Philosophy Taoism. Taoism - details about ancient Chinese teachings

MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF RUSSIA

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION "EAST SIBERIAN INSTITUTE

MINISTRY OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION"

in philosophy

on the topic “Philosophy of Taoism”

Completed by: 1st year FPD cadet

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Prosvirnin A.O.

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Irkutsk

Introduction

What is Taoism?

Philosophers of Taoism

Basic concepts of Taoism

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The dawn of philosophy in China begins in the 6th century BC. this period is called the “period of a hundred schools.” All these schools can be grouped into 6 main directions. Among these 6, Confucianism and Taoism are distinguished.

Confucianism got its name from China's first philosopher, Confucius (Kung Fu Tzu), who created a theory of government based on observance of rules of behavior and virtue. By virtue he understood a sense of duty, responsibility, restraint, moral education, and by rules of behavior - ethical standards. Governance based on virtue is the same as governing based on philanthropy. Philanthropy according to Confucius involves the development of the following 5 qualities:

Respectfulness,

Generosity,

Truthfulness,

Sharpness,

Confucius distinguishes and differentiates the concepts of benefit and duty. He has a special understanding of the people as an objective natural element, and if it leaves a stable state, then it will be impossible to tame it. The people must be made rich, well-fed, and then re-educated. The people should be valued higher than the managers. You can remove the commander of three armies if the people want it. Thus, Confucius offers the path of the golden mean in order to soften contradictions and prevent aggravations.

His entire philosophy was expounded by his students (he ran a private school and taught there) in his work “Conversations and Judgments.” Thus, one of the main ideas Confucius gave to the world was the idea of ​​balance. His philosophy is ethical.

The Taoists developed a different approach to the development of the state. The founder of Taoism is Lao Tzu, and he outlined his ideas in the work “Lao Te Ching”. Lao Tzu believed that one should govern not with the help of ethics and not with the help of laws. He said that the ethical principle undermines the confidence of the people and leads them to unrest. Confucius believed that society should be structured like a family, when the younger ones obey the elders, and the children obey their parents. But in this case, according to Lao Tzu, the punishment will be unequal. The second principle (lack of laws) increases the number of thieves and robbers. He said that the reasons for the difficulty of management lie in knowledge and desires. Management should be built on the principle of non-action. This principle logically follows from his ideas about the world as a whole from his understanding of society and man.

The principle of non-action lies in non-interference in the existence of the laws of development and functioning of any object and being, because every thing has its own path. A person, regardless of his status, cannot interfere in the objective course of things, and if he wants to change something or influence society, then he must do it within himself.

Taoist philosophy is a dialectical philosophy. Firstly, the presence of opposites in things is recognized, and secondly, the mutual transformation of opposites is recognized. Lao Tzu feared and especially warned against the mutual transformation of opposites. And he also advocated maintaining balance, against effort, i.e. for activities that do not violate the harmony of the world, its unity and universal harmony between society, nature and people and for maintaining a person’s peace of mind.

.What is Taoism?

This question has long attracted the attention of Chinese researchers, but it is very difficult to give a short and clear answer to it, since Taoism - the concept is very multidimensional and polysemantic.

In some sources, Taoism is called a philosophy, in others - a religion, in others - a philosophy that gradually transformed into a religion, and in fourths it is said that Taoism is not a philosophy, not a religion, but an art.

Taoism is a Chinese philosophical and religious movement, which is one of the main “three teachings”. It represents an alternative to Confucianism, from a philosophical point of view, and Buddhism, from a religious point of view.

The first mention of Taoism as an integral ideological formation appeared in the 2nd century. BC It was called the “school of the Way and Grace” and consisted of the fundamental theories of the treatise “The Canon of the Way and Grace”. Subsequently, the name of the teaching “school of the Way and grace” was shortened to “school of the Way” (Tao Jia), which has survived to this day.

Taoism is based on the mystical and shamanic cults of the kingdom of Chu South China, the doctrine of immortality and magical practices of the kingdom of Qi, the philosophical tradition of Northern China. The founders of Taoism are considered to be the Yellow Emperor Huangdi and the sage Lao Tzu. The main treatises are the Tao Te Ching and Zhuang Tzu.

The term “Tao” (path), which formed the basis of this philosophical and religious movement, turns out to be much broader than all the specifics of Taoism. It can be quite compared to the Confucian term “zhu”. Many people confuse Taoism with Neo-Confucianism, which is fully explained by the presence of the same roots in these philosophical teachings. The fact is that early Confucianism could well have been called nothing other than the “teaching of Tao” (Tao shu, Tao jiao, Dao xue). On the other hand, adherents of Taoism could be included in the category of zhu. These interactions between the two movements gave rise to the fact that the term “adept of Tao” is applicable to Taoists, Confucians, and even Buddhists.

But Taoist mystical-individualistic naturalism is fundamentally different from the ethical sociocentrism of other leading worldview systems of ancient China. The period of flourishing and formation of the “hundred schools” was the starting point for the research of many scientists. He even made them think about the peripheral origins of Taoism (some argued that Taoism originated in India). Not without Brahman and Logos, which supposedly served as a kind of prototype of the Tao. This view is contradicted by the point of view that speaks of Taoism as a clear expression of the Chinese spirit itself. This is precisely what many Russian scientists adhere to, led by the leading researcher of Taoism E.A. Torchinov. They are inclined to believe that Taoism is the most developed form of national religion.

The theme of transformation, creative metamorphoses of existence is the central theme of Taoist thought. For Taoists, neither form nor the formless is real. Or, as they say in Taoist books, emptiness cannot overcome ten thousand things . The true reality for Taoists is transformation itself. Taoists think in terms of not entities or ideas, but relationships, functions, influences. For them in the world there is nothing , but the connections between things themselves are undoubtedly real. There may be no truth at all. But the metaphor of truth, countless glimpses of reality definitely exist.

So, the Taoist picture of the world is an infinitely complex, truly chaotic pattern of phenomena, where there is no one privileged image, one the only true one ideas. As Chuang Tzu wrote: The whole darkness of things is like a spread out net, and the beginning is nowhere to be found.

Just as China itself (then the kingdom of Zhou) was divided, starting from the middle of the 1st millennium BC, into many separate kingdoms at war with each other, its culture also presented a picture of significant diversity; There were several types of cultures, only later fused in the great all-Chinese synthesis.

The cultures of the north and south of China differed most from each other. If the north, which gave rise to Confucianism, is characterized by attention to ethical issues and ritual, a rational desire for a rational rethinking of the archaic foundations of civilization, then in the south the element of mythopoetic thinking dominated, and the ecstasy of shamanic cults flourished. And Taoism, which apparently matured in the bosom of the southern tradition, nevertheless combined the exalted archaism of the south and the rationality of the north. The first gave him content, the second endowed him with form, providing the philosophical method she created for mastering reality to express vague and unconscious creative potentials. Without the southern tradition, Taoism would not have become Taoism; without the northern one, it would not have been able to speak about itself in the language of great culture and literary education.

The founder of Taoism is traditionally considered to be Lao Tzu, who according to legend lived at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC. and before leaving China forever for the West, he left with the head of the border outpost Yin Xi an exposition of his teachings called Tao Te Ching .

IN Tao Te Ching we're talking about about the single origin of all things - a single substance and at the same time a world pattern - Tao. This concept gave its name to Taoism (Tao Jiao).

In addition to Lao Tzu, one cannot help but mention another Taoist thinker, Zhuang Tzu (IV-III centuries BC), the author of a treatise named after him, in which there are many paradoxes, parables, eccentric images, reinterpreted in the spirit of Taoist philosophy and literature.

For worldview Chuang Tzu the concept was of great importance leveling of existence (qi wu), according to which the world is a kind of absolute unity. There is no place for clear boundaries between things, everything is fused with each other, everything is present in everything. There are no absolute values, nothing in itself is neither beautiful nor ugly, neither large nor small, but everything exists only in relation to something else and in the closest internal connection and interdependence.

For traditional Chinese philosophy, belief in the immortality of the soul specifically was uncharacteristic. Only the single psychophysical integrity of a living being was recognized as real. The spirit itself was understood quite naturalistically: as a refined material and energy substance (qi). After the death of the body it is qi scattered in nature. In addition, Taoism inherited from shamanism the doctrine of the plurality of souls - animals (po) and thinking (hun). The body was the only thread connecting them together. The death of the body led to separation and death of souls. Therefore, already in ancient times, great importance was attached to means of prolonging physical life, and longevity (show) became one of the most important values ​​of Chinese culture.

However, Taoism was not satisfied with the ideal of a simple physical, even infinite, extension of life. A true Taoist immortal (xian), in the process of moving along the path of immortality, radically transformed and transformed his body, which, according to Taoist teaching, acquired supernatural powers and abilities: the ability to fly through the air, become invisible, be in several places at the same time, and even compress time. But the main transformation in the process of practicing Taoist meditation is spiritual: the immortal fully felt and experienced the Taoist picture of the world, realizing the ideal of unity (oneness) with all that exists and with Tao as the mysterious fundamental principle of the world.

The path to immortality according to Taoist teachings involved practicing complex methods of special psychophysical training, much like Indian yoga. It seemed to involve two aspects: improvement of the spirit and improvement of the body. The first consisted of practicing meditation, contemplating the Tao and the unity of the world, unity with the Tao. Various complex visualizations of deities were also used, symbolizing special states of consciousness and types of vital energy.

The second consisted of specific gymnastic (Dao Yin) and breathing (Xing Qi) exercises, sexual practice to maintain the body’s energy balance, and alchemy. It was alchemy that was considered the highest path to achieving immortality.

Alchemy was divided by Taoists into two types - external (wei dan) and internal (nei dan). Of these, only the first was alchemy in the proper sense of the word. It involved the creation in an alchemical retort of a working model of the cosmos, in which the elixir of immortality matures under the influence of fire. The main difference between Chinese alchemy and European alchemy is its initial close connection with medicine: in Chinese alchemy even gold was produced like the elixir of immortality. Taoist alchemists accumulated the most valuable empirical material in the field of chemistry and medicine, which significantly enriched traditional Chinese pharmacology.

By the 10th century external alchemy fell into decline and was replaced by internal alchemy. It was alchemy only in name, since it was nothing more than an ordered set of complex psychophysical exercises aimed at transforming the consciousness of the adept and changing a number of his psychophysiological parameters. However, she borrowed from alchemy itself its terminology, ways of describing the practice, making the names of minerals and substances symbols of psychophysical processes and their structures.

Followers internal alchemy proceeded from the position of complete similarity between the microcosm and the macrocosm, the human body and the universe. And since the human body contains everything that exists in space, then there is no need to create a model of it in crucibles and retorts: the body itself is a similar model. Consequently, it is possible to create a new immortal body from the substances, juices and energies of one’s own body. Particular attention in practice internal alchemy was devoted to the management of energies flowing, according to its theory, according to special channels (ching) of the body, and accumulating in special reservoirs (dan tian, ind. chakras). Energy management was achieved through concentration of consciousness and visualization (qi gong). Like external alchemy, internal also collected very rich material for Chinese medicine.

Taoism is sometimes called the national religion of China, but this definition is not entirely correct. Firstly, Taoism spread among some other peoples living in the neighborhood of the Chinese. Secondly, the Taoists not only did not preach their religion in society, but, on the contrary, carefully hid their secrets from the uninitiated and did not even allow the laity to attend the most important prayer services. In addition, Taoism has always been divided into many independent sects, where art of Tao passed from teacher to student in secret from outsiders.

Nevertheless, Taoism, without exaggeration, can be called a genuine phenomenon of Chinese culture, because it ensured continuity between the elite wisdom of the Tao and the beliefs of the common people, the principles of internal improvement and the entire way of life of the Chinese. While serving their prayer services, the Taoists did not actually worship the spirits, but rather drew them into the boundless harmony of the Great Emptiness. At the same time, the very existence of deities, as well as the entire world of forms, which is transformed body Tao remained absolutely necessary for Taoists.

2.Philosophers of Taoism

philosophy China Taoism teaching

Maybe, main feature Taoist thought is that it is a thought, in all its manifestations, addressed to the origins of things: the origin of times hidden in the immemorial depths of history; the source of consciousness, forever eluding the light of reason, the source of all our mental movements, hidden in the bottomless thickness of life. And the Taoists are so faithful to their search for the true, absolute Source of existence that they did not even set a limit to it in the form of any metaphysical principle, prime mover, primary matter , origin, etc. After all, the source of being, if it is really real, cannot be either a chronological boundary or a given experience, nor mental abstraction for the simple reason that such a beginning introduces a limitation into the world and, in the end, itself turns out to be conditional, invented, inanimate. The thought of the Taoists is about the Beginning, which itself is without beginning; about the source, which is, rather, the free flow of life itself and which, eternally deviating from its own essence, eternally returns to itself.

Their inheritance is the thought of Tao: the Path of all paths, unchanging variability. It seems that they come into the world only to leave, and thereby return to earthly existence. Real people of antiquity did not know what it was to enjoy life and turn away from death, they were not proud of being born and did not resist leaving the world. Detachment they came, detachment they left, without searching for the beginning, without rushing in thought to the end, rejoicing in what was given to them, and selflessly returning to their nature. Their mind is immersed in oblivion, their appearance is impassive, their forehead is majestic. Cool as autumn and warm as spring, they followed the flow of the seasons in their feelings. They lived in boundless harmony with the world, and no one knew where their limit was... (Chuang Tzu , ch. Dazongshi ).

The main teacher of Taoism is Lao Tzu, the Old Child, whose name was Li Er. He born of himself , from himself he turned the whole world around, and he himself appeared to the world 72 times. But he is also a man who lived a long and inconspicuous life. Legend portrays him as the custodian of the royal archives, an older contemporary of Confucius. Lao Tzu met with the future founder of Confucianism, but reacted coolly to Confucius’s belief in the effectiveness of moral preaching, which is probably quite natural for a connoisseur of human history. Having completely lost faith in people, he mounted a buffalo and went somewhere to the West, but never returned. And as a farewell, at the request of the head of the border post through which he left China, Lao Tzu left a small book for his descendants in five thousand words . This essay, commonly referred to as Treatise on the Path and Potency (Tao Te Ching) became the main canon of Taoism.

Next to Lao Tzu in the ranks of the prophets of Tao is the philosopher Zhuang Zhou, aka Zhuang Tzu, who was undoubtedly real historical figure and, moreover, one of the most charming thinkers of ancient China. Zhuangzi lived in the last decades of the 4th century. BC - the heyday of free thought and intense rivalry between various philosophical schools. Zhuang Tzu was a great polymath, but preferred to stay away from court scholar-debators. For many years he held the humble position of caretaker of the plantation, and then retired and lived out the rest of his days in his native village. Before his death, he asked his students not to burden themselves with the funeral of their teacher, but to throw his body in an open field, because the whole world would become his grave. A modest, unassuming life and a far from heroic, even almost shameful death, in the eyes of Chuang Tzu himself, clearly did not detract from his true dignity. After all, a true Taoist, in the words of Lao Tzu, comes out into the light, mingling with the dust, in the bustle of everyday life he keeps the secret of eternity, in the polyphony of the Earth he comprehends the silence of Heaven.

Prophets of Tao exist in order to transform their existence into an inescapable Presence. They are as impossible as they are inevitable, like the very beginning thoughts about Tao . Their appearance is not a fact of chronology or personal fate. It marks, rather, the awakening of thought to its unthinkable source, which is the very fullness of creative life.

So, the tradition of Tao is strange, outsiders. No wonder Lao Tzu already received the nickname in ancient times dark teacher . And Chuang Tzu himself called his writings ridiculous and crazy speeches . Taoists explain themselves in paradoxes, vague maxims and extravagant parables. Some researchers are trying to discern this or that philosophical system . Others see Taoists as heirs mythopoetic thinking. Still others believe that the entire heritage is almost a deliberate hoax, hiding the true teaching of the Tao.

The true impulse of speaking about Tao is the very life of consciousness, constantly rushing beyond its own boundaries, every moment renewing its connection with the creative element of life. This consciousness is aware that it is irreducible to either experience or knowledge and therefore lives in the eternal (self) oblivion . But it itself penetrates life, creating a new, spiritualized body of the world and a new, rational nature. This consciousness coincides with the fullness of existence. It gives the highest joy of being, but it itself does not remind us of itself, just as we do not feel our own body while it is healthy and strong. Or as Chuang Tzu said, when the sandals fit, they forget about the foot.

But why exactly aphorisms? Why eccentric parables and anecdotes? For several reasons. Firstly, an aphorism, a parable or an anecdote is paradoxical in its own way, like nature the origin of things in Taoism. Secondly, these verbal genres do not establish universal abstract truths, but turn out to be true in special cases and thereby affirm the exceptional, unique qualities of life, which are precisely what we experience in the creative act. Thirdly, an aphorism or a parable successfully blurs the line between true and false, figurative and literal meanings. Thus, the speech of the Taoists, at first glance confused and shocking, turns out to be an accurate verbal copy of the Great Way as the deep rhythm of life. It is not for nothing that ancient commentators on the Taoist canons often repeated that all words come from Tao.

In essence, there is nothing arbitrary in the sayings of Taoists. They imprinted wisdom, which was the result of a long journey of self-knowledge of the spirit. We have before us the language of tradition, where not only what is smart is valued, but above all what is durable. Thinking about Tao is something you can always live with. And therefore something deeply personal. The speech of a Taoist is a series of secret insights that illuminate the path of the heart. Its true prototype is the life of the body, the world of bodily intuition. The wisdom of the Taoist is knowledge of the seeds of things and the germs of events . Lao Tzu is self-aware unborn baby . Chuang Tzu exhorts his readers to become what we were before we were born.

The books of Lao Tzu and Zhuang Tzu were originally composed of fragments in which individual insights and observations of the ascetics of Tao were recorded. The superlogical nature of Taoist wisdom reflected the detachment of Taoist schools from any public norms. The focus of the wisdom of Tao on a narrow circle of initiates and internal , inexplicably intimate understanding were also a sign of Taoism as a spiritual tradition that taught its adherents to reproduce the experience of self-knowledge, to renew the presence of the one who returns to the world when we are absent from it.

Not knowledge or even creativity, but ability live your life to the fullest constituted the goal of Taoist asceticism. With spontaneity worthy great tradition, Taoism argued that the wise man knows nothing and cannot do anything, but only nourishes himself, assimilating the universal harmony of life with his whole body.

The various properties of Tao as absolute being are conveniently covered in Taoist literature by the concept emptiness (xu) or void-absent (xu wu) eternally absent (say u) . In the philosophy of Tao, emptiness acts as a prototype of the ultimate integrity and completeness of being. Emptiness is the prototype of the existential gap that reveals all forms, and the pause that forms the rhythm. Finally, emptiness is an omnipresent environment and even the driving force of transformations: emptiness, in order to be itself to the end, must itself be devastated and as a result become complete fullness.

Reality in Taoism is ultimately self-transubstantiation, in which each thing becomes what it is, reaching the limit of its existence, undergoing metamorphosis. In the event of self-transubstantiation, a person becomes truly human precisely because he finds in it his co-existence with all that exists. And the more transient and insignificant a person appears when placed before the world’s Everything, the more majestic he is in his involvement in the Unified Movement of the world, this eventfulness of all events, the universal dance of things. His self-loss is indistinguishable from self-realization.

The world, in the view of Taoists, is an abyss of mutual reflections, wonderful meetings incommensurable forces, and the principle of its existence is expressed in the image Heavenly scales , equalizing the incomparable. Reality for a Taoist is Chaos as countless orders, an endless wealth of diversity.

The Taoist sage imitates emptiness and chaos and therefore has no place in itself to be . He does not commit arbitrary actions, but only flawlessly follows every spontaneous movement. His consciousness is a mirror that contains all images, but does not hold them.

An unborn child already has complete knowledge of life. He understands before he learns to understand. The Taoist tradition requires us to recognize that any misunderstanding is actually a misunderstanding. And if, as the Taoists believe, we at any moment we already know , then to think and designate means only to draw boundaries in the vast field of eventfulness, the space of omnipresent ultimacy, to limit the limitation - to write white on white . In such a letter, everything obeys the law of economy of expression: the smaller the sphere of the presented meaning, the sphere understandable and understandable , the more space will be freed up for meaning as the openness of being, everything unknown and wonderful in life. The Taoist tradition is a school of self-restraint that serves to liberate all that exists. A real sacrament is not something deliberately hidden. It exists where the more obvious, the more hidden, the more understandable, the more incomprehensible. A sacrament is not an object positive philosophy . The Taoists did not strive to create their own system of thought . They are the masters internal work who sought in individual actions not completeness, but infinite effectiveness. However, what in nature makes all actions possible? Nothing short of peace. The Taoist practices non-action. His art of Tao as Chuang Tzu writes, above ordinary skill . Since the Taoist sage wanders with the heart at the beginning of things , he is not just a master, but always also the Lord of the world, determining the place of each thing in the world order.

3.Basic concepts of Taoism

The hieroglyph of Tao consists of two parts: show - head and zou - go , therefore the main meaning of this hieroglyph is road , but later this hieroglyph acquired figurative meaning - path (approach , method , pattern , principle , function , doctrine , theory , Truth , absolute ) . Logos and Brahman are often recognized as equivalents of Tao.

IN Tao Te Ching we are talking about the single origin of all things - a single substance and at the same time a world pattern - Tao.

Tao is the central philosophical concept of Taoism, and it should be noted that it can be mistakenly treated as an ordinary concept. After all, before any person hears about Tao, he has some concepts in his mind, so it seems that it costs nothing to replenish their sum with the same concept of Tao. But as the concept of Tao is a procedural category, it cannot be learned, like a physical formula or multiplication table. According to Lao Tzu, The Tao, which can be expressed in words, is not a permanent Tao... one can only enter into the Tao and master it . Lao Tzu believed that Tao is a permanent Tao, the essence of which cannot be expressed in words. It has no form, no sound, no form, and you look at him, but you don’t see him, you listen to him, but you don’t hear him, you catch him, but you can’t catch him (Tao Te Ching, Zhang 14). In a word, Tao is emptiness or nothingness (shi).

The word itself Tao is not at all the exclusive property of Taoism. It belongs to all Chinese thought, and every philosopher of ancient China saw in it the designation of truth, or, more precisely, the deepest truth and the righteous path of life. All Chinese sages- adherents of Tao. And although this concept gave the name to Taoism (Tao Jiao), there is nothing actually Taoist about it. This is one of the most important categories of all Chinese culture. Only its interpretation by Taoism is specific. If in Confucianism the Tao is the path of moral improvement and government based on ethical standards, then in Taoism the Tao is cosmologized, acquiring the meaning of the highest first principle, world substance, the source of being of all things.

The Taoist lives by what is alive forever - the capital of the spirit. Taoism is, first of all, a justification of tradition. The truth of Tao is what is given before we know ourselves, and it is what will be passed on from us to future generations after we pass on.

What is this? Classics Taoist tradition gives an apparently vague, but in fact very precise answer: everything that exists by itself (zi jan), which is not generated by human reasoning and concern, which does not bear the stamp of effort, tension, violence.

The wisdom of a Taoist is not knowledge or art, but a kind of skill do not obscure the great peace of being with vain activities . Taoism thus embodies the very core of Eastern thought, which has always demanded that man achieve the fullness of his being through self-abrogation, to manifest the depth of reluctance that conceals the most spiritual desire. Therefore, Taoism is not a philosophy in the classical sense of the word, since it is not interested in definitions of concepts, logical proofs and other procedures of pure speculation. Nor is it the religion of a transcendent God who demands faith and obedience from his worshipers. Finally, it cannot be reduced to art, skill, or practice in the proper sense of the word, because the wisdom of Tao does not affirm the need to do anything. Rather, Taoism is path of integral existence , in which speculation and action, spirit and matter, consciousness and life find themselves collected in a free, boundless, chaotic unity (yi xu). Such unity, like most of the basic concepts of Taoism, is completely paradoxical, and therefore Taoist teachers fall silent when asked to explain it. As stated in Tao Te Ching , the main canon of Taoism: The one who knows does not speak, and the one who speaks does not know . And elsewhere: When a low man hears about the Tao, he laughs. If he didn't laugh, it wouldn't be Tao . Taoist sages do not prove or preach anything. They don't even teach anything a certain image life. Their goal is to give the right life orientation, to point the way to the center of life experience - eternally absent and omnipresent.

Being in the strict sense, as already mentioned, neither a philosophy nor a religion, Taoism combines the features of both. According to the teachings of the Taoists, only the great Tao truly exists - the eternal, infinite, unthinkable, without image, taste or smell , not created by anyone, it its own trunk, its own root , embracing and containing everything that exists. Taoists call him supreme Teacher , heavenly ancestor , mother of the world or creator of things , but they do not expect him to be specifically interested in their personal fate or the fate of the Universe, because everything happens in the world of course , every moment of time and every particle of existence is completely self-sufficient.

This means that Tao itself is not, in essence, the principle of the universe. Tao, it is stated in Taoist literature, can't even control himself , it possesses without owning . The Tao is constantly changing loses himself in the world of the finite and transitory . But there is nothing more constant than impermanence - Tao will remain in its self-transformation forever.

Hence the important place occupied in Taoism by the doctrine of cosmogenesis - the creation of all things. Taoists teach that the world arose from the primordial Chaos, which they also call the Unified Breath (yi qi), the Primordial Breath (yuan qi) or the Great Emptiness (tai xu). The creation of the world is the result of a spontaneous division of the primary integrity of Chaos. At first, Chaos, or the Single Breath, was divided into two polar principles: male, light, active - Yang and female, dark, passive - Yin; from two beginnings stood out four images , corresponding to the four cardinal directions; four images gave birth to eight limits universe, etc. This scheme is recorded in the ancient Chinese canon I Ching (Book of Changes ), containing a set of graphic symbols of the world process of Tao common to the entire Chinese tradition.

The world, according to Taoists, is transformed One , the fruit of the metamorphosis of Tao. In this regard, the Taoist tradition also spoke about the transformation of the first man, which was considered the semi-legendary founder of Taoism and the supreme deity of the Taoist religion, Lao Tzu. The world for Taoists is transformed body (xya shen) Lao Tzu. This means that there is a deep internal connection between the human heart and the body of the eternal Tao. Man and the world in Taoism are indissoluble and interchangeable.

IN Tao Te Ching talks about two aspects of Tao: the named (Tao itself) and the unnamed, generating things and nursing their. The latter is called De - Grace, the Good Power of the Path. The whole world turns out to be a manifestation, an unfolding of the Tao, a Path embodied in existence. Each thing, reaching the limit of its maturity, again returns to the depths of the First Principle of Tao. However, a person can leave this Path, retreat from it, violating the pristine simplicity of the naturalness of both his being and the entire Universe. This is manifested in a commitment to multi-knowledge and in the creation of sophisticated social institutions. That's why Tao Te Ching calls for a return to original nature, simplification and naturalness. And this call is expressed primarily in the concept inaction (wu wei). However, it does not mean inaction or passivity. Under wu wei This means the refusal to violate one’s own nature and the nature of all things, the refusal of subjective goal-setting activity that is not in accordance with nature, based solely on egoistic interest, and in general the removal of any isolating subjectivity in the name of inclusion in a single flow of being.

Lao Tzu, taking Tao as the highest category of his philosophy, considered it not only as a universal law, but also as the source of the formation of the world. Researcher A. E. Lukyanov calls Tao cosmic DNA.

Simply put, the entire external world was considered as a certain number of signs. The creator of these signs is a substance that is not comprehended by the senses and is outside of time and space. This substance is called Tao . Tao is unlimited. It exists in every moment and in every thing. Tao gave birth to Heaven and Earth, gave birth to emperors and kings, gave birth to all principles. It gave birth to itself.

Tao is characterized by aspiration and sincerity. It is in a state of inaction and without form. The Tao can be preached, but it cannot be touched. Tao can be comprehended, but it cannot be seen. The Tao is the root and foundation of oneself. It exists from eternity to Heaven and Earth from ancient times. It spiritualizes spirits and spiritualizes the ruler, gives birth to Heaven and Earth. It is above the Great Limit, but is not high; under the Six Limits, but is not deep; it is born before Heaven and Earth, but is not long-lasting; it extends from ancient times, but is not old (Tao Te Ching , Zhang 16) . Tao is what makes the darkness of things so, what makes the darkness of things formed, what determines the darkness of principles (Chuang Tzu , ch. Tian Zifan).

If such a Tao exists, then one should learn from it and honor it as a teacher. This is it Great revered teacher . Chuang Tzu wrote about him: Oh my teacher! You give all things their properties, but do not consider this a manifestation of justice; you provide benefits to all generations, but do not consider this a manifestation of humanity; you have existed since ancient times, but are not old; you cover the Sky and support the Earth, you outline all forms, but you do not consider this a manifestation of mastery . To learn from the Tao and merge with it into one whole - this, from the point of view of Zhuang Tzu, is the meaning of human life: You can free yourself from grief, anxiety, melancholy, and even from life and death. We must throw away all differences and dissolve in the world. Tao is me, and for this reason everything that exists is me. Tao is inexhaustible and limitless, it is neither born nor dies, and therefore I am also inexhaustible and limitless, neither born nor die. Before death I exist, and after death I also exist. Will you say that I died? After all, I'm not dying. And fire does not burn me, and I do not drown in water. I turn to ashes and yet I exist. I turn into the foot of a butterfly, into the liver of a mouse, but still I exist. How free I am, how durable, how great!... All different signs are my signs, and all differences are discarded. All things with strange and unusual characteristics - everything merged together. Everything is Tao, everything is me. This means that Heaven and Earth are born with me, and all things are one . (Chuang Tzu , ch. Qiulun ) .

The person who has realized this is husband who has the Tao . Chuang Tzu states that such a person does not despise people, does not engage in self-praise, referring to his merits, does not engage in deception; having missed an opportunity, he does not repent; having an opportunity, does not lose his head; having risen to a high place, he is not afraid; falling into water, it does not get wet; having fallen into a fiery pit, he does not feel the heat... Such a person sleeps and does not dream, is not sad when waking up, eats anything and has deep breathing. Such a person does not cling to life and is not afraid of death, neither life nor death matters to him, he freely comes, freely leaves, gets something - good, loses something - is not upset.... This is... . and there is that balanced state when the spirit is not separated from the substance and everything corresponds to its nature. (Chuang Tzu , ch. Dazongshi )

The leading Taoist concepts include the principles of Zi Ran (self-naturalness, spontaneity) and Wu Wei (non-action). The first of these literally means “that which in itself (zi) is what it is (zhan).” In this case, we are talking about the fact that Tao is absolutely free, does not depend on anything else and follows only its own nature. From this follows the principle of following the Tao, i.e. behavior consistent in the microcosm with the Tao (nature) of man, and in the macrocosm with the Tao of the Universe. A sage should not, based on his own subjectively limited desires and preferences, oppose the nature of the things and phenomena around him. On the contrary, he must “follow things” (shun wu). All things are equal to each other, therefore a true sage is free from partiality and bias: he looks equally at the noble and the slave, connects with eternity and the Universe and does not grieve about either life or death, understanding their naturalness and inevitability.

On the other hand, a sage can, using his understanding of the nature of a particular thing, put it at his service, as if “swimming with the flow in the right direction.” Comprehension of the nature of things and consistency with it allows “the soft to defeat the hard” and “the weak to overcome the strong.” Principles of Zi Ran and Wu Wei Steel important sources methodological and ideological foundations of the Chinese system of psychophysical training, which is also used in martial arts.

Any action that contradicts Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and death. The Universe cannot be brought into order artificially - to establish harmony and order in it, it is necessary to give freedom to its innate qualities. Accordingly, a wise ruler, following the Tao, does nothing to rule the country, and then it prospers, being in peace and harmony.

Another very important concept for Taoism is the category of “qi”. By qi we mean the original primordial substance, from which everything that exists, as it were, consists. Condensing and coarsening, qi becomes a substance, and becoming refined - a spirit. In the intermediate state, qi is vital energy and force dissolved in nature and absorbed by a person through breathing. This vital force also circulates through special channels (jing) in the human body. Its accumulation and proper circulation in the body is one of the most important tasks of Taoist breathing and gymnastic exercises that underlie various systems qi gong (working with qi).

The original qi (yuan qi) is simple and non-qualitative, but in the process of generating the Universe it is, as it were, polarized and differentiated. The two most important cosmological states of a single qi are yin and yang (yin-qi and yang-qi) - i.e. feminine, peace, cold, dark, soft, on the one hand, and masculine, movement, hot, light, hard, on the other. These two states are in absolute harmony and mutual transition. The idea of ​​harmony of these complementary and mutually rooted opposites was enshrined in Taoism in the concept of “Tai Chi” (“Great Limit”).

There is an opinion that the concept of Tao in many ways, down to minor details, resembles the Indo-Aryan concept of the great Brahman, the faceless Absolute, repeatedly recorded in the Upanishads, which created the visible phenomenal world, merging with which (escape from the phenomenal world) was the goal of ancient Indian philosophers, brahmans, hermits and ascetics. If we add to this that the highest goal of the ancient Chinese Taoist philosophers was to get away from the passions and vanity of life to the primitiveness of the past, to simplicity and naturalness, that it was among the Taoists that there were the first ascetic hermits in Ancient China, whose asceticism he himself spoke with respect Confucius, the similarity will seem even more obvious and mysterious.

Conclusion

China is home to one of the oldest and most complex civilizations in the world. Its history goes back about 5 thousand years. But time continues to change space, customs, cultures, religions.

Modern China is a country of enormous economic potential. The past two decades have greatly changed the traditional life of the Chinese. We are witnessing the rapid development of the space and nuclear industries, petrochemicals and electronics, intensive construction, rapid economic recovery and growth in prosperity. The respectful attitude of the Chinese towards their culture is surprising. When allowing any innovation into mass consumption, they always evaluate how the life of the population will improve and how this will affect centuries-old traditions. And in the traditions of the Celestial Empire - to find harmony with the world, spend time in conversations and meditations, improve in the practices of various teachers and masters. After all, they not only develop themselves, but also export their culture to other countries.

The legends and myths of China are full amazing stories about people who achieved immortality as a result of self-improvement according to Taoist practices. The "Eight Immortal Saints" (Ba Xian) described in ancient Chinese texts, belonging to the Taoist pantheon, were real individuals. Each of them has their own story and their own path to immortality. Having become saints, they were freed from worldly feelings and passions, received eternal life and now live according to heavenly laws. Here are their names.

Zhong Liquan, the head of the Eight Immortals, possessed the secret of making the elixir of life and the powder of reincarnation.

Li Tieguai is considered the patron saint of magicians, wizards, and sorcerers.

Zhang Guolao - of all the eight immortals, he is the oldest in years and the most prudent. He lived as a hermit in the mountains and wandered all his life. He always rode a donkey backwards, traveling several tens of thousands of miles a day. When the immortal stopped anywhere, he folded the donkey as if it were cut out of paper and placed it in a bamboo vessel. And when it was necessary to go further, he splashed water from his mouth onto the folded figure, and the donkey came to life again. Zhang Guolao patronized marital happiness and the birth of children.

Lan Caihe - this immortal is considered the patron saint of musicians and is depicted with a flute in his hands.

Cao Guojiu is known as a member of the ruling clan during the Song Dynasty. Depicted with castanets and a jade tablet giving the right to enter the imperial court. Patron of actors and mimes.

Since childhood, Lu Dongbin was developed beyond his years and could memorize up to ten thousand words daily.

He Xiangu is the only woman among the eight. Even in early childhood, she met Lü Dongbin, who, foreseeing the girl’s future, gave her the peach of immortality. She ate only half of it and since then has had almost no need for earthly food. In the drawings, He Xiangu is depicted as an unusually beautiful girl with a lotus flower in one hand, and in the other she holds a wide wicker basket, sometimes filled with flowers. He Xiangu patronized households and predicted people's fortunes.

Han Xiangzi was the nephew of the famous Han Yu, a scientist and minister who lived during the Tang Dynasty.

The sacred Chinese mountains have always been considered the gateway to the world of blessed celestials. In Taoist traditions, mountains are viewed not only as a connection with heaven or with celestial beings, but as living beings that not only form knowledge, create and generate energy, but also represent certain stages of knowledge and perform specific tasks. For example, Taishan, or Jade Mountain, provides an understanding of the entire structure of development, transformation, crystallization and energy generation, which a person can cognize by transforming this energy 9 times.

The most valuable thing is the art of learning. Everything else is just a consequence. The process of building up or acquiring new qualities requires constant replenishment of one’s own resources, permanent job above yourself. Therefore, the secrets of Taoist practices are revealed only to those who are determined.

Taoism is not for lazy people, but for people who are ready for action. He allows mistakes, branches, even unnecessary directions, but does not accept inaction until the moment when action becomes natural, natural and then it is considered as inaction. But this is inaction in relation to an action that was not necessary, but in reality creates a build-up, an algorithm, a progression... I.e. there is no goal here, no desire to achieve anything other than relying on one thing, which gives rise to the second. Continuous process of action.

It’s hard to call Taoists lazy when, having overcome more than 7,200 steps, they rise to a height of 1,545 m. Mount Taishan, located in Shandong province, is traditionally considered the habitat of Taoist saints and immortals. Not only is it one of the Five Sacred Mountains of Taoism, but it has great cultural and historical significance both for China and for the whole world - the mountain is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. At least once in their life, every Chinese should climb this mountain, preferably on foot, although nowadays there is also a lift.

Steep stone steps, intense humidity and heat, a staircase leading into the clouds, as if to the origins of all times and beginnings - this is the path for those who are not satisfied with the conventions of civilizations and morality, who are looking for the truly great and eternal, to contain the whole world and touch the origins of everything that happens.

The civilization of old China is already a thing of the past. But her wisdom, which has absorbed the experience of spiritual quest and asceticism of hundreds of generations, has not died and cannot die. Taoism, as a part and perhaps the most important part of this wisdom, has not lost its vitality today. The precepts of the ancient Taoists are addressed to everyone who wants to understand the mystery of the origins of everything that happens, who is not satisfied with the conventions of civilizations, morality, and ideologies, but is looking for the truly great and eternal, who has the courage to abandon petty acquisitions in order to embrace the whole world.

Bibliography

1. Anthology of Taoist Philosophy . Comp. V. V. Malyavin, B. B. Vinogradsky. M., Partnership, 1994.

. History of Chinese philosophy . M., Progress , 1989.

. History of religion. Lectures given at SPSU St. Petersburg, Lan , 1997.

. Dao and Taoism in China . M., Publishing House of the Institute of Oriental Studies, 1982.

S. I. Samygin, V. N. Nechiporenko, I. N. Polonskaya. Religious studies: sociology and psychology of religion . Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix , 1996.

. Chinese philosophy . Encyclopedic reference book. M., Thought , 1994.

A. E. Lukyanov. Origins of Tao: Ancient Chinese World . M., Insan , 1992.

A. E. Lukyanov. Lao Tzu and the philosophy of early Taoism . M., Publishing House of the Institute of Friendship of Peoples, 1991.

A. E. Lukyanov. Tao. Book of Changes . M., Insan , 1993.

. Culturology: history of world culture . Ed. A. N. Markova. M., UNITY , 1995.

E. Torchinov. Taoism. Experience of historical and religious description . St. Petersburg: Andreev and sons, 2nd updated edition: St. Petersburg: Lan, 1998.

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One of the oldest teachings in China, Taoism, has its origins from the very beginning of time, which is not inferior in its existence to such a large-scale and capacious religion as Buddhism. The absolute of knowledge and morality, which today leads every Chinese to the truth of life and the basis of existence, lies in the great canon of what the Path of each person should be.

Taoism - religion or doctrine

Taoism is a close interweaving of Chinese philosophical teachings and religion. The prefix “Tao”, meaning “path”, indicates the essence of this direction - the search for the human path, its study and submission to the benefactors of the world. He who knows his path will be able to walk along it with dignity. The definition of Taoism also refers to the criticisms expressed in their time by the great Chinese philosophers– Lao Tzu and Zhuang Tzu. Taoism from this time period (before the rise of the Qin Dynasty) is called Tao Jia. In a simplified formulation, this religious movement can be designated by the Chinese abbreviation Pinyin.

Taoism dates back to the 5th-3rd centuries BC, and only in the second century of the new era did the cult, based on barbaric shamanic beliefs, develop into a religious movement, headed by the Lord of Jasper and his main follower, the philosopher Lao Tzu. Immediately after this, a hierarchy of demons was built from which it was necessary to protect oneself and the teachers whose knowledge made it possible to do this.

Over the course of centuries of development, Taoism was an unofficial religion and constantly competed with Confucianism, which was widely accepted in China. Because of this, schools that followed this direction were often subject to serious criticism, closed and dissolved. Despite this, the influence of Taoism left its marks both on the culture and on the politics of government in China, as well as in neighboring countries. And today this religion is often subject to criticism, but does not cease to exist.

Basics of Taoism

1. Taoism is the doctrine of Tao, of the path. Tao is limitless, formless, silent and imperceptible, but everyone must follow it. The Tao was not created by anyone, but everything obeys it. Tao is the beginning and the end of everything that can be. His laws are undeniable and must be followed by everyone.

2. Every person must take the path, must merge with Tao, cognize it. This will help him become happy.

3. Physical death is only the completion of the existence of the physical shell, while the soul is separated from the body and dissolves in the microcosm, since the person himself is part of the general cosmos.

4. The deep essence of Taoism is a return to one’s roots, knowledge of one’s true purpose.

5. Contemplation of the world and its order through meditation and tranquility is the main tool of Taoism for merging with the Tao. This principle is called Wu Wei. You cannot act contrary to Tao, do something just to earn its favor - only through deep self-knowledge does the truth come and feel the path leading to happiness under your feet.

6. The hermit is a human unit of Taoism, an image inherent in everyone who is ready to renounce many instilled benefits for the sake of self-contemplation and merging with Tao. A hermit is a person who follows his own path, achieving merger with the Tao in a natural way.

7. Tao is an energetic principle, the origin of everything around, a complex circle that contains the spiritual essence of the cosmos, the world and man himself. The unity of all three components leads to a complete understanding of the structure of the world and the existence of life in it.

Basic categories and elements of teaching Taoism

Categories:
dao – path;
de – virtue;
wu-wei – inaction;
pu – soul or unused energy, source of self-contemplation.

Training elements:
Taoist philosophy;
three treasures - the main virtues of Taoism: philanthropy, frugality and the ability not to rush ahead of everyone, to be restrained (to be smarter);
book of changes - the book of the I Ching, which is used for fortune telling and calculation of fate options;
Taoist teaching on immortality, sections of this teaching: external and internal alchemy, based on the rules for preparing special medicines to prolong life and establish immortality;
Taoist meditation;
Taoist pantheon - hierarchy of deities, demons and spirits;
Huantjing - visualization of spirits and internal human alchemy;
Shangqing - the basics of visualization and unity.

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Formation of Taoism

Taoism in a stable religious organization formed only in the 2nd century, but numerous testimonies they say that Taoism arose significantly earlier, at least in the 3rd centuries BC. e. there was already a developed tradition that prepared the elements of teaching that were actively used in the Middle Ages.

The main sources of Taoism were the mystical and shamanic cults of the kingdom of Chu and other “barbarian” states in southern China, the doctrine of immortality and magical practices that developed in the kingdom of Qi and the philosophical tradition of northern China.

Philosophical writings related to Taoism begin with the era of the Warring Kingdoms (Zhangguo) in the 5th century BC.  e. , almost simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius. Tradition considers the legendary Yellow Emperor Huangdi to be the founder of Taoism. The ancient Chinese sage Lao Tzu is considered a somewhat more reliable founder of Taoism. The Taoist tradition credits him with the authorship of one of the main books of Taoism - “Tao Te Ching”. This treatise was the core around which the teachings of Taoism began to take shape. Another famous text of early Taoism is the Zhuangzi, authored by Zhuang Zhou (369-286 BC), known as Zhuangzi, after whom his work is named.

The first Taoist schools

The formation of religious Taoism occurred during the reign of the late Han Dynasty: Zhang Daoling (34 - 156) founded the Five Buckets of Rice (later Heavenly Mentors 天师) school in Sichuan province and became its first patriarch. In the second half of the 2nd century, the prerequisite for the popularity of Taoism was the Yellow Turban Rebellion 184-204: the Third Heavenly Master Zhang Lu was able to gain control of the territory of Hanzhong (Shaanxi Province), adjacent to the mountains of Sichuan Province, which became the first Taoist theocratic state. The Taoist state was defeated by Cao Cao and ceased to exist, nevertheless Cao Cao granted the mentor privileges and brought him to the court, which is why the school spread over a wide territory, including northern China. During the Six Dynasties, the school became known as the School of the Heavenly Masters.

Later other Taoist schools appeared. The Maoshan (aka Shangqing) and Lingbao schools played an important role in the development of Taoism.

Literature (including Chinese) often discusses the possibility of borrowing the tenets of Taoism from Indian philosophy, or, conversely, transferring Taoism to India and founding Buddhism there. Similarities with Chinese philosophy the Indian concept of the faceless Absolute, the emanation of which created the visible phenomenal world and to merge with which (to leave the phenomenal world) was the goal of the brahmans. This question has been repeatedly raised in various Taoist schools. However, detailed research rejects the direct borrowing hypothesis.

Lao Tzu could not bring to India a philosophy with which they were familiar no less than five hundred years before his birth. In its concrete practical activities, Taoism in China bore little resemblance to the practice of Brahmanism. On Chinese soil, rationalism overcame any mysticism, pushing it to the periphery of public consciousness, where only it could persist. This is what happened with Taoism. Although the Chuang Tzu treatise states that life and death are relative concepts, the emphasis is on life and how it should be organized.

The mystical ideals in this treatise, expressed, in particular, in references to fantastic longevity (800, 1200 years) and immortality, which righteous hermits who approached Tao can achieve, played an important role in the transformation of philosophical Taoism into religious Taoism. This is his main discrepancy with most religions: the desire for immortality among Taoists replaces the desire for paradise among followers of other faiths.

Formation of the canon

Taoism subsequently divided into two movements: the schools of Sun Jian and Yin Wen, on the one hand, and the school of Zhuang Zhou on the other.

Taoism today

Under the Qing, the Taoists were once again accused by Chinese adherents of strict classics of undermining traditional values, which allegedly resulted in the conquest of the country by “barbarians.” These scientists called for discarding Taoism and Buddhism as completely discredited false teachings and returning to their own philosophical origins, which ultimately resulted in a literary and social movement called Han Xue, that is, “Han science,” which in this case meant classical Confucianism. During the Taiping Uprising (1850), Taoist monasteries were destroyed, which the leaders of the rebels explained by the need to “fight superstitions.” Taoist literature was expelled from library collections with such zeal that by the beginning of the 20th century. “Tao Tsang” remains almost in a single copy. Until the Xinhai Revolution (1911), and even later, traditionalist scholars never tired of subjecting Taoist philosophy to severe criticism as overly “contemplative,” paralyzing the will to fight, undermining public morality and the moral foundations of the state. Epochs of tolerant and even benevolent attitude of the authorities towards Taoist speculation were followed by periods of persecution right up to modern times. In the 1960s the practice of persecuting supporters of Taoism was revived by the leaders of the “cultural revolution”. By the end of the 1970s. excesses in relation to cultural heritage have largely ceased, although the relative rehabilitation of Taoism and Taoist philosophy (along with Confucianism and Buddhism) began only with the official proclamation of the reform course (1978) of Deng Xiaoping. In Taiwan, Taoism has retained its influence and traditional institutions to this day. In the PRC, at present, the most famous modern center of Taoism remains the Baiyunsi Monastery in Beijing. Philosophizing in the Taoist style in modern China continues, according to tradition, mainly in essayistic literature and poetry of the philosophical genre.

Elements of teaching

The foundations of Taoism and the philosophy of Lao Tzu are set out in the treatise “Tao Te Ching” (IV-III centuries BC). At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, universal Law and the Absolute. Tao has many meanings, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of existence, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and limitlessly. No one created it, but everything comes from it, and then, having completed a circuit, returns to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives origin, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao.

Every person, in order to become happy, must take this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, man as a microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe as a macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit is separated from man and dissolved in the macrocosm. A person’s task in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of Tao.

The path of Tao is characterized by the power of De. It is through the power of Wu Wei that Tao manifests itself in every person. This force cannot be interpreted as effort, but rather as the desire to avoid all effort. Wu-wei means “inaction,” the denial of purposeful activity that goes against the natural order. In the process of life, it is necessary to adhere to the principle of non-action - the principle of Wu Wei. This is not inaction. This is human activity that is consistent with the natural course of the world order. Any action that contradicts Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and death. Thus, Taoism teaches a contemplative attitude towards life. Bliss is not achieved by those who strive good deeds to win the favor of the Tao, and the one who, in the process of meditation, immersion in his inner world, strives to listen to himself, and through himself to listen and comprehend the rhythm of the universe. Thus, the purpose of life was conceptualized in Taoism as a return to the eternal, a return to one’s roots.

The moral ideal of Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires and immerse himself in communication with the divine Tao.

The Tao manifests itself through everyday life and is embodied in the actions of trained people, although few of them completely “follow the Path.” Moreover, the practice of Taoism itself is built on a complex system of symbolism of mutual correspondence and unity of the general, cosmic, and internal, human world. Everything, for example, is permeated with a single qi energy. A child is born from the mixture of the original qi (yuan qi) father and mother; a person lives only by continuing to nourish the body with some external qi ( wai qi), transferring it to an internal state using a system of breathing exercises and proper nutrition. Everything truly “great” is connected with the transcendental, the Tao, which at the same time manifests itself instantly in things, phenomena, and actions. The cosmic here is constantly projected onto the human and appears in a special vital “energeticism”, the energetic potency of both the Tao itself and the people who were able to fully comprehend it. The path of Tao itself is perceived as an energetic, spiritualizing beginning, for example, in “Zhuang Tzu” it is said: “He spiritualized deities and kings, gave birth to Heaven and Earth.”

Main categories of Taoism

• Dao (道) - literally “way”, in Taoism - the existence and change of the Universe in the most general sense. Impersonal force, the will of the universe, to which the order of all things in the world corresponds.
• De (德) - literally "virtue" or "morality". Virtue, given from above (from Tao), does not have the characteristics of physical, forceful influence, unlike the Greek “arete". Grace, enormous spiritual power, which Heaven endowed the ruler of China and which he could transfer to his subjects
• Wu-wei (無為) - literally “non-action” - understanding when to act and when not to act
• Pu (樸) - literally “unprocessed piece of wood” personifies the energy of objects untouched by nature, or, more simply, the simplicity of the soul, the soul of pu.

Components of Taoism

• Taoist philosophy
• Book of Changes, especially revered in Confucianism and Taoism
• Taoist doctrine of immortality, external alchemy, internal alchemy
• Taoist meditation
• Huangtingjing - "Canon of the Yellow Court"
• Shangqing - "School of Supreme Purity"

Prominent figures in Taoism

For the integration of Taoist elements into Confucianism, see Neo-Confucianism.

Taoism and Buddhism

The first Taoist school to emerge from the study of Buddhist treatises was the Lingbao school. Its founder Ge Chaofu adopted from Buddhism the idea of ​​rebirth in the five worlds and, in a greatly simplified form, elements of cosmology. At the same time, the Taoists did not abandon the practice of achieving immortality, but improved the concept of immortality, abandoning the literal interpretation of an endless stay in the same earthly body, and introducing other worlds for celestials - happy lands, islands of immortals, etc. From the Buddhist theory of rebirth followed the doctrine of karma and retribution. Later, Buddhist elements became familiar to Taoist schools, which also adopted Buddhist methods of meditation.

Synthetic teachings

Taoism in Traditional Education

The popularity of Taoism in the early imperial period was reflected in the fact that Laozi was one of the texts in the syllabus for the imperial keju examinations during the Tang era (618-907). In 1080-1120 During the Song era (960-1279), it was possible to obtain a “degree in Taoism” daoke. Subsequently, however, Taoist literature disappeared from the examination syllabus.

Notes

Literature

	Portal "Taoism"
	Taoism on Wikimedia Commons

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• Torchinov E. A. Taoism: Ways to achieve immortality. - St. Petersburg: ABC-classics, St. Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2007. - (Academia). - ISBN 978-5-352-02178-1, ISBN 978-5-85803-350-9
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in English:

• Balfour, Frederick Henry. The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua;  Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher: With an Excursus, and Copious Annotations in English and Chinese. - Kelly & Walsh, 1881.
• Barrett, Rick. Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate. - Blue Snake Books, 2006. - ISBN 1-58394-139-8.
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• Carr, David T. & Zhang, Canhui. Space, Time, and Culture. - Springer, 2004. - ISBN 1-4020-2823-7.
• Chan Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. - Princeton, 1963. - ISBN 0-691-01964-9.
• Chang, Stephen T. The Great Tao. - Tao Longevity LLC, 1985. - ISBN 0-942196-01-5.
• Demerath, Nicholas Jay Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics. - Rutgers University Press, 2003. - ISBN 0-8135-3207-8.
• Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; Knitter, Paul. Zen Buddhism: A History: India and China. - World Wisdom, Inc, 2005. - ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
• Eliade, Mircea. A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2 / Translated by Willard R. Trask. - Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
• Fasching, Darrell J. & DeChant, Dell. Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach. - Blackwell Publishing, 2001. -

Philosophy of Taoism

Taoism arose in Zhou China almost simultaneously with the teachings of Confucius in the form of an independent philosophical doctrine. The founder of Taoist philosophy is considered to be the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu. An older contemporary of Confucius, about whom - unlike Confucius - there is no reliable information of either a historical or biographical nature in the sources, Lao Tzu is considered by modern researchers to be a legendary figure. Legends tell of his miraculous birth (his mother carried him for several decades and gave birth to him as an old man - hence his name, “Old Child,” although the same sign zi also meant the concept of “philosopher,” so his name can be translated as “Old Philosopher” ") and about his departure from China. Going west, Lao Tzu kindly agreed to leave his work, the Tao Te Ching, with the guard of the border post. The treatise Tao Te Ching (mid-3rd century BC) sets out the foundations of Taoism and the philosophy of Lao Tzu.

At the center of the doctrine is the doctrine of the great Tao, universal Law and the Absolute. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and limitlessly. Nobody created him, but everything comes from him. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives origin, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - through de, and if Tao generates everything, then de feeds everything.

The general meaning of the concept of Tao can be explained as "The path followed by all things." There is the Way of Cooking, there is the Way of Martial Arts, there is the Way of Cultivation, the Way of Tying Shoes, etc. If a person has “comprehended the Path” of doing something, then he can do it easily and without effort. Having completed something, such a person immediately forgets about it and moves on to new things. He does not demand honors and recognition for what he has done, and does not bask in the rays of his own glory. If he does not master the Path, then no matter what efforts he makes, the result will be nothing if not the opposite of the plan. There are important reasons so that all things have the Way:

Tao gives birth to one thing,
One gives birth to two,
Two makes three.
Three gives birth to ten thousand things
(De Ching, chapter 42).

Unlike Western gods, who give the world certain laws and insist on their implementation, Tao never tries to dictate its laws to the world:

Tao gives birth to things, Te nurtures them, things are formed and completed.
Therefore, among ten thousand things there is not one that does not honor Tao and Te.
The Tao is revered and Te is respected because they never force.
They always give things the opportunity to develop spontaneously
(De Ching, chapter 51).

The selfless generosity of the Tao can serve as an example for humans:

The Great Tao... clothes and feeds ten thousand things, but does not seek to control them.
He has no personal desires...
The fact that ten thousand things return to the Tao, although it does not at all seek to force them, can be called great!
Since it never insists on its own greatness, that is why it can become truly great(Tao Ching, chapter 34).

De, which is often translated as "virtue" or "strength" ("good power"), is the reserve of Tao that each individual thing receives, or otherwise, its natural potential. To use the ethical terminology of Confucianism, Lao Tzu understood de as the natural ability of things to achieve perfection. However, this must happen spontaneously, spontaneously, by itself, since any conscious attempt to rely on knowledge or training will lead to the opposite result.

Lao Tzu's criticism of Confucianism

Confucians insist that there is a certain system of moral values, and the study and cultivation of these values ​​is the only way to achieve the ideal of individuality and social harmony.

The core values ​​or virtues in this system were ren(humanity), And(duty-justice, propriety, or maintaining right relationships with others) and whether(ritual or ceremonies). The Confucian ideal is to achieve the status of “a person who has ren.” Lao Tzu considered the appeal to these values ​​a sign of the collapse of the individual.

Taoist criticism of Confucianism appears more than once in the Tao Te Ching, but the most devastating argument can be considered the one presented in Chapter 38: “The Supreme De is not De, that is why it is De.” Lao Tzu wants to say by this that the highest de cannot be achieved consciously, through some kind of effort or exercise. It appears purely spontaneously, naturally. “The lower De does not lose De, that is why it is not De.”

If someone constantly strives to acquire de and does not give up such attempts, then he will never achieve the ethical ideal of Taoism, except at the level of lower de. Chapter 3 says, “Valuing virtue causes people to argue and compete with each other.” Ideals lead to struggle in society, competition, and the creation of a social hierarchy, when some people receive a higher status than others.

If there is some kind of ideal in a social group, then competition will certainly arise for the right to be considered closest to it, and those who are higher look down on others, and when such competition arises, even with the best intentions, social harmony in group.

Confucius justified the creation of his ethical system by the fact that it contributes to the establishment of peace and order in society. Lao Tzu undermines the very foundations of his apologetics, pointing out that this system, due to the fact that it is a certain system of rules, leads to exactly the opposite result - rebellion and indignation.

Instead of putting forward one's own values, which will ultimately lead to the opposite result, Lao Tzu advises abandoning ren yi, knowledge and focus on ethical issues.

The highest goal of Confucianism is to “teach” these virtues. Lao Tzu suggests: “When you strive for teaching, you gain something new every day. When you strive to possess the Tao, you get rid of something every day.”

Yin leaning

In the Tao Te Ching, the terms yin and yang, considered the most fundamental concepts of Taoism, appear only once (chapter 42).

If you try to sort all the phenomena existing in the world into two groups, then the yin category should include everything dark, pliable, soft, feminine, or feminine, low, centrifugal, short and empty, while the yang category includes everything light, dominant, hard , masculine, or manly, tall, long, centripetal, full.
Every thing contains both varying degrees: For example, a blackboard is yin because it is black, but also yang because it is hard. Nothing can be called a representative of pure yang or pure yin - all things are, as it were, in the middle between these polarities. When yin reaches its maximum, it tends to turn into its opposite, yang, and conversely, when yang is concentrated to the limit, it turns into yin.

Thus, if you compress (yin action) water (yin), a hydraulic column will arise that can even lift a car. If someone shows for a long time(yang) any property of yang, then sooner or later he will get tired and exhausted (yin).
Lao Tzu believed that harmony between these polarities is not something static, given once and for all; on the contrary, it is a dynamic process, during which the balance of polarities is continually disrupted and restored again. Unfortunately, people value yang more and neglect yin, which creates the cause of imbalance. The Tao Te Ching seeks to correct this imbalance by insisting on the greater value of yin. Therefore, feminine images appear in the text every now and then, and more attention is paid to Yin values. If men decide to achieve something, they resort to force; a woman just needs to lie down and seduce a man. This is wuwei - that is, not inaction, but inactive, unintentional action. We often think that the stronger, more massive and more durable a thing is, the better and more valuable it is.

Yin and yang continually replace each other, life and death depend on each other. The seeds return to the soil, summer gives way to winter, but from death (yin) life certainly arises again. Anyone who understands the essence of the cycle of transformations has achieved enlightenment. Ignoring this law leads to disaster (Chapter 16).

Lao Tzu gave the following example: although a baby is soft and weak (yin), he is able to scream all day long without ceasing, and will never become hoarse (yang). Although he has weak bones and muscles, he has a strong grip. A person grows, learns and becomes more complex and sophisticated, losing his original softness and openness.

That is why Lao Tzu so insisted on the need to “return to the state of an infant,” to the state of “untreated wood.” A log that has not yet been processed can become anything. But once it is sawed and chopped, many possibilities are closed. Returning to an abundance of possibilities strengthens a person's de. There is nothing more profound and effective than simplicity.

Tyurchev V.F.

Welcome to the Tao of the Celestial Empire, or to the so-called Chinese Taoism, from the labyrinth of this eastern teaching, as well as from all life’s troubles and problems, we will try to get out with the help of the ideas, essence, principles and philosophy of Taoism, as one of the most famous religious teachings in the world .

What is Tao?

First you need to understand that the word Tao means « transcendental" Going beyond duality and any polarities is the unification of the masculine and feminine in a person, life and death. And as the great master of Taoism Lao Tzu said - Tao is empty, but thanks to it everything exists.

History of Taoism

It is generally believed that historically, Taoism has its origins in the reign of chinese emperors Chu dynasty, where mystical shamanic rituals and cults were already developing. And yet the real tradition begins with the legendary master Lao Tzu (Wise Old Man) of the 6th-5th centuries BC, who created the fundamental treatise "Tao Te Ching".

And the word Tao can be translated as Absolute Knowledge, which cannot be expressed in words, but can still be experienced. And the word De is a way of being or how to remain in such Absolute Knowledge. Tao moves all things, but which is beyond the concept of them.

The essence of Taoism

The essence of Taoism is that Tao is without form and color, there is no personality and there is not even “I”. Moreover, there are no efforts or goals either. There are no traditions and there are no churches, and there is no one to serve, there is no one and there is no need - remain in emptiness and do not follow thoughts and phenomena, but simply observe and be a witness.

Understand that emptiness is the support of everything, Tao has no form and no name, but it is the support of everything, it is the transcendental aspect that binds everything together. This is simply the Universal order, and in Tao they usually do not build temples, and there are no priests and rituals there - there is only pure understanding.

One day the Taoist master Li Zi was traveling with his student. Sitting down by the road to have a snack, he saw a skull, and said to his student, pointing to the skull: “Only he and I know that you were not born and will not die.” He also added that people do not know the truth and are simply unfortunate fools, but the skull and the master know the truth beyond death and birth, and therefore are happy.

Path of Tao

Taoism as a religion teaches to be on the path and not to differ from the path, because all existence itself is one, and we are part of it. Usually we are all taught as individuals, but how can we then be in harmony with our surroundings? Happiness is being inseparable from the whole, this is the path of Taoism or simply Tao.

If you have a self or even a concept of a self, then you are not on the path. The concept of holiness in Taoism is to be in harmony with the one, to be one.

And the understanding of the Bible there is different - we all had parents and they, in turn, also had parents. And we come to Adam and Eve - and it turns out that God gave birth to them. And who gave birth to God, after all, He must exist somewhere, because, at least, there must be space for His existence or creative energy, vacuum or emptiness.

Is there a God in Taoism?

Therefore, in Taoism, the main thing is not God, but Tao - which includes God, if you want, and everything that exists is simply Being or Unity. As soon as you consider yourself separate from the rest of the living and non-living, then you are already separated from God.

Usually people delve into the past and future, but this is just a measurement of time, and when you are united, you are connected in space with everyone and are outside of time. There is no suffering and sorrow in this Existence; they arise when we are separated from the whole, when there is “I”.

Taoist Parable

One day, one king called his minister and said: “I want to be happy - take care of this, otherwise I will execute you.” The minister replied that, probably, you need to find a shirt of a happy person and bring it. And for a long time he looked for a happy person, but it turns out that everyone was unhappy, and the minister was saddened.

And then someone told him that on the river bank someone was constantly playing cheerful music on a flute at night. Then the minister went there and really saw a man playing enchanting music on a flute, and asked him: “Are you happy?” He replied, “Yes, I am happiness.”

The minister was immensely happy and asked for a shirt. But the man was silent for a long time, and only then said that he had no shirt, he was naked. “Then why are you happy?” - asked the minister.

The man replied: “One day I lost everything, including my shirt... and became happy. I have nothing and I don’t even have myself, but still I play the flute, and the whole or one plays through me. You understand - I simply don’t exist, I don’t know who I am, I’m nobody and nothing.”

Basic ideas of Taoism

Sometimes Tao is called the path without a path; there is only understanding. And the main idea of ​​Taoism is that an ordinary person is constantly in thought, he constantly thinks about himself or about something external and he simply has no time to live, to live a real life.

When a person is not one with everything around him, he is tense and constantly defends himself and fights for his survival. And if we point out correctly, this world becomes an illusion if we are not united. This is the main idea of ​​Tao.

Everything is an illusion, which disappears when the observer or knower arises. And when you are merged with everything, when you stand at the center of all existence, you are the truth, and the truth is you. Sometimes awakened masters exclaimed: “ I am the truth».

How to find enlightenment and Tao?

So, what did Lao Tzu and the other masters talk about - in order to know reality, you must be in a state of inaction, because by acting, you move away from yourself, from unity with Tao. You are not in contact with the outside, all bridges have been burned.

In complete silence, without internal dialogue, for example, if you are washing the floor, let it completely absorb you, if you are preparing food, the same thing.

AND when you lose yourself in what you are doing, your self disappears, this is “enlightenment” in Taoism, and also the principle of Tantra, that is, the continuity of being or consciousness in being itself, one can say whatever you like.

Our ego is never harmonious, it is separated from the whole of being and this is the whole problem of humanity, with its wars and struggle for survival. Remaining inactive, the “I” disappears, if you walk, just walk, if you dance, then just dance.

Being completely in the present moment, inner depth, inner happiness will begin to penetrate into you– this is Tao, you are not there, you have dissolved.

Principles of Taoism

The main principle of Taoism is that real happiness can only be found in merging, when you are simply as a witness - thoughts arise, you simply observe them. You watch them come and go, so you merge with them. The same applies to the movements of the arms and legs - you make the movement and just observe.

At first you will be distracted, but then the state will deepen, inner peace and joy will come. The Taoist principle of happiness - it does not need external cause, a Taoist can always be happy, because happiness is the whole existence, everything a Taoist does is happiness.

External happiness has its own reason and already in this misfortune, this is slavery from the external. Taoists are beyond logic and reason. One of the main principles Tao is emptiness and when you are empty, God enters you, where the Devil cannot exist, what can he do there, he will die of boredom, because he needs power over a person.

Emptiness is the main value

Look how wonderfully Lao Tzu talks about emptiness - he says that it is not the walls of the room where you live that are useful, but the emptiness between the walls. After all, a person uses the room, not the walls.

Emptiness is the most valuable thing on the planet and it was created not by man, but by Being or Tao itself - after all, this is how eternity works, this is how the cosmos and all of existence work. This is the famous emptiness in Buddhism and Zen - this is the feminine aspect of all things.

If you practice Tantra, then this is its basis and principle of operation. Even in the Old Testament there are hints that everything comes from emptiness. Take, for example, the story of Adam and Eve.

It is believed that man or Adam was created first, but this idea is because he is close to the earth, that's all. And God says to Adam - give Eve a name and he said: “She is my heart,” which simply means the mental or spiritual aspect.

The heart is feelings that arise but are invisible to our eyes. The feminine principle is the principle of the internal. We call the innermost soul, and the body is our outer one.

Philosophy of Taoism

In the philosophy of Taoism, as you understand, there is no specific path, because if you go somewhere, every moment is already a goal in itself. In Tao you renounce the past and the future, and even yourself.

There is no goal and no aspiration, this means surrendering oneself to unity. The Tao that can be told is no longer authentic. After all, reality can only be known when the mind retreats.

The perfect swimmer becomes part of the river,

He is the wave itself