful or dangerous for humans.

When it comes to mushrooms, it is quite difficult for us to imagine that some of them are even very carnivorous. How can this be? After all, they “sit” in place and don’t even have a mouth? What's even more interesting is that people have learned to use killer mushrooms for their own benefit. How a person uses predatory mushrooms and what they are like is the topic of this article.

Who are they and where do they grow?

Already from the name itself it becomes clear which mushrooms are called predatory. Of course, those that catch and kill their victims are microscopic living organisms.

Such fungi prefer to settle among the roots of plants or in mosses, but are quite often found in bodies of water, especially stagnant ones. Some of them live on the bodies of insects and eat them from the inside. Such hunting mushrooms can shoot spores at a distance of up to 1 meter. Once on the victim's body, they grow inside and gradually eat it.

Surprisingly, mushrooms are practically the only living organisms on earth that instantly adapt to any climate change. We can safely say that these microscopic predators spread their nets right under human feet. And these networks never remain empty.

History of appearance

Mushrooms (carnivorous and not) are such ancient creatures that it’s hard to imagine. It is quite problematic to determine exactly when they appeared on Earth, because scientists practically never come across fossil remains. Most often they can be found only in small pieces of amber. This is how an ancient fossil mushroom was discovered in France, feeding on worms up to 5 mm long.

Scientists believe that even this prehistoric mushroom is still not the progenitor of modern ones. In the process of evolution, their “killer” functions were reborn so many times that it is impossible to count. Therefore, modern mushroom hunters are no longer related

by type of trap

Since some mushrooms are predatory creations of nature, they, accordingly, have some kind of trapping apparatus.

More precisely, there are several types of them:

• sticky heads, spherical in shape, located on the mycelium (typical of Monacrosporium ellipsosporum, A. entomophaga);
• sticky branching hyphae: Arthrobotrys perpasta, Monacrosporium cionopagum have such trapping apparatuses;
• adhesive trap nets consisting of a large number of rings, which are obtained by branching hyphae: for example, Arthrobotrys oligospores has such a device for hunting;
• mechanical hunting devices - the prey is squeezed by them and dies: in this way the snow-white Dactylaria hunts its victims.

Of course this one is pretty brief information about which mushrooms are predatory and how they hunt. In fact, there are many more varieties of these microscopic hunters.

How do killer mushrooms hunt?

So, predatory mushrooms: how do they hunt and who do they eat? Fungi place their sticky trap rings in the soil and wait for small worms - nematodes. Large quantity Entire networks of such rings are created around the mycelium. As soon as the worm touches the edge, it immediately sticks. The ring begins to shrink around the body of its victim, making it almost impossible to escape. Everything happens very quickly, in fractions of seconds.

Hyphae penetrate the body of the caught worm and begin to grow. Even if by some miracle the nematode manages to escape, this will not save it. The hyphae in its body grow so quickly that within a day only a shell will remain of the worm. Together with the dying worm, the mycelium will “move” to a new place and again spread its networks.

If a killer mushroom lives in water, then its food becomes rotifers, amoebas, cyclops crustaceans and other inhabitants of the reservoir. Their hunting principle is the same - the hyphae falls on its prey, penetrates inside and begins to grow in its body.

Unknown oyster mushrooms

Few people know, but the popular oyster mushrooms are also predatory mushrooms. They do not miss the opportunity to feast on a gaping worm. Like other hunters, their mycelium dissolves its adventitious hyphae, which produce a rather poisonous toxin.

This poison paralyzes the victim and the hyphae instantly digs into it. After this, the oyster mushroom calmly digests its prey. Oyster mushroom toxins affect more than just nematodes. In the same way, they even eat enchytraeids - rather large relatives. The toxin ostearin, produced by fungi, contributes to this. It will also be bad for those who happen to be nearby.

It turns out that these mushrooms are dangerous to eat? No. Scientists claim that there is no toxic toxin in the fruiting body of the mushroom. The mechanism programmed by nature is needed by oyster mushrooms only to protect them from pests - tardigrades, ticks and springtails.

Killer mushrooms are friends forever, but not always

Now let's talk about how humans use carnivorous mushrooms. Can they be beneficial in economic activity or pose a danger?

But predatory mushrooms are not always human friends. Since the 10th-12th centuries, humanity has known a disease called Western Europe"Saint Anthony's Fire" In Russia, this disease was called “evil cramps,” which fully conveys the patient’s condition. Symptoms of this disease are vomiting, loss of appetite, terrible pain in the intestines and stomach, and weakness. In the most severe cases, bending and necrosis of the limbs was observed, and the meat was separated from the bones.

For a long time, no one knew what caused such misfortune. Only later for a long time It was found that the disease is caused by ergot, a predatory fungus that lives in ears of rye and forms black horns there. They contain poisonous substance- ergotine. Therefore, today the disease is called ergotism. Bread made from such flour cannot be consumed, since the poison retains its properties even at high temperatures.

Conclusion

Now you know a little more. In particular, about what mushrooms are called predatory, how they hunt and how they can be useful or dangerous for humans. In addition to the fact that it is simply very interesting, it is quite possible that such knowledge will be useful to you in the future.