What do words mean in a figurative sense, examples. Direct and figurative meaning of the word, or an entertaining play on words

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

More from junior classes School we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) exposure rocks(In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city - main area);
by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking is also not uncommon, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife- sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners(dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).

The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he's already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in early period your creativity" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we're talking about: « Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in artistic texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used in the sense of “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “ main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without ending.”

Yes, emerging figurative meaning polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
Human temperament (passionate) nature).
Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed values, with which, by the way, given word and was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberate collision in subtext is very popular different meanings one word. So, oh mineral water the ad says, “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their place in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”

Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or lead internal dialogue, reading or listening to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in finding the true beauty of language and speech?

The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.

First of all, you should understand what the direct and figurative meaning of the word is, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, is a polysemantic word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family way of life, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.

With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even, without bends” – is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.

From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.

The literal and figurative meaning of a word can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:

ice water - icy hands(by attribute);

poisonous mushroom – poisonous character (by attribute);

star in the sky - star in hand (by location);

chocolate candy – chocolate tan (based on color).

Metonymy is the selection in a phenomenon or object of some property, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:

gold decoration- she has gold in her ears;

porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;

headache - my headache went away.

And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:

He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).

The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.

What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?

What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word

The plurality of meanings of a word is an aspect of linguistics and linguistics that attracts the close attention of researchers, since every language is a mobile and constantly changing system. Every day new words appear in it, as well as new meanings of words already known. For their correct use in speech, it is necessary to monitor the processes of formation of new semantic shades in the Russian language.

Ambiguous words

These are lexical units that have two or more meanings. One of them is direct, and all the others are figurative.

It is important to note what place ambiguous words occupy in the Russian language. Direct and figurative meanings are one of the main aspects of the study of linguistics, since the phenomenon of polysemy covers more than 40% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This happens because not a single language in the world is capable of giving its specific designation to each specific object and concept. In this regard, there is a divergence in the meanings of one word into several others. This is a natural process that occurs under the influence of factors such as associative thinking people, metaphor and metonymy.

Aspects of polysemy: relationships of meaning

Polysemy implies a certain system of meanings of a word. How does this system arise? How do such two components as the literal and figurative meaning of a word appear? First of all, any lexical unit is formed in a language with the formation of a new concept or phenomenon. Then, as a result of certain linguistic processes, additional meanings appear, which are called figurative. The main influence on the formation of new meanings is exerted by the specific context in which the word is located. Many researchers note that polysemy is often impossible outside the linguistic context.

Words with direct and figurative meanings become so by reference to context, and their use depends on the choice of meaning in each specific situation.

Aspects of polysemy: semantic relations

It is very important to distinguish between concepts such as polysemy and homonymy. Polysemy is polysemy, a system of meanings put into the same word and connected with each other. Homonymy is a linguistic phenomenon that covers words that are identical in form (spelling) and sound design (pronunciation). Moreover, such lexical units are not connected in meaning and do not have common origin from one concept or phenomenon.

Direct and figurative meaning of a word in the light of semantic relations between different meanings, embedded in a particular word, are the object of study by many scientists. The difficulty of studying this group of lexical units is that it is often difficult to find common original meaning for polysemantic words. It is also difficult to separate completely unrelated meanings that have many common features, but at the same time they are only examples of homonymy.

Aspects of polysemy: categorical connection

Of particular importance for scientists in the aspect of researching the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is the explanation of polysemy from the point of view of cognitive categoricality. This theory suggests that the language system is an extremely flexible structure that can change in connection with the acquisition of new concepts about a phenomenon or object in the human mind.

Many researchers are inclined to believe that polysemy appears and develops according to certain laws, and is not caused by spontaneous and unsystematic processes in language. All meanings of a word are initially in the human mind, and are also a priori embedded in the structure of language. This theory already affects not only aspects of linguistics, but also psycholinguistics.

Characteristics of direct value

All people have an intuitive idea of what the literal and figurative meaning of a word is. If we speak in the language of ordinary people, the direct meaning is the most common meaning that is put into a word; it can be used in any context, directly pointing to a specific concept. In dictionaries, the direct meaning always comes first. Below the numbers are figurative meanings.

All lexical units, as mentioned above, can be divided into single-valued and polysemous. Unambiguous words are those that have only a direct meaning. This group includes terms, words with a narrow subject-matter, new, not yet very common words, proper names. Perhaps, under the influence of the development processes of the language system, words of these categories may acquire additional meanings. In other words, lexical units representing these groups will not necessarily always be unambiguous.

Characteristics of figurative meaning

This topic will definitely be chosen by any Russian language teacher at school for certification. “The direct and figurative meaning of a word” is a section that occupies a very important place in the structure of the study of Russian speech, so it is worth talking about it in more detail.

Let's consider the figurative meaning of lexical units. The additional meaning of a word that appears as a result of indirect or direct nomination is called figurative. All additional meanings are related to the main meaning metonymically, metaphorically or associatively. The figurative meanings are characterized by blurred meanings and boundaries of use. It all depends on the context and style of speech in which the additional meaning is used.

Particularly interesting are cases when a figurative meaning takes the place of the main one, displacing it from use. An example is the word “bulda”, which originally meant a heavy hammer, and now a stupid, narrow-minded person.

Metaphor as a way of transferring meaning

Scientists highlight different types figurative meanings of words depending on the method of their formation. The first of these is metaphor. The main meaning can be transferred by similarity of features.

Thus, they distinguish similarities in shape, color, size, actions, feelings and emotional state. Naturally, this classification is conditional, since similar concepts can be metaphorically divided into the previously listed categories.

This classification is not the only possible one. Other researchers distinguish metaphorical transfer by similarity depending on the animation of the object. Thus, the transfer of the properties of an animate object to an inanimate one, and vice versa, is described; animate - to animate, inanimate - to inanimate.

There are also certain patterns in which metaphorical transfer occurs. Most often, this phenomenon refers to household objects (a rag as a tool for cleaning the floor and a rag as a weak-willed, weak-willed person), professions (a clown as a circus performer and a clown as someone who behaves stupidly, trying to seem like the life of the party), sounds characteristic of animals (mooing like the sound a cow makes, and like the slurred speech of a person), diseases (an ulcer as a disease and as satire and evil irony in human behavior).

Metonymy as a way of transferring meaning

Another aspect important for studying the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is metonymic transfer by contiguity. It represents a kind of substitution of concepts depending on the meanings inherent in them. For example, documents are often called papers, a group of children at school is called a class, etc.

The reasons for such a transfer of value may be as follows. Firstly, this is done for the convenience of the speaker, who seeks to shorten his speech as much as possible. Secondly, the use of such metonymic constructions in speech may be unconscious, because in Russian the expression “eat a bowl of soup” implies a figurative meaning, which is realized with the help of metonymy.

Using words figuratively

During practical classes in Russian, any teacher will certainly require examples to be given for the section being studied. “Polysemantic words: direct and figurative meanings” is a topic that is replete with visual illustrations.

Let's take the word "burdock". Direct meaning this concept– a plant with large leaves. This word can also be used in relation to a person in the meaning of “narrow-minded”, “stupid”, “simp”. This example– the classic use of metaphor to convey meaning. Contiguity transfer can also be easily illustrated with the phrase “drink a glass of water.” Naturally, we drink not the glass itself, but its contents.

So, the topic of figurative meanings is intuitively clear to everyone. It is only important to understand how the transformation of the direct meaning of the word occurs.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word. What examples can you give?

The direct meaning of the word strictly correlates with a certain thing, attribute, action, quality, etc. A word can have a figurative meaning based on points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.

Examples of the meaning of words:

table (furniture) - address table, table No. 9 (diet);

black color - back door (auxiliary), black thoughts (bleak);

bright room - bright mind, bright head;

dirty rag - dirty thoughts;

cold wind - cold heart;

golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;

heavy burden - heavy look;

heart valve - cardiac reception;

gray mouse - gray man.

Zolotynka

A large number of words and figures of speech in the Russian language can be used both in a literal and figurative (figurative) sense.

The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning; the narrator means exactly what he says.

We use words in a figurative sense in order to give our speech figurativeness, to especially emphasize some quality or action.

The examples below will help you “feel the difference”:

The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in a literal meaning can begin to be used in a figurative sense - birdhouse - starling house, birdhouse - traffic police post, zebra - animal, zebra - pedestrian crossing.

Nelli4ka

Direct is the primary meaning of a word, figurative is secondary. Let me give you examples:

Gold earrings - direct meaning.

My husband's gold hands - figurative meaning.

Rain worm- direct.

Book worm- portable.

Silver ring - straight.

Silver century - figurative.

The sky is burning star- direct.

Star screen - portable.

Icy sculpture - straight.

Icy smile - figurative.

Sugar buns - straight.

Mouth sugar- portable.

Woolen blanket- direct.

Winter covered everything around with snow blanket- portable.

Mink fur coat- direct.

Herring under fur coat- portable.

Marble plate - straight.

Marble cupcake - portable.

Black suit - straight.

Leave on black day - portable.

Any word in Russian initially has one or several direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean something like what we use to close the lock on front door and can mean water gushing out of the ground. In both cases, this is the direct meaning of a polysemantic word. But almost every word in the Russian language can also be given a figurative meaning. For example in the expression key to all doors, not a word key, not a word doors are not used in their direct meaning. The key here is the possibility of solving the problem, and the doors are this very problem. The figurative meaning of words is often used by poets, for example in Pushkin’s famous poem, every word has a figurative meaning:

Or here is the famous young man from Bryusov, who had a burning gaze, of course, burning in a figurative sense.

There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meanings in the Russian language. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. It is very useful to look there from time to time.

Examples of words and phrases with figurative meaning:

to step on a rake, in a figurative sense - to get a negative experience.
prick up your ears - become very attentive,
reel in fishing rods - leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
a heart of stone is an insensitive person,
sour face - dissatisfied facial expression.
work hard - work hard
sharp tongue - the ability to formulate accurate, accurate and even caustic information.

Now, I remember.

Moreljuba

But in fact, a very interesting fact is that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one.

If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean exactly the lexical meaning of a specific word. But figurative meaning means transferring the meaning of the lexical original as a consequence of comparison

And here are some examples:

Eugenie001

In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand words naming an object of reality or its property. Moreover, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context; we immediately imagine what they mean. For example:

Based on the direct meaning of a word, additional lexical meanings may arise, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena in appearance, properties or actions performed.

Compare: “stone house” and “stone face”. In the phrase “stone house”, the adjective “stone” is used in the literal meaning (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase “stone face”, the same adjective is used in a figurative meaning (insensitive, unkind, harsh).

Here are some examples of the literal and figurative meaning of words:

Many stylistic figures or literary tropes are built on the basis of figurative meaning (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).

Sayan Mountains

Examples of words and expressions with figurative meaning:

As we see, words acquire a figurative meaning when they are used together with certain words (which do not have such a quality in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot literally be made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore it just consists of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).

virgin virginia

Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.

Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for someone).

Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.

Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.

Plastic bag - social package(about vacations, sick leave).

Wolverine skin is a sellable skin.

Garden flowers are flowers of life (about children).

Green fruits - green generation.

Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (informer).

To poison with pills is to poison with moral violence.

Marlena

The direct meaning of a word is when the word is used in its original sense. For example: sweet porridge.

The figurative meaning of a word is when the word is used in a non-literal sense, such as sweet deception.

I need to give examples of words with a figurative meaning... help?

give examples please

Diana Klimova

Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.

Thus, the word table is used in several figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or part of a cold-form machine (operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Meals, food (rent a room with a table); 3. A department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (help desk).

The word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread); 2. Has taken on a dark color, darkened (black from tanning); 3. In the old days: Kurnoy (black hut); 4. Gloomy, desolate, heavy (black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious (black treason); 6. Not the main one, the auxiliary one (the back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).

The word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing); 2. Manifest something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation); 3. Move randomly (the river was boiling with fish).

As we see, when transferring meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, usual object of designation, but are brought closer to another concept by various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain imagery (black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. This is how figurative meanings differ from metaphors created by writers.

In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: a pipe bend, a teapot spout, a carrot tail, a clock ticking. In such cases, they speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word.

The transfer of names occurs on the basis of similarities in something between objects, characteristics, and actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: the spout of a teapot, a door handle, a table leg, the spine of a book, etc.

Anton Maslov

The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the word table has the following basic meaning: “a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports or legs.”

Figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of transferring the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc. Thus, the word table has several figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape (operating table, raise the machine table). 2. Meals, food (rent a room with a table). 3. A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs (help desk).

Depending on on what basis and by what criteria the name of one object is transferred to another, three types of transfer of word meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche. Some linguists also distinguish transfer by similarity of functions.

The section is very easy to use. In the field provided, just enter the right word, and we will give you a list of its values. I would like to note that our website provides data from different sources– encyclopedic, explanatory, word-formation dictionaries. Here you can also see examples of the use of the word you entered.

What does "figurative meaning of a word" mean?

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word that arose on the basis different types associative connections through metonymy, metaphor and other semantic changes. For example, the figurative meaning of the word “wake up” (“the forest woke up”), “falsify” (“falsify the facts”).

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word, associated with the main, main meaning through relations of metonymic, metaphorical dependence or any associative features. P. z. With. can arise on the basis of spatial, temporal, logical, etc. correlation of concepts (adjacency of material and product, process and result, etc.), average metonymic meanings of the words “edition”, “finishing”, “wintering”, “image” ”, based on associations by similarity (in shape, color, nature of movements, etc.), for example, the metaphorical meanings of the words “dull”, “fresh”, “stamp”. As a result of the transfer of names based on general function many P. z. arose. pp., for example, in the words “wing”, “shield”, “satellite”. P. z. With. have greater syntagmatic coherence (see Syntagmatic relations), while direct meanings are most conditioned paradigmatically (see Paradigmatic relations). Patterns of occurrence of P. z. With. (regularity and irregularity of formation of semantically homogeneous groups of words, etc.), the nature of their relationship with the main meaning (for example, the direction of development from more concrete meanings to more abstract ones, etc.) can be described both in synchronic (see Synchrony) and and in diachronic (see Diachrony) plans. In the history of the development of the language of P. z. With. can become the main ones and vice versa (average development of meanings for the words “hearth”, “slum”, “red”). This shift in the semantic structure of words is influenced by various factors(emotional and evaluative elements, associative connections accompanying the word when used, etc.).

Lit.: Vinogradov V.V., Basic types of lexical meanings of a word, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1953, ╧5; Kurilovich E., Notes on the meaning of words, in his book: Essays on Linguistics, M., 1962; Shmelev D.N., Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973.

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) rock outcrop (In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
Synecdoche (transferring a general meaning to its part).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city - main area);
by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

Metaphorical rethinking is also not uncommon, based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics: gray mouse - gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in the early period of his work" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of pointing to an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we are talking about: “ Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them a grotesque or humorous coloring.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used in the sense of “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “the main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without an ending.”

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
Human temperament (passionate) nature).
Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from the French language, is already outdated; in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words in a figurative sense are often used as an expressive means of fiction, the media, and also in advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberately colliding different meanings of one word in the subtext is very popular. Thus, advertisements say about mineral water: “A source of vigor.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors of works of art, to give them brightness and imagery, use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their place in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

The same words can be used differently in speech, getting different meanings. Stand out straight And portable meanings of words. Direct(or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.

Yes, words table, black, boil have the following meanings: 1. A piece of furniture in the form of a horizontal board on high supports, legs; 2. Color of soot, coal; 3. Seethe, bubble, evaporate from strong heat (about liquids). These meanings are stable character, although historically they may vary. For example, the word table V Old Russian language meant “throne”, “reign”.

The direct meanings of words depend less than others on the context, on the nature of connections with other words.

Portable(indirect) meanings of words - those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.

Yes, word table used in several figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or part of a cold-formed machine ( operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Nutrition, food ( rent a room with a table); 3. A department in an institution in charge of a special range of affairs ( information desk).

Word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white ( black bread); 2. Has taken on a dark color, darkened ( black from tan); 3. In the old days: chicken ( black hut); 4. Gloomy, desolate, heavy ( black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious ( black treason); 6. Not main, auxiliary ( back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled ( dirty work).

Word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. Manifest to a strong degree ( work is in full swing); 2. To manifest something with force, to a strong degree ( seethe with indignation); 3. Move randomly ( river was boiling with fish).

Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness ( black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. This is how figurative meanings differ from metaphors created by writers.

In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: pipe elbow, teapot spout, carrot tail, clock ticking. In such cases, they speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word.

The transfer of names occurs on the basis of similarities in something between objects, characteristics, and actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: teapot spout, door handle, table leg, book spine, etc.

The value transfer process goes like this : baby's foot(direct) - table leg(portable) - table leg(direct).

The primary, direct meaning can sometimes be restored only by studying the history of the word.

Let us summarize the above material in the table:

Types of portable values

Depending on what attribute the meaning is transferred from one object to another; the following types of figurative meanings of a word are distinguished.

1) Transfer of values according to any similarity between objects and phenomena. Such figurative meanings are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their characteristics (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of a boat, the tail of a train, the head of a nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) wiper (meaning “a cleaning device on the glass of a car”), electric position, watchman (meaning “a device on a dish for holding boiling milk”) - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

Many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word are characterized by anthropomorphism, that is, the similarity of the properties of the surrounding physical world human properties. Compare these examples: an angry wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River is Playing” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream is running, the volcano has awakened, etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a mop of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. There are metaphors general language, when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, river branch, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic style and not becoming widespread. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: fire of red rowan, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of the eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the buns of lanterns and the crumpets of the roofs, etc.

2) Transfer of name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product made from this material. For example, the words gold and crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) vessel - the contents of the vessel (ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - an object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, an illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, fastening of gear - ski binding, transmission of movement - bicycle transmission);
g) action - place of action (exiting the house - standing at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - fur or meat of an animal (a hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur is it, arctic fox or fox?).

One of peculiar species metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and the whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand indicate the corresponding parts human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are prohibited from entering; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.

Some characteristic features person - beard, glasses, clothes and others are often used to indicate a person.
For example:
- Hey, beard, where are you going?
- I’m standing behind the blue cloak...