Armor of the Crusaders. Equipment and weapons of the Knights of the Templar Order

Few other types of weapons have left such a mark in the history of our civilization. For thousands of years, the sword was not just a murder weapon, but also a symbol of courage and valor, a warrior’s constant companion and a source of pride. In many cultures, the sword represented dignity, leadership, and strength. Around this symbol in the Middle Ages, a professional military class was formed and its concepts of honor were developed. The sword can be called the real embodiment of war; varieties of this weapon are known to almost all cultures of antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The knight's sword of the Middle Ages symbolized, among other things, the Christian cross. Before knighting, the sword was kept in the altar, cleansing the weapon from worldly filth. During the initiation ceremony, the weapon was presented to the warrior by the priest.

With the help of a sword they were knighted; this weapon was necessarily part of the regalia used at the coronation crowned persons Europe. The sword is one of the most common symbols in heraldry. We see it everywhere in the Bible and the Koran, in medieval sagas and in modern fantasy novels. However, despite its enormous cultural and social significance, the sword primarily remained a melee weapon, with the help of which it was possible to send the enemy to the next world as quickly as possible.

The sword was not available to everyone. Metals (iron and bronze) were rare, expensive, and it took a lot of time and skilled labor to make a good blade. In the early Middle Ages, it was often the presence of a sword that distinguished the leader of a detachment from an ordinary commoner warrior.

A good sword is not just a strip of forged metal, but a complex composite product consisting of several pieces of steel of different characteristics, properly processed and hardened. European industry was able to provide mass release good blades became available only towards the end of the Middle Ages, when the importance of edged weapons had already begun to decline.

A spear or battle ax was much cheaper, and it was much easier to learn how to use them. The sword was a weapon of the elite, professional warriors, and definitely a status item. To achieve true mastery, a swordsman had to train daily, for many months and years.

Historical documents who have come down to us say that the cost of a sword of average quality could be equal to the price of four cows. Swords made by famous blacksmiths were much more valuable. And the weapons of the elite, decorated with precious metals and stones, cost a fortune.

First of all, the sword is good for its versatility. It could be used effectively on foot or on horseback, for attack or defense, and as a primary or secondary weapon. The sword was perfect for personal protection (for example, on trips or in court battles), it could be carried with you and, if necessary, quickly used.

The sword has a low center of gravity, which makes it much easier to control. Fencing with a sword is significantly less tiring than swinging a club of similar length and weight. The sword allowed the fighter to realize his advantage not only in strength, but also in agility and speed.

The main drawback of the sword, which gunsmiths tried to get rid of throughout the history of the development of this weapon, was its low “penetrating” ability. And the reason for this was also the low center of gravity of the weapon. Against a well-armored enemy, it was better to use something else: a battle axe, a hammer, a hammer, or a regular spear.

Now we should say a few words about the very concept of this weapon. A sword is a type of bladed weapon that has a straight blade and is used to deliver slashing and piercing blows. Sometimes the length of the blade is added to this definition, which should be at least 60 cm. But a short sword was sometimes even smaller; examples include the Roman gladius and the Scythian akinak. The largest two-handed swords reached almost two meters in length.

If a weapon has one blade, then it should be classified as a broadsword, and a weapon with a curved blade should be classified as a saber. The famous Japanese katana is not actually a sword, but a typical saber. Also, swords and rapiers should not be classified as swords; they are usually classified as separate groups cold steel.

How does a sword work?

As mentioned above, a sword is a straight, double-edged bladed weapon designed to deliver piercing, slashing, slashing and stabbing blows. Its design is very simple - it is a narrow strip of steel with a handle at one end. The shape or profile of the blade changed throughout the history of this weapon, it depended on the fighting technique that prevailed in a given period. Combat swords of different eras could “specialize” in slashing or piercing blows.

The division of bladed weapons into swords and daggers is also somewhat arbitrary. We can say that the short sword had a longer blade than the dagger itself - but drawing a clear line between these types of weapons is not always easy. Sometimes a classification is used based on the length of the blade; in accordance with it, the following are distinguished:

Short sword. Blade length 60-70 cm;
Long sword. The size of his blade was 70-90 cm, it could be used by both foot and horse warriors;
Cavalry sword. The length of the blade is more than 90 cm.

The weight of the sword varies within a very wide range: from 700 grams (gladius, akinak) to 5-6 kg (large sword of the flamberge type or slasher).

Swords are also often divided into one-handed, one-and-a-half and two-handed. A one-handed sword usually weighed from one to one and a half kilograms.

The sword consists of two parts: the blade and the hilt. The cutting edge of the blade is called the blade; the blade ends with a point. As a rule, it had a stiffener and a fuller - a recess designed to lighten the weapon and give it additional rigidity. The unsharpened part of the blade adjacent directly to the guard is called the ricasso (heel). The blade can also be divided into three parts: the strong part (often it was not sharpened at all), the middle part and the tip.

The hilt includes a guard (in medieval swords it often looked like a simple cross), a handle, and a pommel, or pommel. The last element of the weapon has great value for proper balancing and also prevents the hand from slipping. The crosspiece also performs several important functions: it prevents the hand from sliding forward after striking, protects the hand from hitting the enemy’s shield, the crosspiece was also used in some fencing techniques. And only last but not least did the crosspiece protect the swordsman’s hand from the blow of the enemy’s weapon. So, at least, it follows from medieval fencing manuals.

An important characteristic of the blade is its cross-section. Many variants of the section are known; they changed along with the development of weapons. Early swords (during barbarian and Viking times) often had a lenticular cross-section, which was more suitable for cutting and slashing. As armor developed, the rhombic section of the blade became increasingly popular: it was more rigid and more suitable for thrusting.

The sword blade has two tapers: in length and in thickness. This is necessary to reduce the weight of the weapon, improve its controllability in battle and increase the efficiency of use.

The balance point (or equilibrium point) is the center of gravity of the weapon. As a rule, it is located a finger's distance from the guard. However, this characteristic can vary quite widely depending on the type of sword.

Speaking about the classification of this weapon, it should be noted that the sword is a “piece” product. Each blade was made (or selected) for a specific fighter, his height and arm length. Therefore, no two swords are completely identical, although blades of the same type are similar in many ways.

An invariable accessory of the sword was a sheath - a case for carrying and storing this weapon. The sword sheath was made from various materials: metal, leather, wood, fabric. At the bottom they had a tip, and at the top they ended at the mouth. Typically these elements were made of metal. The sword scabbard had various devices that made it possible to attach it to a belt, clothing or saddle.

The birth of the sword - the era of antiquity

It is unknown when exactly man made the first sword. Wooden clubs can be considered their prototype. However, the sword in the modern sense of the word could only arise after people began to smelt metals. The first swords were probably made of copper, but this metal was quickly replaced by bronze, a stronger alloy of copper and tin. Structurally, the oldest bronze blades were not much different from their later steel counterparts. Bronze resists corrosion very well, which is why today we have a large number of bronze swords discovered by archaeologists in different regions of the world.

The oldest sword known to date was found in one of the burial mounds in the Republic of Adygea. Scientists believe that it was made 4 thousand years BC.

It is curious that before burial with the owner, bronze swords were often symbolically bent.

Bronze swords have properties that are in many ways different from steel ones. Bronze does not spring, but it can bend without breaking. To reduce the likelihood of deformation, bronze swords were often equipped with impressive stiffening ribs. For the same reason, it is difficult to make a large sword from bronze; usually such weapons had relatively modest dimensions - about 60 cm.

Bronze weapons were made by casting, so there were no particular problems in creating blades of complex shapes. Examples include the Egyptian khopesh, the Persian kopis and the Greek mahaira. True, all these samples of edged weapons were cutlasses or sabers, but not swords. Bronze weapons were poorly suited for piercing armor or fencing; blades made of this material were more often used for cutting rather than piercing blows.

Some ancient civilizations also used a large sword made of bronze. During excavations on the island of Crete, blades more than a meter long were found. They are believed to have been made around 1700 BC.

They learned to make swords from iron around the 8th century BC, and in the 5th century they had already become widespread. although bronze was used along with iron for many centuries. Europe switched to iron more quickly because the region had much more of it than the tin and copper deposits needed to create bronze.

Among the currently known blades of antiquity, one can highlight the Greek xiphos, the Roman gladius and spatha, and the Scythian sword akinak.

The xiphos is a short sword with a leaf-shaped blade, the length of which was approximately 60 cm. It was used by the Greeks and Spartans, later this weapon was actively used in the army of Alexander the Great; the warriors of the famous Macedonian phalanx were armed with the xiphos.

The Gladius is another famous short sword that was one of the main weapons of the heavy Roman infantry - legionnaires. The gladius had a length of about 60 cm and the center of gravity was shifted towards the handle due to the massive pommel. These weapons could deliver both slashing and piercing blows; the gladius was especially effective in close formation.

Spatha is a large sword (about a meter long) that apparently first appeared among the Celts or Sarmatians. Later, the Gauls' cavalry, and then the Roman cavalry, were armed with spatami. However, spatha was also used by foot Roman soldiers. Initially, this sword did not have an edge, it was a purely chopping weapon. Later, spatha became suitable for stabbing.

Akinak. This is a short one-handed sword, which was used by the Scythians and other peoples of the Northern Black Sea region and the Middle East. It should be understood that the Greeks often called all the tribes roaming the Black Sea steppes Scythians. Akinak was 60 cm long, weighed about 2 kg, and had excellent piercing and cutting properties. The crosshair of this sword was heart-shaped, and the pommel resembled a beam or a crescent.

Swords from the era of chivalry

The “finest hour” of the sword, however, like many other types of bladed weapons, was the Middle Ages. For this historical period, the sword was more than just a weapon. The medieval sword developed over a thousand years, its history began around the 5th century with the advent of the German spatha, and ended in the 16th century, when it was replaced by the sword. The development of the medieval sword was inextricably linked with the evolution of armor.

The collapse of the Roman Empire was marked by the decline of military art and the loss of many technologies and knowledge. Europe plunged into dark times of fragmentation and internecine wars. Battle tactics were significantly simplified, and the number of armies was reduced. In the Early Middle Ages, battles mainly took place in open areas; opponents, as a rule, neglected defensive tactics.

This period is characterized by an almost complete absence of armor, unless the nobility could afford chain mail or plate armor. Due to the decline of crafts, the sword is transformed from the weapon of an ordinary soldier into the weapon of a select elite.

At the beginning of the first millennium, Europe was in a “fever”: the Great Migration of Peoples was underway, and barbarian tribes (Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, Franks) created new states in the territories of the former Roman provinces. The first European sword is considered to be the German spatha, its further continuation is the Merovingian type sword, named after the French royal dynasty Merovingian.

The Merovingian sword had a blade approximately 75 cm long with a rounded tip, a wide and flat fuller, a thick cross and a massive pommel. The blade practically did not taper to the tip; the weapon was more suitable for delivering cutting and chopping blows. At that time, only very wealthy people could afford a combat sword, so Merovingian swords were richly decorated. This type of sword was in use until about the 9th century, but already in the 8th century it began to be replaced by a Carolingian type sword. This weapon is also called the Viking Age sword.

Around the 8th century AD, a new misfortune came to Europe: regular raids by Vikings or Normans began from the north. These were fierce fair-haired warriors who knew no mercy or pity, fearless sailors who plied the expanses of the European seas. The souls of the dead Vikings were taken from the battlefield by golden-haired warrior maidens straight to the halls of Odin.

In fact, Carolingian-type swords were produced on the continent, and they came to Scandinavia as military booty or ordinary goods. The Vikings had a custom of burying a sword with a warrior, which is why a large number of Carolingian swords were found in Scandinavia.

The Carolingian sword is in many ways similar to the Merovingian, but it is more elegant, better balanced, and the blade has a well-defined edge. The sword was still an expensive weapon; according to the orders of Charlemagne, cavalrymen must be armed with it, while foot soldiers, as a rule, used something simpler.

Together with the Normans, the Carolingian sword also entered the territory Kievan Rus. There were even centers on Slavic lands where such weapons were made.

The Vikings (like the ancient Germans) treated their swords with special reverence. Their sagas contain many stories about special magical swords, as well as about family blades passed down from generation to generation.

Around the second half of the 11th century, the gradual transformation of the Carolingian sword into a knightly or Romanesque sword began. At this time, cities began to grow in Europe, crafts developed rapidly, and the level of blacksmithing and metallurgy increased significantly. The shape and characteristics of any blade were primarily determined by the enemy’s protective equipment. At that time it consisted of a shield, helmet and armor.

To learn to wield a sword, the future knight began training with early childhood. At about the age of seven, he was usually sent to some relative or friendly knight, where the boy continued to master the secrets of noble combat. At the age of 12-13 he became a squire, after which his training continued for another 6-7 years. Then the young man could be knighted, or he continued to serve with the rank of “noble squire.” The difference was small: the knight had the right to wear a sword on his belt, and the squire attached it to the saddle. In the Middle Ages, the sword clearly distinguished a free man and knight from a commoner or slave.

Ordinary warriors usually wore leather armor made from specially treated leather as protective equipment. The nobility used chain mail shirts or leather armor, onto which metal plates were sewn. Until the 11th century, helmets were also made of treated leather, reinforced with metal inserts. However, later helmets were mainly made from metal plates, which were extremely difficult to break through with a chopping blow.

The most important element of a warrior’s defense was the shield. It was made from a thick layer of wood (up to 2 cm) durable rocks and were covered on top with treated leather, and sometimes reinforced with metal strips or rivets. This was a very effective defense; such a shield could not be penetrated with a sword. Accordingly, in battle it was necessary to hit a part of the enemy’s body that was not covered by a shield, and the sword had to pierce the enemy’s armor. This led to changes in sword design in the early Middle Ages. Typically they had the following criteria:

Total length about 90 cm;
Relatively light weight, which made it easy to fencing with one hand;
Sharpening blades designed to deliver an effective cutting blow;
The weight of such a one-handed sword did not exceed 1.3 kg.

Around the middle of the 13th century, a real revolution took place in the armament of the knight - plate armor became widespread. To break through such a defense, it was necessary to inflict piercing blows. This led to significant changes in the shape of the Romanesque sword; it began to narrow, and the tip of the weapon became more and more pronounced. The cross-section of the blades also changed, they became thicker and heavier, and received stiffening ribs.

Around the 13th century, the importance of infantry on the battlefield began to increase rapidly. Thanks to the improvement of infantry armor, it became possible to dramatically reduce the shield, or even abandon it altogether. This led to the fact that the sword began to be taken in both hands to enhance the blow. This is how the long sword appeared, a variation of which is the bastard sword. In modern historical literature it is called the “bastard sword.” Bastards were also called “war swords” - weapons of such length and weight were not carried with them just like that, but taken to war.

The bastard sword led to the emergence of new fencing techniques - the half-hand technique: the blade was sharpened only in the upper third, and its lower part could be intercepted by the hand, further enhancing the piercing blow.

This weapon can be called a transitional stage between one-handed and two-handed swords. The heyday of long swords was the era of the late Middle Ages.

During the same period, two-handed swords became widespread. These were real giants among their brothers. The total length of this weapon could reach two meters and weight – 5 kilograms. Two-handed swords were used by infantrymen; they did not have sheaths made for them, but were worn on the shoulder, like a halberd or a pike. Disputes continue among historians today as to exactly how these weapons were used. The most famous representatives of this type of weapon are the zweihander, claymore, spandrel and flamberge - a wavy or curved two-handed sword.

Almost all two-handed swords had a significant ricasso, which was often covered with leather for greater ease of fencing. At the end of the ricasso there were often additional hooks (“ boar tusks"), which protected the hand from enemy blows.

Claymore. This is the type two-handed sword(there were also one-handed claymores), which was used in Scotland in the 15th-17th centuries. Claymore means "great sword" in Gaelic. It should be noted that the claymore was the smallest of the two-handed swords, its total size reached 1.5 meters, and the length of the blade was 110-120 cm.

A distinctive feature of this sword was the shape of the guard: the arms of the cross were bent towards the tip. The claymore was the most versatile “two-handed weapon”; its relatively small dimensions made it possible to use it in various combat situations.

Zweihander. The famous two-handed sword of the German Landsknechts, and their special unit - the Doppelsoldners. These warriors received double pay; they fought in the front ranks, cutting down the enemy's peaks. It is clear that such work was mortally dangerous; in addition, it required great physical strength and excellent weapon skills.

This giant could reach a length of 2 meters, had a double guard with “boar tusks” and a ricasso covered with leather.

Slasher. A classic two-handed sword, most often used in Germany and Switzerland. The total length of the slasher could reach up to 1.8 meters, of which 1.5 meters was on the blade. To increase the penetrating power of the sword, its center of gravity was often shifted closer to the tip. The weight of the sledge ranged from 3 to 5 kg.

Flamberge. A wavy or curved two-handed sword, it had a blade of a special flame-like shape. Most often, these weapons were used in Germany and Switzerland in the 15th-17th centuries. Currently, flamberges are in service with the Vatican Guard.

The curved two-handed sword is an attempt by European gunsmiths to combine best properties sword and saber. Flamberge had a blade with a number of successive curves; when delivering chopping blows, it acted on the principle of a saw, cutting through armor and inflicting terrible, long-lasting wounds. The curved two-handed sword was considered an “inhumane” weapon, and the church actively opposed it. Warriors with such a sword should not have been captured; at best, they were killed immediately.

The flamberge was approximately 1.5 m long and weighed 3-4 kg. It should also be noted that such weapons were much more expensive than usual, because they were very difficult to manufacture. Despite this, such two-handed swords were often used by mercenaries during Thirty Years' War in Germany.

Among the interesting swords of the late Middle Ages, it is also worth noting the so-called sword of justice, which was used to carry out death sentences. In the Middle Ages, heads were most often chopped off with an ax, and the sword was used exclusively for beheading members of the nobility. Firstly, it was more honorable, and secondly, execution with a sword brought less suffering to the victim.

The technique of beheading with a sword had its own characteristics. The scaffold was not used. The condemned man was simply forced to his knees, and the executioner cut off his head with one blow. One might also add that the “sword of justice” had no edge at all.

By the 15th century, the technique of wielding edged weapons was changing, which led to changes in bladed edged weapons. At the same time, it is increasingly used firearms, which easily penetrates any armor, and as a result it becomes almost unnecessary. Why carry a bunch of iron on you if it can't protect your life? Along with armor, heavy medieval swords, which clearly had an “armor-piercing” character, are also becoming a thing of the past.

The sword becomes more and more a piercing weapon, it tapers towards the tip, becomes thicker and narrower. The grip of the weapon changes: in order to deliver more effective piercing blows, swordsmen grasp the cross from the outside. Very soon special arches appear on it to protect the fingers. This is how the sword begins its glorious path.

At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the sword guard became significantly more complex in order to more reliably protect the fencer’s fingers and hand. Swords and broadswords appeared in which the guard looked like a complex basket, which included numerous bows or a solid shield.

Weapons become lighter, they gain popularity not only among the nobility, but also among a large number of townspeople and become an integral part of everyday costume. In war they still use a helmet and cuirass, but in frequent duels or street fights They fight without any armor. The art of fencing is becoming significantly more complex, new techniques and techniques are appearing.

A sword is a weapon with a narrow cutting and piercing blade and a developed hilt that reliably protects the fencer’s hand.

In the 17th century, the rapier evolved from the sword - a weapon with a piercing blade, sometimes even without cutting edges. Both the sword and the rapier were intended to be worn with casual clothing, not with armor. Later, this weapon turned into a certain attribute, a detail of the appearance of a person of noble origin. It is also necessary to add that the rapier was lighter than the sword and gave tangible advantages in a duel without armor.

The most common myths about swords

The sword is the most iconic weapon invented by man. Interest in it continues today. Unfortunately, there are many misconceptions and myths associated with this type of weapon.

Myth 1. The European sword was heavy; in battle it was used to inflict concussion on the enemy and break through his armor - like an ordinary club. At the same time, absolutely fantastic figures for the mass of medieval swords are voiced (10-15 kg). This opinion is not true. The weight of all surviving original medieval swords ranges from 600 grams to 1.4 kg. On average, the blades weighed about 1 kg. Rapiers and sabers, which appeared much later, had similar characteristics (from 0.8 to 1.2 kg). European swords were convenient and well-balanced weapons, effective and convenient in battle.

Myth 2. Swords do not have a sharp edge. It is stated that against the armor the sword acted like a chisel, breaking through it. This assumption is also not true. Historical documents that have survived to this day describe swords as sharp weapons that could cut a person in half.

In addition, the very geometry of the blade (its cross-section) does not allow sharpening to be obtuse (like a chisel). Studies of the graves of warriors who died in medieval battles also prove the high cutting ability of swords. The fallen were found to have severed limbs and serious hack wounds.

Myth 3. “Bad” steel was used for European swords. Today there is a lot of talk about the excellent steel of traditional Japanese blades, which are supposedly the pinnacle of blacksmithing. However, historians absolutely know that the technology of welding various types of steel was successfully used in Europe already in antiquity. The hardening of the blades was also at the proper level. The technologies for making Damascus knives, blades and other things were also well known in Europe. By the way, there is no evidence that Damascus was a serious metallurgical center at any time. In general, the myth about the superiority of eastern steel (and blades) over western steel was born back in the 19th century, when there was a fashion for everything eastern and exotic.

Myth 4. Europe did not have its own developed fencing system. What can I say? You should not consider your ancestors more stupid than you. The Europeans waged almost continuous wars using edged weapons for several thousand years and had ancient military traditions, so they simply could not help but create a developed combat system. This fact is confirmed by historians. To this day, many manuals on fencing have been preserved, the oldest of which date back to the 13th century. Moreover, many of the techniques from these books are more designed for the dexterity and speed of the fencer than for primitive brute strength.

Claymore (claymore, claymore, claymore, from the Gaulish claidheamh-mòr - “great sword”) is a two-handed sword that received widespread among the Scottish Highlanders from the end of the 14th century. Being the main weapon of infantrymen, the claymore was actively used in skirmishes between tribes or border battles with the British. Claymore is the smallest among all its brothers. This, however, does not mean that the weapon is small: the average length of the blade is 105-110 cm, and together with the handle the sword reached 150 cm. distinctive feature there was a characteristic bend in the arms of the cross - downwards, towards the tip of the blade. This design made it possible to effectively capture and literally pull out any long weapon from the enemy’s hands. In addition, the decoration of the horns of the bow - pierced in the shape of a stylized four-leaf clover - became a distinctive sign by which everyone easily recognized the weapon. In terms of size and effectiveness, the claymore was perhaps the most the best option among all two-handed swords. It was not specialized, and therefore was used quite effectively in any combat situation.

Zweihander

The Zweihander (German: Zweihänder or Bidenhänder/Bihänder, “two-handed sword”) is a weapon of a special unit of landsknechts who are on double pay (doppelsoldners). If the claymore is the most modest sword, then the zweihander was indeed impressive in size and in rare cases reached two meters in length, including the hilt. In addition, it was notable for its double guard, where special “boar tusks” separated the unsharpened part of the blade (ricasso) from the sharpened part.

Such a sword was a weapon of very narrow use. The fighting technique was quite dangerous: the owner of the zweihander acted in the front ranks, pushing away with a lever (or even completely cutting) the shafts of enemy pikes and spears. To own this monster required not only remarkable strength and courage, but also significant swordsmanship, so the mercenaries did not receive double pay for their beautiful eyes. The technique of fighting with two-handed swords bears little resemblance to conventional blade fencing: such a sword is much easier to compare with a reed. Of course, the zweihander did not have a sheath - it was worn on the shoulder like an oar or spear.

Flamberge

Flamberge ("flaming sword") is a natural evolution of the ordinary straight sword. The curvature of the blade made it possible to increase the lethality of the weapon, but in the case of large swords, the blade was too massive, fragile and still could not penetrate high-quality armor. In addition, the Western European school of fencing suggests using the sword mainly as a piercing weapon, and therefore curved blades were not suitable for it. By the XIV-XVI centuries. /bm9icg===>ekam, advances in metallurgy led to the fact that the chopping sword became practically useless on the battlefield - it simply could not penetrate armor made of hardened steel with one or two blows, which played a critical role in mass battles. Gunsmiths began to actively look for a way out of this situation, until they finally came to the concept of a wave blade, which has a series of successive anti-phase bends. Such swords were difficult to manufacture and expensive, but the effectiveness of the sword was undeniable. Due to a significant reduction in the area of the damaging surface, upon contact with the target, the destructive effect was increased many times over. In addition, the blade acted like a saw, cutting the affected surface. The wounds inflicted by the flamberge did not heal for a very long time. Some commanders sentenced captured swordsmen to death solely for carrying such weapons. The Catholic Church also cursed such swords and branded them as inhumane weapons.

Slasher

Espadon (French espadon from Spanish espada - sword) is a classic type of two-handed sword with a tetrahedral cross-section of the blade. Its length reached 1.8 meters, and the guard consisted of two massive arches. The center of gravity of the weapon often shifted towards the tip - this increased the penetrating ability of the sword. Such weapons were used in battle unique warriors, usually having no other specialization. Their task was to, waving huge blades, destroy the enemy’s battle formation, overturn the first ranks of the enemy and pave the way for the rest of the army. Sometimes these swords were used in battles with cavalry - due to the size and weight of the blade, the weapon made it possible to very effectively chop the legs of horses and cut through the armor of heavy infantry. Most often weight military weapons ranged from 3 to 5 kg, and heavier specimens were awarded or ceremonial. Sometimes weighted replicas of combat blades were used for training purposes.

Estoc

Estoc (French estoc) is a two-handed piercing weapon designed to pierce knightly armor. A long (up to 1.3 meters) tetrahedral blade usually had a stiffening rib. If previous swords were used as a means of countermeasures against cavalry, then the estok, on the contrary, was the weapon of the horseman. Riders wore it on the right side of the saddle so that in case of loss of the pike they would have an additional means of self-defense. In horse fighting, the sword was held with one hand, and the blow was delivered due to the speed and mass of the horse. In a foot skirmish, the warrior took it in both hands, compensating for the lack of mass with his own strength. Some examples of the 16th century have a complex guard, like a sword, but most often there was no need for it.

It has a fairly simple design: a long blade with a hilt, but swords have many shapes and uses. The sword is more convenient than the axe, which is one of its predecessors. The sword is adapted for delivering slashing and piercing blows, as well as for parrying enemy blows. Longer than a dagger and not as easily concealed in clothing, the sword is a noble weapon in many cultures. It was of particular significance, being at the same time a work of art, a family jewel, a symbol of war, justice, honor, and of course glory.

The sword has the following structure:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f. Blade
g. tip

There are many known variants of blade cross-section shapes. Typically, the shape of the blade depends on the purpose of the weapon, as well as on the desire to combine rigidity and lightness in the blade. The figure shows some double-edged (positions 1, 2) and single-edged (positions 3, 4) variants of blade shapes.

There are three main shapes of sword blades. Each of them has its own advantages. The straight blade(s) is intended for thrusting. The blade curved back (b) causes a deep cut wound upon impact. A forward curved blade (c) is effective for slashing, especially when it has a flared and heavy top. When choosing a sword, civilians were guided mainly by fashion trends. The military tried to find the ideal blade, combining the same effectiveness in both chopping and piercing blows.

Africa and Middle East

In most of these regions the sword is a very common weapon, but in Africa it is rare and difficult to date. Most of the swords shown here ended up in Western museums and collectors thanks to travelers of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

1. Double-edged sword, Gabon, West Africa. The thin blade is made of steel, the handle of the sword is wrapped in brass and copper wire.
2. Takouba, sword of the Tuareg tribe of the Sahara.
3. Flissa, sword of the Kabyle tribe, Morocco. Single-edged blade, decorated with engraving and inlaid with brass.
4. Cascara, straight double-edged sword Bagirmi people, Sahara. The style of this sword is close to Sudanese swords.
5. Double-edged sword of the East African Maasai. The blade has a rhombic cross-section; there is no guard.
6. Shotel, a double-edged sword with a double curved blade, Ethiopia. The crescent shape of the sword is designed to strike an enemy behind his shield.
7. Sudanese sword with a characteristic straight, double-edged blade and cross-shaped guard.
8. Arab sword, XVIII century. The blade is probably of European origin. The silver hilt of the sword is covered with gold.
9. Arabic sword, Longola, Sudan. The double-edged steel blade is decorated with geometric patterns and the image of a crocodile. The hilt of the sword is made of ebony and ivory.

Middle East

10. Kilic (klych), Türkiye. The example shown in the figure has a 15th-century blade and an 18th-century hilt. Often, at the top, the kilij blade has an elman - an expanded part with a straight blade.
11. Scimitar, classic form, Türkiye. A sword with a single-edged blade curved forward. The bone handle has a large pommel and there is no guard.
12. Scimitar with a silver handle. The blade is decorated with corals. Türkiye.
13. Saif, a curved saber with a characteristic pommel. It is found wherever the Arabs lived.
14. Checker, Caucasus. Circassian origin, widely used by Russian cavalry. the blade of this specimen is dated 1819, Persia.
15. Dagger, Caucasus. The dagger could reach the size of a short sword; one such example is presented here.
16. Shamshir, typical form. Persian with a curved blade and a characteristic handle.
17. Shamshir with a wavy blade, Persia. The steel handle is decorated with gold inlay.
18. Quaddara. Large dagger. The handle is made of horn. The blade is decorated with etching and gold checkering.

Indian subcontinent

The region of India and related areas is rich in various types swords. The best steel blades in the world with luxurious decorations were made in India. In some cases, it is difficult to give the correct name to some samples of blades, to determine the time and place of their manufacture, so a thorough study of them is still ahead. Dates shown apply to examples shown only.

Chora (Khyber), a heavy single-edged sword of the Afghan and Pashtun tribes. Afghanistan-Pakistan borderland.
Tulwar (talwar). Sword with a curved blade and a hilt with a disc-shaped pommel, India. This specimen was discovered in Northern India, 17th century.
Tulwar (talwar) with a wide blade. Was the executioner's weapon. This specimen originates from Northern India, XVIII-XIX centuries.
Tulwar (talwar).Punjabi style steel handle with safety bail. Indore, India. End of the 18th century
Khanda, steel handle with gilding in the “Old Indian” style. Double-edged straight blade. Nepal. XVIII century
Khanda. The handle is made in the style of “Indian basket” with an appendage for gripping with both hands. Marathi people. XVIII century
Sucker pattah. The handle is made in the Indian basket style. Forward curved reinforced blade with one blade. Central India. XVIII century
South Indian sword. Steel handle, square wooden pommel. The blade is curved forward. Madras. XVI century
Sword from the temple of the Nayar people. Brass handle, double-edged steel blade. Thanjavur, South India. XVIII century
South Indian sword. Steel handle, double-edged wavy blade. Madras. XVIII century
Pata. An Indian sword with a gauntlet - a steel guard that protected the hand up to the forearm. Decorated with engraving and gilding. Oudh (now Uttar Pradesh). XVIII century
Adyar katti typical shape. A short, heavy blade curved forward. The handle is made of silver. Coorg, South West India.
Zafar Takeh, India. Attribute of a ruler at audiences. The top of the handle is made in the shape of an armrest.
Firangi (“stranger”). This name was used by the Indians for European blades with Indian handles. Shown here is a Maratha sword with a 17th century German blade.
A double-edged two-handed sword with hollow iron pommel. Central India. XVII century
Bark. The blade is curved forward, has one blade with a “pulled” apex. Nepal. XVIII century
Kukri. Long narrow blade. It was widespread in the 19th century. Nepal, around 1850
Kukri. Iron handle, elegant blade. Nepal, approximately 19th century.
Kukri. Was in service with the Indian Army in World War II. Manufactured by a contractor in North India. 1943
Ram dao. A sword used for animal sacrifice in Nepal and Northern India.

Far East

Tao. Sword of the Kachin tribe, Assam. The example shown shows the most common blade shape of many known in this region.
Dao (noklang). Two-handed sword, Khasi people, Assam. The hilt of the sword is iron, the trim is made of brass.
Dha. Single-edged sword, Myanmar. The cylindrical hilt of the sword is covered with white metal. Blade inlay with silver and copper.
Castanet. The sword has a carved wooden hilt and a steel safety guard. Decorated with silver and brass inlay. Sri Lanka.
Single-edged Chinese iron sword. The handle is a blade stalk wrapped in cord.
Talibon. Short sword of Filipino Christians. The hilt of the sword is made of wood and braided with reed.
Barong. Short sword of the Moro people, Philippines.
Mandau (parang ihlang). Sword of the Dayak headhunter tribe, Kalimantan.
Parang pandit. Sword of the Sea Dayak tribe, Southeast Asia. The sword has a single-edged, forward-curved blade.
Kampilan. Single-edged sword of the Moro and Sea Dayak tribes. The handle is made of wood and decorated with carvings.
Klewang. Sword from Sula Vesi Island, Indonesia. The sword has a single-edged blade. The handle is made of wood and decorated with carvings.

Europe of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages

The history of the European sword is a process not so much of improving the functionality of the blade, but of changing it under the influence of fashion trends. Swords made of bronze and iron were replaced by steel ones; swords were adapted to new theories of combat, but no innovations led to a complete abandonment of the old forms.

Short sword. Central Europe, early Bronze Age. The blade and hilt of the sword are connected with a riveting.
Curved single-edged short sword, Sweden. 1600-1350 BC The sword is made from a single piece of bronze.
Bronze sword from Homeric times, Greece. OK. 1300 BC This specimen was found in Mycenae.
Long solid bronze sword, one of the Baltic islands. 1200-1000 BC
Sword of the Late Bronze Age, Central Europe. 850-650 BC
Iron sword, Hallstatt culture, Austria. 650-500 BC The hilt of the sword is made of ivory and amber.
Iron sword of Greek hoplites (heavily armed infantry). Greece. Approximately VI century. BC
Iron single-edged sword, Spain, around V-VI centuries. BC Swords of this type were also used in classical Greece.
Iron blade of a sword, La Tène culture. Around the 6th century. BC This specimen was found in Switzerland.
Iron sword. Aquileia, Italy. The hilt of the sword is made of bronze. Around the 3rd century. BC
Gallic iron sword. Department of Aube, France. Anthropomorphic bronze handle. Around the 2nd century. BC
Iron sword, Cumbria, England. The hilt of the sword is made of bronze and decorated with enamel. Around the 1st century.
Gladius. Iron Roman short sword. Beginning of the 1st century
Roman gladius of late type. Pompeii. The edges of the blade are parallel, the tip is shortened. End of the 1st century

Europe of the Middle Ages

Throughout early Middle Ages the sword was a very valuable weapon, especially in Northern Europe. Many Scandinavian swords have richly decorated hilts, and X-ray studies have revealed very high quality their welded blades. However, the late medieval sword, despite its significant status knightly weapons, often simply cruciform in shape and with a simple iron blade; Only the pommel of the sword gave the craftsmen some scope for imagination.

Early medieval swords were forged with wide blades designed to deliver a slashing blow. From the 13th century Narrow blades designed for stabbing began to spread. It is assumed that this trend was caused by the increased use of armor, which was easier to penetrate with a piercing blow at the joints.

To improve the balance of the sword, a heavy pommel was attached to the end of the handle as a counterweight to the blade. Pommel shapes:

Mushroom
In the form of a teapot cover
American walnut shape
Discoid
Wheel shaped
Triangular
Fishtail
Pear-shaped

Viking sword (right) 10th century. The handle is wrapped in silver foil with an embossed “braided” design, which is shaded with copper and niello. The double-edged steel blade is wide and shallow. This sword was found in one of the Swedish lakes. Currently kept in the State Historical Museum in Stockholm.

Middle Ages

Weapons and armor of the Crusaders

Date: 02/19/2013

Byzantine army was combat-ready, but still lagged behind the armies of Europe in terms of military technology.
Just a quarter of a century before the Fourth Crusade, it was impossible to imagine that a motley gathering from all over Europe, apparently numbering no more than 20,000 people, would defeat the powerful Byzantine Empire. However, a lot changed in the last decades of the 12th century - Byzantium weakened, and its Western competitors strengthened. They still had to face strong resistance, but the state of the Byzantine army by 1202 made the conquest of Constantinople a distinct possibility. The decades leading up to the Fourth Crusade saw significant changes in weapons and defensive equipment. The most important thing was the widespread use of such weapons as the crossbow. Although crossbows were not new, constant technical improvements led to the fact that they became capable of easily piercing chain mail and even certain types of plate armor. This very powerful weapon, although with a relatively slow rate of fire, proved to be most effective in waging sieges.

The spread of the crossbow led to changes in the defensive weapons of European armies. Because crossbow bolts had enough inertia to remain lethal even after they bounced off armor, European gunsmiths began to reinforce and armor previously poorly protected areas of the body, including the face. Fighters who had a lower social status strengthened their protection with the help of larger shields and wider hauberks. The Byzantines were surprised by the amount of armor that the crusaders wore, not only the knights, but also other warriors, including most of the infantrymen. Only in one area military technology Both sides were approximately equal in siege weapons. The fixed-counterweight mangonel, or trebouchet, was widely used throughout much of Europe, as well as the Byzantine Empire, from the mid-12th century, and possibly much earlier. During the sieges of Constantinople, Byzantine stone-throwing machines proved more effective, but most likely because they were mounted on towers.

Until many Venetians unexpectedly took the cross in 1203, most of the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade were French and Flemish. The main driving force behind both of these groups was religious feelings, however, elements of the new chivalric code also played an important role. Nevertheless, main feature This period began the process of professionalization of the army, and it affected France to the greatest extent. As a result, many highly skilled (but also notoriously brutal) mercenaries were employed, mainly from Navarre, Flanders, Gennegau, Brabant and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire. Most crossbowmen, apparently, were professionals. Many types of weapons used by infantry were much easier to use and did not require serious training, and they were most effectively used by mercenary detachments, in which high discipline was maintained.

The military situation in Flanders was somewhat different. Rapid economic development, urbanization and attempts by the church to ban tournaments meant that the Flemish army had fewer opportunities to use its skills domestically. Thus, the Crusades provided her with such an important alternative, as well as the mercenaries from France, England and Germany. The situation was reminiscent of the one that developed in neighboring Brabant, Namur and Liege, located on the lands of the Holy Roman Empire. The Brabantians, for example, were among the most effective and respected mercenaries of the late 12th century, especially as infantry during siege warfare. Other areas of the largely German-inhabited Holy Roman Empire were militarily similar to what is now part of Belgium and the Netherlands.

Apart from the Venetian troops, the largest Italian contingent to take part in the Fourth Crusade was probably the troops of the Marquis of Montferrat. They could represent only one type of mixed armed forces that existed in Italy in those years. In addition to the main differences (militarily) between Northern, Central and Southern Italy, there were also differences between urban and rural contingents, lowlanders and mountaineers. The significance of the contribution of the Venetian army and navy to the Fourth Crusade cannot be exaggerated.

The Venetian military art of the 13th century developed in the same way as that of their Genoese competitors, and was based on land and sea forces. Both maritime republics relied on their ability to effectively use "wood and rope technology." In particular, this feature was the result of the fact that lower social strata of Venetian society were also involved in military service. Without the Venetian navy the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade might not have been able to conquer Constantinople. Galley rowers, like other sailors, were free people, not slaves. Labor on the benches of galley rowers was not considered humiliating, since the rowers were chosen by lot, and this was their contribution to the defense of their hometown.

After a catastrophic defeat by the Suljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Byzantium was able to quickly restore its military power under the emperors Komnenos (1081-1185) (and suffered another heavy defeat at the Battle of Myriokephale in 1176, again at the hands of the Seljuks). However, after the death of Emperor Manuel in 1180, the empire entered a period of protracted crisis. Organizationally, the military system of the Komnenos was more flexible than under their predecessors, but its main weaknesses were in the system of management and financing, as well as in the low loyalty of the personnel. In addition, by the end of the 12th century, the Byzantine Empire was in serious need of human resources. Decentralization of power meant that the emperor had to constantly fight with regional rulers for control of the military. The Byzantine army of 1203 was seasoned in battles with the Juks, Wallachians, Bulgars and Kipchaks. Shortly before this she had succeeded in repelling an invasion by the Normans from the Kingdom of Sicily and southern Italy, and was clearly able to withstand a much less powerful crusader army. Apparently the biggest problem Byzantine Empire There was a decline in the morale of its population, and therefore the idea of Byzantine Greeks as warriors who lacked stamina became widespread in Europe.

However, the Byzantine army was still known for its strict discipline among officers and men, generous salaries, and an efficient system of distributing weapons, armor, and horses at the start of a campaign. However, the quality of the high command directly depended on the personality of the emperor. Worst of all, Emperor Isaac II Angelus appeared to appoint men to senior military positions based on political preferences rather than on the candidates' competence. Structurally, the Byzantine army still consisted of local contingents recruited from their respective regions, as well as “national” \ foreign \ mercenary formations and elite palace or guard regiments. The cavalry was divided into heavily armed warriors, designed for close combat, armed in the traditional Middle Eastern, rather than Western European, style of lightly armed horse archers. The most famous elite palace formation was the Varangian Guard. Initially it was formed from Viking mercenaries, but by the time of the Fourth Crusade it mainly consisted of Anglo-Saxons, as well as Frisians, Germans, and others.

Due to the difficult economic situation in which Byzantium found itself at the beginning of the 13th century, the number of Western European mercenaries decreased sharply. Most come from Western Europe who fought in the ranks of the Byzantine troops and defended Constantinople during Fourth Crusade, were most likely residents of trading colonies and members of ship crews. The largest group supporting the current emperor were the commercial competitors of the Venetians. By the time of the Fourth Crusade, the main role in the Byzantine army was played by Turkic mercenaries, their number included numerous people from the semi-nomadic Turkic peoples of the Western steppes. Another contingent of Turkic mercenaries came from Anatolia, but the number of such troops, according to researchers, was greatly reduced after the defeat of the Byzantines at Myriokephalos in 1176.

The medieval sword is a weapon that has been used for over a thousand years. During this period, the sword was the most famous weapon, but of course, not the most important. From a military-technical point of view, the sword rather plays a subordinate role. The most important melee weapon of the early and late Middle Ages was the spear (or pike). Nevertheless, the sword is the most important weapon from a social point of view.

Knighting

From the 12th century The girdling of a sword and the blessing of this weapon became a mandatory part of the rite of knighting. Like the king, the knight was entrusted with the responsibility of protecting the world from foreign conquerors, protecting the church from pagans and enemies of the Christian faith. It is no coincidence that sacred inscriptions and religious symbols appeared on the blades of medieval swords, reminiscent of the high service of the Christian warrior, his duty to God and civilians, and the hilt of the sword often became an ark for relics and relics. Throughout almost the entire Middle Ages, despite some changes in the blade and hilt, in accordance with the era, general shape The sword changed little: it invariably resembled one of the main symbols of Christianity - the cross.

Sword structure

The question of the geometry and balancing of the blade is inherently very important, since depending on this, swords are adapted for either piercing or slashing fighting techniques. Anyone who makes swords should pay special attention to several parameters, which will further determine how convenient a given sword is for thrusting, striking, and whether it is convenient in general:

Blade profile (blade shape) - changed over time depending on the era and fighting techniques used in that period;
The cross-sectional shape of the blade also depends on the use of this sword in battle;
The presence and length of the fuller is a forged or chiseled recess along the blade designed to lighten the weight and create additional stiffening ribs (the understanding of the fuller as a device for blood outflow is erroneous);
Distal narrowing (narrowing in thickness) - affects the distribution of mass along the blade;
The center of gravity is the balance point of the sword (the most optimal position is from 15 to 5 cm from the guard).

Sword structure

The sword can be roughly divided into two parts:

Blade:
- Strong part (usually not sharpened);
- Middle part;
- Edge.
Hilt:
- Guard (in relation to a typical medieval sword, this is simply a crossguard);
- Handle (can be either in the form of a tube or false cheeks);
- Pommel(counterweight, apple) ;

Sword typology

For a long time, the question of the taxonomy of the sword remained open, i.e. about the principle on which to unite all swords into certain types, what types of swords were characteristic in a given period, and in 1958, an expert on medieval edged weapons, Ewart Oakeshott (Oakeshott), proposed a taxonomy that remains basic to this day. Oakeshott's typology is based on two factors:

Blade shape (width, length, tip shape, overall blade profile, presence and length of fuller);
Proportions of the sword (determined by the ratio of the dimensions of the handle and blade).

With this method of consideration, Oakeshott identified 13 main types (from X (from I to IX Oakeshott described the swords of the Viking Age) to XXII) and various subtypes of the medieval sword. Using his typology, Oakeshott introduced his own way of describing each specific sword. He described 35 different types of pommel and twelve different sword cross shapes. The basic type of the sword was combined with the shape of the pommel and the shape of the cross, and thus the sword itself was described - type XVI-K-2:

And so, the shapes of swords can be grouped and classified, but dating them is only very imprecise. The swords are clearly divided into two groups, thanks to the radical change in shape caused by the same radical change in the protective armor against which they were directed. This change occurred approximately between 1275 and 1350, that is, during a transitional period lasting three quarters of a century, during which several transitional types appeared. It is safe to say that the sword of one of the types in group 1 (swords against mail armor) was made before 1300, and the sword from group 2 (swords against plate armor) was made after 1350. But since the period of swords in group 1 lasts from 1000 to 1300, and group 2 swords - from 1350 to 1550, dating can only be very approximate. Further complicating matters is the fact that some types of Group 1 swords became popular again after 1450. Transitional types, made against plate mail armor or a combination of both, are the only ones that can be confidently dated to 1300 - 1350. - to a period of half a century.