Sniper training. Internal and external ballistics

BASICS OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL BALLISTICS

Ballistics(German Ballistik, from Greek ballo - throw), the science of movement artillery shells, bullets, mines, aerial bombs, active and rocket projectiles, harpoons, etc.

Ballistics– military-technical science based on a complex of physical and mathematical disciplines. There are internal and external ballistics.

The emergence of ballistics as a science dates back to the 16th century. The first works on ballistics are the books of the Italian N. Tartaglia “ New science"(1537) and "Questions and Discoveries Relating to Artillery Shooting" (1546). In the 17th century The fundamental principles of external ballistics were established by G. Galileo, who developed the parabolic theory of projectile motion, by the Italian E. Torricelli and the Frenchman M. Mersenne, who proposed calling the science of projectile motion ballistics (1644). I. Newton conducted the first studies on the motion of a projectile taking into account air resistance– “Mathematical principles of natural philosophy” (1687). In the XVII – XVIII centuries. The movement of projectiles was studied by the Dutchman H. Huygens, the Frenchman P. Varignon, the Swiss D. Bernoulli, the Englishman B. Robins, the Russian scientist L. Euler and others. The experimental and theoretical foundations of internal ballistics were laid in the 18th century. in the works of Robins, C. Hetton, Bernoulli and others. In the 19th century. the laws of air resistance were established (the laws of N.V. Maievsky, N.A. Zabudsky, the Havre law, the law of A.F. Siacci). At the beginning of the 20th century. an exact solution to the main problem of internal ballistics was given - the work of N.F. Drozdov (1903, 1910), the issues of combustion of gunpowder in a constant volume were studied - the works of I.P. Grave (1904) and the pressure of powder gases in the barrel - the work of N.A. Zabudsky (1904, 1914), as well as the Frenchman P. Charbonnier and the Italian D. Bianchi. In the USSR, a great contribution to further development introduced into ballistics by scientists of the Commission for Special Artillery Experiments (KOSLRTOP) in 1918-1926. During this period V.M. Trofimov, A.N. Krylov, D.A. Ventzelem, V.V. Mechnikov, G.V. Oppokov, B.N. Okunev et al. carried out a number of works to improve methods for calculating the trajectory, develop the theory of corrections and study the rotational motion of the projectile. Research by N.E. Zhukovsky and S.A. Chaplygin on the aerodynamics of artillery shells formed the basis for the works of E.A. Berkalova and others to improve the shape of projectiles and increase their flight range. V.S. Pugachev was the first to solve the general problem of motion artillery shell. An important role in solving the problems of internal ballistics was played by the research of Trofimov, Drozdov and I.P. Grave, who wrote in 1932-1938 the most full course theoretical internal ballistics.

A significant contribution to the development of methods for assessing and ballistic research of artillery systems and to solving special problems of internal ballistics was made by M.E. Serebryakov, V.E. Slukhotsky, B.N. Okunev, and among foreign authors - P. Charbonnier, J. Sugo and others.

During the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 under the leadership of S.A. Khristianovich carried out theoretical and experimental work to increase the accuracy of rockets. In the post-war period, these works continued; The issues of increasing the initial velocities of projectiles, establishing new laws of air resistance, increasing barrel survivability, and developing ballistic design methods were also studied. Work on the study of the aftereffect period (V.E. Slukhotsky and others) and the development of blasting methods for solving special problems (smooth-bore systems, active rocket projectiles, etc.), external and internal blasting problems in relation to missiles, and further improving the methodology of ballistic research associated with the use of computers.

Internal ballistics information

Internal ballistics - is a science that studies the processes that occur during a shot, and especially during the movement of a bullet (grenade) along the barrel.

External ballistics information

External ballistics - is a science that studies the movement of a bullet (grenade) after the action of powder gases on it ceases. Having flown out of the barrel under the influence of powder gases, the bullet (grenade) moves by inertia. Grenade having jet engine, moves by inertia after the exhaust of gases from the jet engine.

Flying a bullet in the air

Having flown out of the barrel, the bullet moves by inertia and is subject to the action of two forces: gravity and air resistance.

The force of gravity causes the bullet to gradually lower, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet and tends to knock it over. Part of the bullet's energy is spent on overcoming the force of air resistance.

The force of air resistance is caused by three main reasons: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave (Fig. 4)

When a bullet flies, it collides with air particles and causes them to vibrate. As a result, the air density in front of the bullet increases and sound waves are formed, a ballistic wave is formed. The force of air resistance depends on the shape of the bullet, flight speed, caliber, air density

Rice. 4. Formation of air resistance force

To prevent the bullet from tipping over under the influence of air resistance, it is given a fast rotational movement. Thus, as a result of the action of gravity and air resistance on the bullet, it will not move uniformly and rectilinearly, but will describe a curved line - a trajectory.

them when shooting

The flight of a bullet in the air is influenced by meteorological, ballistic and topographic conditions

When using tables, you must remember that the trajectory data in them corresponds to normal shooting conditions.

The following are accepted as normal (tabular) conditions.

Weather conditions:

· atmospheric pressure on the weapon horizon 750 mm Hg. Art.;

· air temperature on the horizon of the weapon is +15 degrees Celsius;

· relative air humidity 50% ( relative humidity is called the ratio of the amount of water vapor contained in the air to the largest amount of water vapor that can be contained in the air at a given temperature),

· there is no wind (the atmosphere is motionless).

Let's consider what range corrections for external shooting conditions are given in the shooting tables for small arms at ground targets.

Table range corrections when firing small arms at ground targets, m
Changing shooting conditions from the table ones	Type of cartridge	Firing range, m

Air and charge temperatures by 10°C	Rifle
Arr. 1943			-	-
Air pressure at 10 mm Hg. Art.	Rifle
Arr. 1943			-	-
Initial speed at 10 m/sec	Rifle
Arr. 1943			-	-
In a longitudinal wind at a speed of 10 m/sec	Rifle
Arr. 1943			-	-

The table shows that two factors have the greatest influence on the change in the flight range of bullets: a change in temperature and a drop in initial speed. Changes in range caused by air pressure deviation and longitudinal wind, even at distances of 600-800 m, have no practical significance and can be ignored.

Side wind causes bullets to deviate from the firing plane in the direction in which it blows (see Fig. 11).

Wind speed is determined with sufficient accuracy using simple signs: in a weak wind (2-3 m/sec), the handkerchief and flag sway and flutter slightly; in moderate winds (4-6 m/sec), the flag is kept unfurled and the scarf flutters; in a strong wind (8-12 m/sec), the flag flutters noisily, the scarf is torn from the hands, etc. (see Fig. 12).

Rice. 11 Effect of wind direction on bullet flight:

A – lateral deflection of the bullet when the wind blows at an angle of 90° to the firing plane;

A1 – lateral deflection of the bullet with wind blowing at an angle of 30° to the firing plane: A1=A*sin30°=A*0.5

A2 – lateral deflection of the bullet with wind blowing at an angle of 45° to the firing plane: A1=A*sin45°=A*0.7

The shooting manuals contain tables of corrections on the side moderate wind(4 m/sec), blowing perpendicular to the firing plane.

If shooting conditions deviate from normal, it may be necessary to determine and take into account corrections for the firing range and direction, for which it is necessary to follow the rules in the shooting manuals

Rice. 12 Determining wind speed from local objects

Thus, having defined a direct shot, analyzed its practical significance when shooting, as well as the influence of shooting conditions on the flight of a bullet, it is necessary to skillfully apply this knowledge when performing exercises with service weapons, both in practical fire training classes and when performing service operational tasks. tasks.

Scattering phenomenon

When firing from the same weapon, with the most careful observance of the accuracy and uniformity of the shots, each bullet, due to a number of random reasons, describes its trajectory and has its own point of impact (meeting point), which does not coincide with the others, as a result of which the bullets are scattered.

The phenomenon of bullet scattering when firing from the same weapon under almost identical conditions is called natural bullet scattering or trajectory scattering. The set of bullet trajectories resulting from their natural dispersion is called a sheaf of trajectories.

The point of intersection of the average trajectory with the surface of the target (obstacle) is called midpoint of impact or center of dispersion

The dispersion area usually has the shape of an ellipse. When shooting from small arms at close distances, the dispersion area in the vertical plane can have the shape of a circle (Fig. 13.).

Mutually perpendicular lines drawn through the center of dispersion (the middle point of impact) so that one of them coincides with the direction of fire are called dispersion axes.

The shortest distances from the meeting points (holes) to the dispersion axes are called deviations.

Rice. 13 Sheaf trajectories, dispersion area, dispersion axes:

A– on a vertical plane, b– on a horizontal plane, medium the trajectory is marked red line, WITH– average point of impact, BB 1– axis dispersion in height, BB 1, – axis of dispersion in the lateral direction, dd 1,– axis of dispersion along the impact range. The area on which the meeting points (holes) of bullets, obtained when a sheaf of trajectories intersect with any plane, are located is called the dispersion area.

Reasons for dispersion

Reasons Causing Bullets to Scatter , can be classified into three groups:

· the reasons causing the variety of initial speeds;

· the reasons causing the variety of throwing angles and shooting directions;

· reasons causing a variety of bullet flight conditions. The reasons causing the variety of initial bullet velocities are:

· diversity in the weight of powder charges and bullets, in the shape and size of bullets and cartridges, in the quality of gunpowder, loading density, etc. as a result of inaccuracies (tolerances) in their manufacture;

· variety of charge temperatures, depending on air temperature and unequal time spent by the cartridge in the barrel heated during firing;

· diversity in the degree of heating and quality condition of the barrel.

These reasons lead to fluctuations in the initial speeds, and, consequently, in the flight ranges of bullets, that is, they lead to the dispersion of bullets over range (height) and depend mainly on ammunition and weapons.

Reasons causing diversity throwing angles and shooting direction, are:

· diversity in horizontal and vertical aiming of weapons (errors in aiming);

· variety of departure angles and lateral displacements of weapons, resulting from non-uniform preparation for shooting, unstable and non-uniform holding of automatic weapons, especially during burst fire, incorrect use of stops and non-smooth trigger release;

· angular vibrations of the barrel when firing automatic fire, resulting from the movement and impacts of the moving parts of the weapon.

These reasons lead to the dispersion of bullets in the lateral direction and along the range (height), have the greatest impact on the size of the dispersion area and mainly depend on the training of the shooter.

The reasons causing the variety of bullet flight conditions are:

· variety in atmospheric conditions, especially in the direction and speed of the wind between shots (bursts);

· diversity in the weight, shape and size of bullets (grenades), leading to a change in air resistance,

These reasons lead to an increase in the dispersion of bullets in the lateral direction and along the range (height) and mainly depend on external conditions shooting and ammunition.

With each shot, all three groups of causes act in different combinations.

This leads to the fact that the flight of each bullet occurs along a trajectory different from the trajectory of other bullets. It is impossible to completely eliminate the causes that cause dispersion, and therefore eliminate dispersion itself. However, knowing the reasons on which dispersion depends, you can reduce the influence of each of them and thereby reduce dispersion, or, as they say, increase the accuracy of fire.

Reducing bullet dispersion achieved by excellent training of the shooter, careful preparation weapons and ammunition for shooting, skillful application of shooting rules, correct preparation for shooting, uniform buttstock, accurate aiming (aiming), smooth trigger release, stable and uniform holding of the weapon when shooting, as well as proper care of weapons and ammunition.

Law of dispersion

At large number shots (more than 20), a certain pattern is observed in the location of meeting points on the dispersion area. Bullet dispersion obeys normal law random errors, which in relation to the dispersion of bullets is called the law of dispersion.

This law is characterized by the following three provisions (Fig. 14):

1. Meeting points (holes) on the dispersion area are located unevenly – thicker towards the center of dispersion and less frequent towards the edges of the dispersion area.

2. On the dispersion area, you can determine the point that is the center of dispersion (the average point of impact), relative to which the distribution of meeting points (holes) symmetrically: the number of meeting points on both sides of the dispersion axes, which are contained within limits (bands) of equal absolute magnitude, is the same, and each deviation from the dispersion axis in one direction corresponds to a deviation of the same magnitude in the opposite direction.

3. Meeting points (holes) in each particular case occupy not limitless but a limited area.

Thus, the law of dispersion in general view can be formulated as follows: with a sufficiently large number of shots fired under almost identical conditions, the dispersion of bullets (grenades) is uneven, symmetrical and not unlimited.

Fig. 14. Pattern of dispersion

Reality of shooting

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, depending on the nature of the target, the distance to it, the method of firing, the type of ammunition and other factors, different results can be achieved. To select the most effective method of performing a fire mission under given conditions, it is necessary to evaluate the fire, i.e. determine its validity

Reality of shooting the degree of correspondence of the shooting results to the assigned fire task is called. It can be determined by calculation or based on the results of experimental shooting.

To assess the possible results of firing from small arms and grenade launchers, the following indicators are usually accepted: the probability of hitting a single target (consisting of one figure); mathematical expectation of the number (percentage) of struck figures in a group target (consisting of several figures); mathematical expectation of the number of hits; average expected ammunition consumption to achieve the required shooting reliability; average expected time spent on performing a fire mission.

In addition, when assessing the validity of the shooting, the degree of lethal and penetrating effect of the bullet is taken into account.

The lethality of a bullet is characterized by its energy at the moment it hits the target. To injure a person (incapacitate him), energy equal to 10 kg/m is sufficient. A small arms bullet retains its lethality almost up to the maximum firing range.

The penetrating effect of a bullet is characterized by its ability to penetrate an obstacle (shelter) of a certain density and thickness. The penetrating effect of a bullet is indicated in the shooting manuals separately for each type of weapon. A cumulative grenade from a grenade launcher penetrates the armor of any modern tank, self-propelled guns, or armored personnel carrier.

To calculate indicators of the validity of shooting, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the dispersion of bullets (grenades), errors in the preparation of shooting, as well as methods for determining the probability of hitting a target and the probability of hitting targets.

Probability of target hit

When firing from small arms at single living targets and from grenade launchers at single armored targets, one hit hits the target. Therefore, the probability of hitting a single target is understood as the probability of receiving at least one hit with a given number of shots.

The probability of hitting a target with one shot (P,) is numerically equal to the probability of hitting the target (p). Calculating the probability of hitting a target under this condition comes down to determining the probability of hitting the target.

The probability of hitting a target (P,) with several single shots, one burst or several bursts, when the probability of hitting for all shots is the same, is equal to one minus the probability of a miss to a degree equal to the number of shots (n), i.e. P,= 1 - (1- p)", where (1- p) is the probability of a miss.

Thus, the probability of hitting a target characterizes the reliability of shooting, i.e. it shows how many cases out of a hundred, on average, under given conditions the target will be hit with at least one hit

Shooting is considered quite reliable if the probability of hitting the target is at least 80%

Chapter 3.

Weight and linear data

The Makarov pistol (Fig. 22) is a personal weapon of attack and defense, designed to defeat the enemy at short distances. Pistol fire is most effective at distances up to 50 m.

Rice. 22

Let's compare the technical data of the PM pistol with pistols of other systems.

In terms of the main qualities and reliability indicators of the PM pistol, it was superior to other types of pistols.

Rice. 24

A– left side; b- right side. 1 – base of the handle; 2 – trunk;

3 – stand for attaching the barrel;

4 – window for placing the trigger and trigger guard comb;

5 – trunnion sockets for trigger trunnions;

6 – curved groove for placement and movement of the front axle of the trigger rod;

7 – trunnion sockets for the trigger and sear trunnions;

8 – grooves for directing the movement of the shutter;

9 – window for mainspring feathers;

10 – cutout for the bolt stop;

11 – boss with a threaded hole for fastening the handle with a screw and the mainspring with a bolt;

12 – cutout for magazine latch;

13 – boss with a socket for attaching the trigger guard;

14 – side windows; 15 – trigger guard;

16 – ridge to limit the movement of the shutter back;

17 – window for exiting the upper part of the store.

The barrel serves to direct the flight of the bullet. The inside of the barrel has a channel with four rifling winding upward to the right.

The rifling serves to impart rotational motion. The spaces between the cuts are called margins. The distance between opposite fields (in diameter) is called the bore caliber (for PM-9mm). There is a chamber in the breech. The barrel is connected to the frame with a press fit and secured with a pin.

The frame serves to connect all parts of the gun. The frame and the base of the handle are one piece.

The trigger guard serves to protect the tail of the trigger.

The bolt (Fig. 25) serves to feed a cartridge from the magazine into the chamber, lock the barrel bore when firing, hold the cartridge case, remove the cartridge and cock the hammer.

Rice. 25

a – left side; b – bottom view. 1 – front sight; 2 - rear sight; 3 – window for ejecting the cartridge case; 4 – fuse socket; 5 – notch; 6 – channel for placing a barrel with a return spring;

7 – longitudinal projections to guide the movement of the shutter along the frame;

8 – tooth for setting the bolt to the bolt stop;

9 – groove for the reflector; 10 – groove for the release protrusion of the cocking lever; 11 – recess for disconnecting the sear from the cocking lever; 12 – rammer;

13 – protrusion for separating the cocking lever from the sear; 1

4 – recess for placing the release protrusion of the cocking lever;

15 – groove for the trigger; 16 – ridge.

The drummer is used to break the capsule (Fig. 26)

Rice. 26

1 – striker; 2 – cut for fuse.

The ejector serves to hold the cartridge case (cartridge) in the bolt cup until it meets the reflector (Fig. 27).

Rice. 27

1 – hook; 2 – heel for connecting to the bolt;

3 – oppression; 4 – ejector spring.

To operate the ejector, there is a bend and an ejector spring.

The fuse serves to ensure safe handling of the pistol (Fig. 28).

Rice. 28

1 – fuse box; 2 – clamp; 3 – ledge;

4 – rib; 5 – hook; 6 – protrusion.

The rear sight together with the front sight serves for aiming (Fig. 25).

The return spring serves to return the bolt to the forward position after firing; the outermost coil of one of the ends of the spring has a smaller diameter compared to the other coils. With this coil, the spring is put on the barrel during assembly (Fig. 29).

Rice. 29

The trigger mechanism (Fig. 30) consists of a trigger, a sear with a spring, a trigger rod with a cocking lever, a trigger, a mainspring and a mainspring slide.

Fig.30

1 – trigger; 2 – sear with a spring; 3 – trigger rod with cocking lever;

4 – mainspring; 5 – trigger; 6 – mainspring valve.

The trigger is used to strike the firing pin (Fig. 31).

Rice. 31
A– left side; b– right side; 1 – head with a notch; 2 – cutout;

3 – recess; 4 – safety platoon; 5 – combat platoon; 6 – trunnions;

7 – self-cocking tooth; 8 – protrusion; 9 – recess; 10 – annular recess.

The sear serves to hold the trigger on the combat cock and safety cock (Fig. 32).

Rice. 32

1 – sear pins; 2 – tooth; 3 – protrusion; 4 – sear spout;

5 – sear spring; 6 – the stand whispered.

The trigger rod with the cocking lever is used to release the hammer from cocking and cock the hammer when pressing the tail of the trigger (Fig. 33).

Rice. 33

1 – trigger rod; 2 – cocking lever; 3 – trigger rod pins;

4 – release protrusion of the cocking lever;

5 – cutout; 6 – self-cocking protrusion; 7 – heel of the cocking lever.

The trigger is used for decocking and cocking the hammer when firing by self-cocking (Fig. 34).

Rice. 34

1 – axle; 2 – hole; 3 – tail

The mainspring serves to actuate the hammer, cocking lever and trigger rod (Fig. 35).

Rice. 35

1 – wide feather; 2 – narrow feather; 3 – bumper end;

4 – hole; 5 – latch.

The mainspring bolt serves to attach the mainspring to the base of the handle (Fig. 30).

A handle with a screw covers the side windows and the rear wall of the base of the handle and serves to make it easier to hold the pistol in your hand (Fig. 36).

Rice. 36

1 – swivel; 2 – grooves; 3 – hole; 4 – screw.

The bolt stop holds the bolt in the rear position after all the cartridges from the magazine have been used up (Fig. 37).

Rice. 37

1 – protrusion; 2 – button with a notch; 3 – hole; 4 – reflector.

It has: in the front part - a protrusion for holding the shutter in the rear position; a knurled button to release the shutter by pressing your hand; in the rear part there is a hole for connecting to the left sear pin; in the upper part there is a reflector for reflecting cartridge cases (cartridges) outward through the window in the bolt.

The magazine serves to house the feeder and the magazine cover (Fig. 38).

Rice. 38

1 – magazine body; 2 – feeder;

3 – feeder spring; 4 – magazine cover.

Each pistol comes with accessories: spare magazine, wiper, holster, pistol strap.

Rice. 39

The reliability of locking the barrel bore when fired is achieved by the large mass of the bolt and the force of the return spring.

The principle of operation of the pistol is as follows: when you press the tail of the trigger, the trigger, freed from the sear, under the action of the mainspring hits the firing pin, which breaks the cartridge primer with its striker. As a result, the powder charge ignites and a large amount of gases are formed, which press equally in all directions. The bullet is ejected from the barrel by the pressure of the powder gases; the bolt, under the pressure of the gases transmitted through the bottom of the cartridge case, moves back, holding the cartridge case with the ejector and compressing the return spring. When the cartridge meets the reflector, it is thrown out through a window in the bolt. When moving back, the bolt turns the trigger and cocks it. Under the influence of the return spring, the bolt returns forward, capturing the next cartridge from the magazine, and sends it into the chamber. The bore is locked with a blowback, the pistol is ready to fire.

Rice. 40

To fire the next shot, you must release the trigger and press it again. Once all the cartridges have been used up, the bolt locks onto the slide stop and remains in the rearmost position.

Before and after the shot

To load the pistol you need:

· equip the magazine with cartridges;

· insert the magazine into the base of the handle;

· turn off the fuse (turn the flag down)

· move the shutter to the rearmost position and release it sharply.

When the magazine is loaded, the cartridges lie on the feeder in one row, compressing the feeder spring, which, when released, lifts the cartridges upward. The upper cartridge is held by the curved edges of the side walls of the magazine body.

When a loaded magazine is inserted into the handle, the latch slides over the protrusion on the wall of the magazine and holds it in the handle. The feeder is located below the cartridges; its hook does not affect the bolt stop.

When the safety is turned off, its protrusion for receiving the trigger blow rises, the hook comes out of the trigger recess, releases the trigger protrusion, thus releasing the trigger.

The shelf of the ledge on the safety axis releases the sear, which, under the action of its spring, falls down, the nose of the sear becomes in front of the safety cocking of the hammer

The fuse rib extends from behind the left protrusion of the frame and separates the bolt from the frame.

The shutter can be pulled back by hand.

When the bolt is pulled back, the following happens: moving along the longitudinal grooves of the frame, the bolt turns the trigger, the sear, under the action of a spring, jumps its nose behind the cocking cock. The rearward movement of the shutter is limited by the ridge of the trigger guard. The return spring is in maximum compression.

When the trigger is turned, the front part of the annular recess moves the trigger rod with the cocking lever forward and slightly upward, while part of the free play of the trigger is selected. Moving up and down the cocking lever approaches the protrusion of the sear.

The cartridge is lifted by the feeder and becomes in front of the bolt rammer.

When the bolt is released, the return spring sends it forward, and the bolt rammer pushes the upper cartridge into the chamber. The cartridge, sliding along the curved edges of the side backs of the magazine body and along the bevel on the tide of the barrel and in the lower part of the chamber, enters the chamber, resting the front cut of the sleeve against the chamber ledge. The bore is locked with a free bolt. The next cartridge rises up until it stops at the ridge of the bolt.

The hook is thrown out, jumping into the annular groove of the sleeve. The trigger is cocked (see Fig. 39 on page 88).

Inspection of live ammunition

Inspection of live ammunition is carried out in order to detect malfunctions that may lead to delays in firing. When inspecting cartridges before shooting or joining a squad, you must check:

· is there any rust, green deposits, dents, scratches on the cartridges, is the bullet pulled out of the cartridge case?

· Are there any training cartridges among the combat cartridges?

If the cartridges become dusty or dirty, covered with a slight green coating or rust, they must be wiped with a dry, clean rag.

Index 57-N-181

A 9 mm cartridge with a lead core is produced for export by the Novosibirsk Low-Voltage Equipment Plant (bullet weight - 6.1 g, initial speed - 315 m/s), Tula Cartridge Plant (bullet weight - 6.86 g, initial speed - 303 m/s), Barnaul Machine Tool Plant (bullet weight - 6.1 g, initial speed - 325 m/s). Designed to engage manpower at a distance of up to 50 m. Used when firing from a 9 mm PM pistol, 9 mm PMM pistol.

Caliber, mm - 9.0

Sleeve length, mm – 18

Chuck length, mm – 25

Cartridge weight, g - 9.26-9.39

Brand of gunpowder, - P-125

Weight of powder charge, gr. - 0.25

Speed v10 - 290-325

Primer-igniter - KV-26

Bullet diameter, mm - 9.27

Bullet length, mm - 11.1

Bullet weight, g - 6.1-6.86

Core material – lead

Accuracy - 2.8

Penetrating action is not standardized.

Pulling the trigger

Pulling the trigger your way specific gravity in the production of a well-aimed shot is of paramount importance and is a determining indicator of the degree of preparedness of the shooter. All shooting errors arise solely due to improper handling of the trigger release. Aiming errors and weapon vibrations allow you to show fairly decent results, but trigger errors inevitably lead to a sharp increase in dispersion and even misses.

Mastering the correct trigger technique is the cornerstone of the art of accurate shooting from any hand weapons. Only those who understand this and consciously master the technique of pulling the trigger will confidently hit any target, in any condition will be able to show high results and fully realize the combat properties of personal weapons.

Pulling the trigger is the most difficult element to master, requiring lengthy and most painstaking work.

Let us remind you that when a bullet leaves the barrel, the bolt moves back by 2 mm, and there is no effect on the hand at this time. The bullet flies to where the weapon was pointed at the moment it leaves the barrel. Consequently, correctly pulling the trigger means performing such actions in which the weapon does not change its aiming position in the period from the trigger being pulled until the bullet leaves the barrel.

The time from the release of the trigger to the ejection of the bullet is very short and is approximately 0.0045 s, of which 0.0038 s is the rotation time of the trigger and 0.00053-0.00061 s is the time the bullet travels down the barrel. However, in such a short period of time, if there are errors in processing the trigger, the weapon manages to deviate from the aiming position.

What are these errors, and what are the reasons for their appearance? To clarify this issue, it is necessary to consider the system: shooter-weapon, and one should distinguish between two groups of causes of errors.

1. Technical reasons - errors caused by the imperfection of serial weapons (gaps between moving parts, poor surface finish, clogging of mechanisms, wear of the barrel, imperfection and poor debugging of the trigger mechanism, etc.)

2. The causes of the human factor are human errors directly caused by various physiological and psycho-emotional characteristics of the body of each person.

Both groups of causes of errors are closely related to each other, manifest themselves in a complex and entail one another. Of the first group of technical errors, the most noticeable role that negatively affects the result is played by the imperfection of the trigger mechanism, the disadvantages of which include:

When it comes to ammo, I consider myself little more than an amateur - I do a bit of ammo rigging, play around with SolidWorks, and read dusty tomes full of the hard work of people who have collected detailed information about ammo. I honestly crammed, but not a real expert. But when I started writing, I discovered that very few people I meet know as much about cartridges as I do.

By the way, this situation is perfectly illustrated by comparing the number of participants in the IAA forum (about 3,200 people at the time of writing), with the AR15.com forum, where the number of registered members is approaching half a million. And don't forget that IAA forum is the largest English-language forum for collectors/ammunition enthusiasts- at least as far as I know, and AR15.com is just one of many large gun forums on the Internet.

Anyway, being a part of the gun world both as a shooter and as an author, I have heard a lot of myths about ammunition and ballistics, some of which are fairly obvious to most people, but others that are repeated far more often than they should be. What is behind some of these myths and what is the truth?

1. Bigger is better

I put this statement first because it is the most widely accepted. And this myth will never die, since it is quite clear. If you have it on hand, take and compare a .45 ACP cartridge with a 9 mm, or a .308 Winchester p.223; Any two cartridges that vary greatly in size and weight will do. It's true obviously, which makes the explanation somewhat more difficult, that a large cartridge - best cartridge, as it causes much more damage. There's a serious .45 ACP bullet in your hand, all three-quarters of an ounce (21.2 grams) of it, and it even feels a lot more solid and powerful than a 9mm, or a .32, or any other smaller caliber bullet.

I won't waste much time speculating "Why"? Maybe this all comes from our ancestors, who picked up stones in the river to hunt birds, but I think that such a reaction does not allow this myth to disappear.

Cartridges.308 Win RWS & LAPUA, as well as their ballistics.

But regardless of the reason, the external ballistics of different bullets is a complex subject, and often the results differ from the assumptions that can be made based on the sizes of the different bullets alone. High-velocity rifle bullets that shatter destructively when they hit a target, e.g. can cause much more severe wounds than large caliber bullets of greater weight and size, especially if the target is not protected. Explosive hollow-jacket bullets, even as small as .32 calibers, can break up violently and cause more massive damage than a .45-caliber jacketed bullet. Even the shape of the bullet can affect the nature of the damage, so a flat, angular bullet will cut and tear tissue better than a larger caliber bullet with a rounded nose.

None of this is to say that larger caliber never is not more effective, or that everything is the same and to a certain extent modern fragmentation or expansion bullets do not differ in effectiveness, the truth is that the external ballistics of the bullet are much deeper and more complex, and often the actual results of different bullets contradict expectations.

2. Longer barrel = proportionally higher speed

This is one of the myths in which one can intuitively feel the catch. If we double the barrel length, we double the speed, So? Most likely, it is obvious to my readers that this is not true, but there are still many people who adhere to this false statement (even designer Loren C. Cook repeated this myth when advertising his submachine gun). This is an obvious assumption based on the information that longer barrels on rifles (often) provide increased bullet velocity, but it is incorrect.

The relationship between barrel length and bullet speed is actually very differentiated, but its essence is as follows: When the gunpowder in the cartridge ignites, gases are formed that expand and put pressure on the bottom of the bullet. When a bullet is clamped in a cartridge case, then when the gunpowder burns, the pressure increases, and this pressure pushes the bullet out of the case, and then pushes it along the barrel, losing its energy, in addition, the pressure decreases due to a significant and constant increase in the volume in which the gas is located . This means that the energy of the powder gases decreases with each inch of barrel length, and its maximum value is achieved in weapons with a short barrel. For example, increasing the length of a rifle barrel from 10 to 13 inches can mean an increase in bullet velocity by hundreds of feet per second, but increasing the length from 21 to 24 inches can mean an increase in velocity of only a couple of tens of feet per second. You'll often hear that the change in pressure and force exerted on the bullet's nose is called "pressure curve".

In turn, this curve and its relationship with the barrel length differs for different charges. Magnum cartridges in rifle calibers use a very slow-burning explosive that provides a significant change in bullet velocity even with a long barrel. Pistol cartridges, on the other hand, use fast-burning powders, which means that after a few inches, the increase in bullet velocity due to a longer barrel becomes negligible. In fact, when shooting a pistol cartridge from a long rifle barrel, you will even get a slightly lower muzzle velocity compared to a short barrel, since the friction between the bullet and the bore will begin to slow down the bullet's flight more than the additional pressure will accelerate it.

3. Caliber matters, bullet type doesn't.

This strange arrogant opinion comes up very often in conversations, especially in the form of the phrase: “Caliber X is not enough. You need caliber Y”, while the calibers mentioned differ little from each other. It is possible that someone will choose a caliber that is completely unsuited to the task at hand, but more often than not such discussions revolve around cartridges that are more or less up to the task with the correct choice of bullet type.

And now such a discussion becomes more substantive than just a myth: in almost all such disputes, more attention should be paid to the choice of bullet type, and not to the caliber and power of the charge. After all, there is a much greater difference in effectiveness between a .45 ACP jacketed bullet and a .45 ACP HST hollow-point bullet than there is between a 9mm HST and a .45 ACP HST. Choosing one caliber over another likely won't make a huge difference in your hit results, but choosing the bullet type definitely does make a difference!

Excerpts from an hour and a half seminar "Ballistics" by Sergei Yudin as part of the National Rifle Association project.

4. Momentum = Stopping force

Momentum is mass times velocity, very easy to understand. physical quantity. A large man bumping into you on the street will push you away more than a petite girl if they are moving at the same speed. Large stones cause more splashes. This simple value is easy to calculate and understand. The larger something is and the faster it moves, the more momentum it has.

That's why it was natural to use momentum to roughly estimate the stopping power of a bullet. This approach has spread throughout the gun community, from reviews that provide no information other than that the larger the bullet, the louder the ping when it hits a steel target, to “Taylor Knock-Out Index”, which relates momentum to bullet diameter in an attempt to calculate stopping power on big game. However, while momentum is an important ballistic characteristic, it is not directly related to the bullet's effectiveness on target, or "stopping power."

Momentum is a conserved quantity, which means that since the bullet moves forward under the action of expanding gases, the weapon, when fired with this bullet, will move backward with the same impulse as the total impulse of the bullet and powder gases. Which means that the momentum of a bullet fired from the shoulder or from the hands is not sufficient to cause even significant damage to a person, let alone kill. The momentum of the bullet as it hits the target does nothing other than possibly cause tissue bruising and very little jolt. The lethality of a shot, in turn, is determined by the speed at which the bullet moves and the size of the channel that the bullet creates inside the target.

This article is intentionally written in an attention-grabbing and highly generalized manner because I plan to explore these issues in more detail, at different levels of complexity, and want to see how interested readers are in the topic. If you want me to talk more about ammunition and ballistics, please say so in the comments.

Interesting bullet ballistics from the National Geographic channel.

ballistics

and. Greek the science of the movement of thrown (thrown) bodies; now especially cannon shells; ballistic, related to this science; ballista w. and ballista m. projectile, a tool for marking weights, especially an ancient military machine, for marking stones.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. D.N. Ushakov

ballistics

(ali), ballistics, pl. no, w. (from Greek ballo - sword) (military). The science of the flight of gun shells.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. S.I.Ozhegov, N.Yu.Shvedova.

ballistics

And, well. The science of the laws of flight of shells, mines, bombs, bullets.

adj. ballistic, -aya, -oh. Ballistic missile(traversing part of the path as a freely thrown body).

New explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

ballistics

A branch of theoretical mechanics that studies the laws of motion of a body thrown at an angle to the horizontal.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

ballistics

BALLISTICS (German Ballistik, from Greek ballo - throw) the science of the movement of artillery shells, unguided rockets, mines, bombs, bullets when firing (launching). Internal ballistics studies the movement of a projectile in the barrel bore (or in other conditions limiting movement) under the influence of powder gases, external ballistics - after it leaves the barrel bore.

Ballistics

(German: Ballistik, from Greek: ballo ≈ throwing), the science of the movement of artillery shells, bullets, mines, aerial bombs, active and rocket-propelled shells, harpoons, etc. Biology is a military-technical science based on a complex of physical and mathematical disciplines. There are internal and external ballistics.

Internal biology studies the movement of a projectile (or other bodies whose mechanical freedom is limited by certain conditions) in the bore of a gun under the influence of powder gases, as well as the patterns of other processes that occur during a shot in the bore or chamber of a powder rocket. Considering a shot as a complex process of rapid transformation of the chemical energy of gunpowder into thermal, and then into mechanical work of moving the projectile, charge, and recoil parts of the gun, internal biology distinguishes in the phenomenon of a shot: a preliminary period ≈ from the beginning of the burning of gunpowder to the beginning of the movement of the projectile; 1st (main) period ≈ from the beginning of the movement of the projectile to the end of the burning of gunpowder; 2nd period ≈ from the end of the combustion of gunpowder until the moment the projectile leaves the barrel (the period of adiabatic expansion of gases) and the period of the aftereffect of powder gases on the projectile and barrel. Patterns of processes associated with last period, are considered by a special section of ballistics - intermediate ballistics. The end of the period of aftereffect on a projectile separates the area of phenomena studied by internal and external ballistics. The main sections of internal ballistics are pyrostatics, pyrodynamics, and ballistic design of guns. Pyrostatics studies the laws of combustion of gunpowder and gas formation during the combustion of gunpowder in a constant volume and establishes the influence of the chemical nature of gunpowder, its shape and size on the laws of combustion and gas formation. Pyrodynamics studies the processes and phenomena occurring in the barrel bore during a shot, and establishes connections between the design characteristics of the barrel bore, loading conditions and various physicochemical and mechanical processes occurring during a shot. Based on the consideration of these processes, as well as the forces acting on the projectile and barrel, a system of equations is established that describes the firing process, including the basic equation of internal combustion, which relates the size of the burned part of the charge, the pressure of the powder gases in the barrel, the velocity of the projectile and the length the path he has traveled. Solving this system and finding the dependence of the change in pressure of powder gases P, projectile speed v and other parameters on the path of the projectile 1 ( rice. 1) and from the time of its movement along the bore is the first main (direct) task of internal B. To solve this problem, the following are used: analytical method, numerical integration methods [including those based on electronic computers (computers)] and tabular methods . In all these methods, due to the complexity of the firing process and insufficient knowledge of individual factors, certain assumptions are made. Of great practical importance are the correction formulas of the internal barrel, which make it possible to determine the change in the muzzle velocity of the projectile and the maximum pressure in the barrel when changing various conditions loading.

══Ballistic design of guns is the second main (inverse) task of internal ballistics. It determines the design data of the barrel bore and loading conditions under which a projectile of a given caliber and weight will receive a given (muzzle) velocity upon departure. For the barrel option selected during design, curves of changes in gas pressure in the barrel bore and projectile velocity along the barrel length and over time are calculated. These curves are the initial data for designing the artillery system as a whole and its ammunition. Internal warfare also studies the process of firing with special and combined charges, in small arms, systems with conical barrels, and systems with the outflow of gases during the combustion of gunpowder (gas-dynamic and recoilless rifles, mortars). An important section is also the internal biology of powder rockets, which has developed into a special science. The main sections of the internal biology of gunpowder rockets are: pyrostatics of a semi-closed volume, which examines the laws of combustion of gunpowder at a relatively low constant pressure; solving the main internal problems. B. powder rocket, consisting in determining (with given conditions loading) the law of changing the pressure of powder gases in the chamber depending on time, as well as the law of changing the thrust force to ensure the required rocket speed; ballistic design of a powder rocket, which consists of determining the energy characteristics of the powder, the weight and shape of the charge, as well as the design parameters of the nozzle, which provide the necessary thrust force during its operation for a given weight of the rocket warhead.

External biology studies the movement of unguided projectiles (mines, bullets, etc.) after they leave the barrel (launching device), as well as the factors influencing this movement. Its main content is the study of all elements of the movement of a projectile and the forces acting on it in flight (air resistance force, gravity, reactive force, force arising during the aftereffect period, etc.); movement of the center of mass of the projectile in order to calculate its trajectory ( rice. 2) under given initial and external conditions (the main task of external ballistics), as well as determining the stability of flight and dispersion of projectiles. Important sections of external ballistics are the theory of corrections, which develops methods for assessing the influence of factors determining the flight of a projectile on the nature of its trajectory, as well as methods for compiling firing tables and methods for finding the optimal external ballistic option when designing artillery systems. The theoretical solution of problems on projectile motion and problems of the theory of corrections comes down to drawing up equations of projectile motion, simplifying these equations and finding methods for solving them; the latter was greatly facilitated and accelerated with the advent of computers. To determine initial conditions(initial speed and throwing angle, shape and mass of the projectile) necessary to obtain a given trajectory, special tables are used in external bombardment. The development of a methodology for compiling shooting tables consists of determining the optimal combination of theoretical and experimental studies that make it possible to obtain shooting tables of the required accuracy with minimal time. External motion methods are also used to study the laws of motion of spacecraft (when they move without the influence of control forces and moments). With the advent of guided projectiles, external flight played a major role in the formation and development of the theory of flight, becoming a special case of the latter.

The emergence of biology as a science dates back to the 16th century. The first works on artillery were the books of the Italian N. Tartaglia, “New Science” (1537) and “Questions and Discoveries Relating to Artillery Shooting” (1546). In the 17th century The fundamental principles of external ballistics were established by G. Galileo, who developed the parabolic theory of projectile motion, the Italian E. Torricelli, and the Frenchman M. Mersenne, who proposed calling the science of projectile motion ballistics (1644). I. Newton conducted the first studies on the movement of a projectile taking into account air resistance ≈ “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy” (1687). In the 17th-18th centuries. The movement of projectiles was studied by the Dutchman H. Huygens, the Frenchman P. Varignon, the Swiss D. Bernoulli, the Englishman B. Robins, the Russian scientist L. Euler, and others. The experimental and theoretical foundations of internal ballistics were laid in the 18th century. in the works of Robins, C. Hetton, Bernoulli and others. In the 19th century. the laws of air resistance were established (the laws of N.V. Maievsky, N.A. Zabudsky, the Havre law, the law of A.F. Siacci). At the beginning of the 20th century. an exact solution to the main problem of internal combustion was given - the work of N. F. Drozdov (1903, 1910), the issues of combustion of gunpowder in a constant volume were studied - the work of I. P. Grave (1904) and the pressure of powder gases in the barrel bore - the work of N. A . Zabudsky (1904, 1914), as well as the Frenchman P. Charbonnier and the Italian D. Bianchi. In the USSR, a major contribution to the further development of artillery was made by scientists from the Commission for Special Artillery Experiments (KOSLRTOP) in 1918–26. During this period, V. M. Trofimov, A. N. Krylov, D. A. Ventzel, V. V. Mechnikov, G. V. Oppokov, B. N. Okunev and others carried out a number of works to improve methods for calculating the trajectory, development of the theory of corrections and the study of the rotational motion of the projectile. Research by N. E. Zhukovsky and S. A. Chaplygin on the aerodynamics of artillery shells formed the basis for the work of E. A. Berkalov and others on improving the shape of shells and increasing their flight range. V. S. Pugachev was the first to solve the general problem of the movement of an artillery shell.

An important role in solving the problems of internal ballistics was played by the research of Trofimov, Drozdov, and I. P. Grave, who wrote the most complete course of theoretical internal ballistics in 1932–38. He made a significant contribution to the development of methods for assessing and ballistic research of artillery systems and to solving special problems of internal ballistics contributed by M. E. Serebryakov, V. E. Slukhotsky, B. N. Okunev, and from foreign authors ≈ P. Charbonnier, J. Sugo and others.

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941–45, under the leadership of S. A. Khristianovich, theoretical and experimental work was carried out to increase the accuracy of rockets. In the post-war period, these works continued; The issues of increasing the initial velocities of projectiles, establishing new laws of air resistance, increasing barrel survivability, and developing ballistic design methods were also studied. Work on the study of the aftereffect period (V. E. Slukhotsky and others) and the development of firefighting methods for solving special problems (smooth-bore systems, active rocket projectiles, etc.), external and internal firefighting problems in relation to rockets, and further improving the methodology of ballistic research associated with the use of computers.

Lit.: Grave I.P., Internal ballistics. Pyrodynamics, in. 1≈4, L., 1933≈37; Serebryakov M.E., Internal ballistics of barrel systems and powder rockets, M., 1962 (bib.); Korner D., Internal ballistics of guns, trans. from English, M., 1953; Shapiro Ya. M., External ballistics, M., 1946.

Yu. V. Chuev, K. A. Nikolaev.

Wikipedia

Ballistics

Ballistics- the science of the movement of bodies thrown in space, based on mathematics and physics. It is primarily concerned with the study of the movement of bullets and projectiles fired from firearms, rockets and ballistic missiles.

Depending on the stage of movement of the projectile, there are:

internal ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile in a gun barrel;
intermediate ballistics, which studies the passage of a projectile through the muzzle and behavior at the muzzle. It is important for specialists in shooting accuracy, when developing silencers, flash suppressors and muzzle brakes;
external ballistics, which studies the movement of a projectile in the atmosphere or void under the influence of external forces. It is used when calculating corrections for elevation, wind and derivation;
barrier or terminal ballistics, which studies the last stage - the movement of a bullet in a barrier. Terminal ballistics is carried out by gunsmiths who are specialists in projectiles and bullets, strength and other armor and protection specialists, as well as forensic scientists.

Examples of the use of the word ballistics in literature.

When the excitement subsided, Barbicane spoke in an even more solemn tone: “You know what progress has been made ballistics for recent years and to what a high degree of perfection might firearms have reached if the war had still continued!

Of course, there can be no question that ballistics is not progressing, but let it be known to you that in the Middle Ages they achieved results, I dare say, even more amazing than ours.

Now it was a question of an attempt to upset the balance of the Earth - an attempt based on precise and indisputable calculations, an attempt which development ballistics and the mechanics made it quite feasible.

On the fourteenth of September a telegram was forwarded to the Washington Observatory, asking them to investigate the consequences, taking into account the laws ballistics and all geographical data.

Barbicane, - as I asked myself the question: could we, without going beyond the limits of our specialty, venture on some outstanding enterprise worthy of the nineteenth century, and whether high achievements would allow ballistics implement it successfully?

We have to solve one of the main problems ballistics, this science of sciences that treats the movement of projectiles, that is, bodies that, having received a certain push, rush into space and then fly due to inertia.

And now, as far as I understand, we are unable to do anything until the police receive a report from the department ballistics regarding the bullets recovered from Mrs. Ellis's body.

If in the Department ballistics found out that Nadine Ellis was killed by a bullet fired from a revolver that the police found among Helen Robb's belongings at the motel, then your client doesn't have one chance in a hundred.

As far as I know, she was transferred to the Department ballistics and the experts came to the conclusion that it was fired from the revolver that was lying on the floor next to the woman.

I ask the department ballistics carry out the necessary experiments and compare the bullets before the start of tomorrow's hearing,” Judge Keyser said.

I request that it be recorded that during a break in the hearing, the expert on the issues ballistics Alexander Redfield fired several test shots from all three revolvers owned by George Anklitas.

Freeing one hand for a short time, he ran the back of his hand across his forehead, as if wanting to exorcise the ghost of the Roman ballistics once and for all.

Experiments have shown that the pressure really decreases greatly, but later experts ballistics they told me that the same effect could be achieved by making a projectile with a long sharp end.

The second salvo of a Russian mortar battery, in strict accordance with the laws ballistics, covered the soldiers running away in panic.

And in artillery science - in ballistics- Americans, to everyone’s surprise, even surpassed the Europeans.

Ballistics studies throwing a projectile (bullet) from a barrel weapon. Ballistics is divided into internal, which studies the phenomena occurring in the barrel at the time of the shot, and external, which explains the behavior of the bullet after leaving the barrel.

Fundamentals of External Ballistics

Knowledge of external ballistics (hereinafter referred to as ballistics) allows the shooter, even before the shot, with sufficient practical application know exactly where the bullet will hit. The accuracy of a shot is influenced by a lot of interrelated factors: the dynamic interaction of parts and pieces of the weapon between themselves and the shooter’s body, gas and bullet, bullet with the walls of the barrel bore, bullet with environment after leaving the barrel and much more.

After leaving the barrel, the bullet does not fly in a straight line, but along a so-called ballistic trajectory, close to a parabola. Sometimes at short shooting distances the deviation of the trajectory from a straight line can be neglected, but at long and extreme shooting distances (which is typical for hunting), knowledge of the laws of ballistics is absolutely necessary.

Note that air guns usually give a light bullet a small or average speed(from 100 to 380 m/s), therefore, the curvature of the bullet’s flight path from various influences is more significant than for firearms.

website

A bullet fired from a barrel at a certain speed is affected by two main forces in flight: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity is downward, causing the bullet to continuously descend. The action of the air resistance force is directed towards the movement of the bullet, it forces the bullet to continuously reduce its flight speed. All this leads to a downward deviation of the trajectory.

To increase the stability of a bullet in flight, there are spiral grooves (rifling) on the surface of the barrel of a rifled weapon, which give the bullet a rotational motion and thereby prevent it from tumbling in flight.

Due to the rotation of the bullet in flight

Due to the rotation of the bullet in flight, the force of air resistance acts unevenly on different parts of the bullet. As a result, the bullet encounters greater air resistance on one side and, in flight, deviates more and more from the firing plane in the direction of its rotation. This phenomenon is called derivation. The effect of derivation is uneven and intensifies towards the end of the trajectory.

Powerful air rifles can give the bullet an initial speed higher than sound (up to 360-380 m/s). The speed of sound in air is not constant (depends on atmospheric conditions, altitude, etc.), but it can be taken equal to 330-335 m/s. Light air bullets with low lateral load experience strong disturbances and deviate from their trajectory, breaking the sound barrier. Therefore, it is advisable to shoot heavier bullets with muzzle velocity approaching to the speed of sound.

The trajectory of a bullet is also affected by weather conditions - wind, temperature, humidity and air pressure.

The wind is considered weak at a speed of 2 m/s, medium (moderate) at 4 m/s, strong at 8 m/s. A moderate side wind, acting at an angle of 90° to the trajectory, already has a very significant effect on a light and “low-speed” bullet fired from an air gun. The influence of wind of the same strength, but blowing under acute angle to the trajectory - 45° or less - causes half the bullet deflection.

The wind blowing along the trajectory in one direction or another slows down or speeds up the speed of the bullet, which must be taken into account when shooting at a moving target. When hunting, the wind speed can be estimated with acceptable accuracy using a handkerchief: if you take the handkerchief by two corners, then in a weak wind it will sway slightly, in a moderate wind it will deviate by 45°, and in a strong wind it will develop horizontally to the surface of the earth.

Normal weather conditions are considered to be: air temperature - plus 15°C, humidity - 50%, pressure - 750 mm mercury. An excess of air temperature above normal leads to an increase in the trajectory at the same distance, and a decrease in temperature leads to a decrease in the trajectory. Increased humidity leads to a decrease in the trajectory, and decreased humidity leads to an increase in the trajectory. Let us recall that atmospheric pressure changes not only from the weather, but also from the altitude above sea level - the higher the pressure, the lower the trajectory.

Each “long-range” weapon and ammunition has its own correction tables that allow one to take into account the influence of weather conditions, derivations, the relative position of the shooter and the target in height, bullet speed and other factors on the bullet’s flight path. Unfortunately, such tables are not published for air guns, so those who like to shoot at extreme distances or at small targets are forced to compile such tables themselves - their completeness and accuracy are the key to success in hunting or competitions.

When assessing the results of shooting, you need to remember that from the moment the shot is fired until the end of its flight, some random (not taken into account) factors act on the bullet, which leads to slight deviations in the bullet’s flight path from shot to shot. Therefore, even under “ideal” conditions (for example, when the weapon is rigidly secured in the machine, constant external conditions, etc.), bullets hitting the target have the appearance of an oval, condensing towards the center. Such random deviations are called deviation. The formula for calculating it is given below in this section.

Now let’s look at the bullet’s flight path and its elements (see Figure 1).

The straight line representing the continuation of the bore axis before the shot is fired is called the shot line. The straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the barrel when a bullet leaves it, is called the throwing line. Due to the vibrations of the barrel, its position at the moment of the shot and at the moment the bullet leaves the barrel will differ by the angle of departure.

As a result of gravity and air resistance, the bullet does not fly along the throwing line, but along an unevenly curved curve passing below the throwing line.

The beginning of the trajectory is the departure point. The horizontal plane passing through the point of departure is called the horizon of the weapon. The vertical plane passing through the point of departure along the throwing line is called the shooting plane.

To throw a bullet to any point on the horizon of the weapon, you need to direct the throwing line above the horizon. The angle made by the line of fire and the horizon of the weapon is called the elevation angle. The angle made by the throwing line and the horizon of the weapon is called the throwing angle.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the horizon of the weapon is called the (tabular) point of impact. The horizontal distance from the departure point to the (tabular) impact point is called the horizontal range. The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called the (tabular) angle of incidence.

The highest point of the trajectory above the weapon horizon is called the trajectory apex, and the distance from the weapon horizon to the trajectory apex is the trajectory height. The top of the trajectory divides the trajectory into two unequal parts: the ascending branch is longer and flatter, and the descending branch is shorter and steeper.

Considering the position of the target relative to the shooter, three situations can be distinguished:

The shooter and target are located on the same level.
- the shooter is positioned below the target (shoots upward at an angle).
- the shooter is positioned above the target (shoots downward at an angle).

In order to direct the bullet at the target, it is necessary to give the axis of the barrel a certain position in the vertical and horizontal plane. Giving the desired direction to the axis of the barrel bore in the horizontal plane is called horizontal aiming, and giving direction in the vertical plane is called vertical aiming.

Vertical and horizontal aiming is done using sighting devices. Mechanical sighting devices for rifled weapons consist of a front sight and a rear sight (or diopter).

The straight line connecting the middle of the rear sight slot to the top of the front sight is called the sighting line.

Aiming of small arms using sighting devices is carried out not from the horizon of the weapon, but relative to the location of the target. In this regard, the guidance and trajectory elements receive the following designations (see Figure 2).

The point at which the weapon is aimed is called the aiming point. The straight line connecting the shooter's eye, the middle of the rear sight slot, the top of the front sight and the aiming point is called the aiming line.

The angle formed by the aiming line and the shooting line is called the aiming angle. This aiming angle is obtained by setting the sight slot (or front sight) at a height corresponding to the firing range.

The point of intersection of the downward branch of the trajectory with the aiming line is called the point of incidence. The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called the target range. The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the aiming line is called the angle of incidence.

When positioning the weapon and target at the same height the aiming line coincides with the horizon of the weapon, and the aiming angle coincides with the elevation angle. When the target is located above or below the horizon weapons, the target elevation angle is formed between the aiming line and the horizon line. The target elevation angle is calculated positive, if the target is above the weapon's horizon and negative, if the target is below the weapon's horizon.

The target elevation angle and the aiming angle together make up the elevation angle. With a negative target elevation angle, the shot line may be directed below the weapon's horizon; in this case, the elevation angle becomes negative and is called the declination angle.

At its end, the bullet’s trajectory intersects either with the target (obstacle) or with the surface of the earth. The point of intersection of the trajectory with the target (obstacle) or the surface of the earth is called the meeting point. From the angle at which the bullet hits the target (obstacle) or the ground, their mechanical characteristics, the material of the bullet depends on the possibility of ricochet. The distance from the departure point to the meeting point is called the actual range. A shot in which the trajectory does not rise above the aiming line above the target throughout the entire aiming range is called a direct shot.

From all of the above, it is clear that before practical shooting begins, the weapon must be sighted (otherwise, lead to normal combat). Sighting should be carried out with the same ammunition and under the same conditions that will be typical for subsequent shootings. It is imperative to take into account the size of the target, the shooting position (prone, kneeling, standing, from unstable positions), even the thickness of clothing (when zeroing the rifle).

The aiming line passing from the shooter's eye through the top of the front sight, the top edge of the rear sight and the target is a straight line, while the trajectory of the bullet is an unevenly curved line downwards. The aiming line is located 2-3 cm above the barrel in the case of an open sight and much higher in the case of an optical sight.

In the simplest case, if the aiming line is horizontal, the bullet trajectory crosses the aiming line twice: on the ascending and descending parts of the trajectory. The weapon is usually zeroed (sights are adjusted) at the horizontal distance at which the downward part of the trajectory intersects the aiming line.

It may seem that there are only two distances to the target - where the trajectory intersects the line of sight - at which a hit is guaranteed. Thus, sports shooting is carried out at a fixed distance of 10 meters, at which the trajectory of the bullet can be considered linear.

For practical shooting (for example, hunting), the firing range is usually much greater and the curvature of the trajectory must be taken into account. But here the arrow plays into the hands of the fact that the dimensions of the target (killing place) in height in this case can reach 5-10 cm or more. If we choose such a horizontal shooting range for the weapon that the height of the trajectory at a distance does not exceed the height of the target (the so-called direct shot), then by aiming at the edge of the target, we will be able to hit it throughout the entire firing distance.

The range of a direct shot, at which the trajectory height does not rise above the aiming line above the target height, is very important characteristic any weapon, determining the flatness of the trajectory.
The aiming point is usually chosen to be the bottom edge of the target or its center. It is more convenient to aim under the bleed, when the entire target is visible when aiming.

When shooting, it is usually necessary to introduce vertical corrections if:

the target size is smaller than usual.
The shooting distance exceeds the zeroing distance of the weapon.
the firing distance is closer than the first point of intersection of the trajectory with the aiming line (typical for shooting with an optical sight).

Horizontal corrections usually have to be introduced during shooting in windy conditions or when shooting at a moving target. Typically, corrections for open sights are introduced by shooting with anticipation (moving the aiming point to the right or left of the target), and not by adjusting the sights.

External ballistics. Trajectory and its elements. Excess of the bullet's flight path above the aiming point. Path shape

External ballistics

External ballistics is a science that studies the movement of a bullet (grenade) after the action of powder gases on it ceases.

Having flown out of the barrel under the influence of powder gases, the bullet (grenade) moves by inertia. A grenade with a jet engine moves by inertia after the gases flow out of the jet engine.

Bullet trajectory (side view)

Formation of air resistance force

Trajectory and its elements

A trajectory is a curved line described by the center of gravity of a bullet (grenade) in flight.

When flying in the air, a bullet (grenade) is subject to two forces: gravity and air resistance. The force of gravity causes the bullet (grenade) to gradually lower, and the force of air resistance continuously slows down the movement of the bullet (grenade) and tends to overturn it. As a result of the action of these forces, the speed of the bullet (grenade) gradually decreases, and its trajectory is shaped like an unevenly curved curved line.

Air resistance to the flight of a bullet (grenade) is caused by the fact that air is an elastic medium and therefore part of the energy of the bullet (grenade) is expended on movement in this medium.

The force of air resistance is caused by three main reasons: air friction, the formation of vortices and the formation of a ballistic wave.

Air particles in contact with a moving bullet (grenade), due to internal cohesion (viscosity) and adhesion to its surface, create friction and reduce the speed of the bullet (grenade).

The layer of air adjacent to the surface of the bullet (grenade), in which the movement of particles varies from the speed of the bullet (grenade) to zero, is called the boundary layer. This layer of air, flowing around the bullet, breaks away from its surface and does not have time to immediately close behind the bottom part.

A rarefied space is formed behind the bottom of the bullet, resulting in a pressure difference between the head and bottom parts. This difference creates a force directed in the direction opposite to the movement of the bullet, and reduces its flight speed. Air particles, trying to fill the vacuum formed behind the bullet, create a vortex.

When flying, a bullet (grenade) collides with air particles and causes them to vibrate. As a result, the air density in front of the bullet (grenade) increases and sound waves are formed. Therefore, the flight of a bullet (grenade) is accompanied by a characteristic sound. When the speed of a bullet (grenade) is less than the speed of sound, the formation of these waves has little effect on its flight, since the waves propagate faster than the speed of the bullet (grenade). When the bullet's flight speed is greater than the speed of sound, the sound waves collide with each other to create a wave of highly compressed air - a ballistic wave that slows down the bullet's flight speed, since the bullet spends part of its energy creating this wave.

The resultant (total) of all forces generated as a result of the influence of air on the flight of a bullet (grenade) is the force of air resistance. The point of application of the resistance force is called the center of resistance.

The effect of air resistance on the flight of a bullet (grenade) is very great; it causes a decrease in the speed and range of a bullet (grenade). For example, a bullet arr. 1930, with a throwing angle of 15° and an initial speed of 800 m/sec in airless space, it would fly to a distance of 32,620 m; the flight range of this bullet under the same conditions, but in the presence of air resistance, is only 3900 m.

The magnitude of the air resistance force depends on the flight speed, shape and caliber of the bullet (grenade), as well as on its surface and air density.

The force of air resistance increases with increasing bullet speed, caliber and air density.

At supersonic bullet flight speeds, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of air compaction in front of the warhead (ballistic wave), bullets with an elongated pointed head are advantageous. At subsonic flight speeds of a grenade, when the main cause of air resistance is the formation of rarefied space and turbulence, grenades with an elongated and narrowed tail section are advantageous.

The effect of air resistance on the flight of a bullet: CG - center of gravity; CS - center of air resistance

The smoother the surface of the bullet, the less strength friction and air resistance force.

The variety of shapes of modern bullets (grenades) is largely determined by the need to reduce the force of air resistance.

Under the influence of initial disturbances (shocks) at the moment the bullet leaves the barrel, an angle (b) is formed between the axis of the bullet and the tangent to the trajectory, and the force of air resistance acts not along the axis of the bullet, but at an angle to it, trying not only to slow down the movement of the bullet, but and knock it over.

To prevent the bullet from tipping over under the influence of air resistance, it is given a rapid rotational movement using rifling in the barrel bore.

For example, when fired from a Kalashnikov assault rifle, the rotation speed of the bullet at the moment it leaves the barrel is about 3000 rpm.

When a rapidly rotating bullet flies through the air, the following phenomena occur. The force of air resistance tends to turn the bullet head up and back. But the head of the bullet, as a result of rapid rotation, according to the property of the gyroscope, tends to maintain its given position and will not deviate upward, but very slightly in the direction of its rotation at a right angle to the direction of the air resistance force, i.e. to the right. As soon as the head of the bullet deviates to the right, the direction of action of the air resistance force will change - it tends to turn the head of the bullet to the right and back, but the rotation of the head of the bullet will not occur to the right, but down, etc. Since the action of the air resistance force is continuous, but its direction relative to the bullet changes with each deviation of the bullet’s axis, then the head of the bullet describes a circle, and its axis is a cone with its apex at the center of gravity. The so-called slow conical, or precessional, movement occurs, and the bullet flies with its head forward, i.e., as if following the change in the curvature of the trajectory.

Slow conical bullet motion

Derivation (top view of trajectory)

The effect of air resistance on the flight of a grenade

The axis of slow conical motion lags somewhat behind the tangent to the trajectory (located above the latter). Consequently, the bullet collides with the air flow more with its lower part and the axis of slow conical movement deviates in the direction of rotation (to the right with a right-hand rifling of the barrel). The deviation of a bullet from the firing plane in the direction of its rotation is called derivation.

Thus, the reasons for derivation are: the rotational movement of the bullet, air resistance and a decrease in the tangent to the trajectory under the influence of gravity. In the absence of at least one of these reasons, there will be no derivation.

In shooting tables, derivation is given as a direction correction in thousandths. However, when shooting from small arms, the amount of derivation is insignificant (for example, at a distance of 500 m it does not exceed 0.1 thousandths) and its influence on the shooting results is practically not taken into account.

The stability of the grenade in flight is ensured by the presence of a stabilizer, which allows the center of air resistance to be moved back, beyond the center of gravity of the grenade.

As a result, the force of air resistance turns the axis of the grenade to a tangent to the trajectory, forcing the grenade to move forward with its head.

To improve accuracy, some grenades are given a slow rotation due to the outflow of gases. Due to the rotation of the grenade, the moments of force deflecting the axis of the grenade act sequentially in different directions, so shooting improves.

To study the trajectory of a bullet (grenade), the following definitions are adopted.

The center of the muzzle of the barrel is called the take-off point. The departure point is the beginning of the trajectory.

Path elements

The horizontal plane passing through the point of departure is called the horizon of the weapon. In drawings showing the weapon and trajectory from the side, the horizon of the weapon appears as a horizontal line. The trajectory crosses the horizon of the weapon twice: at the point of departure and at the point of impact.

The straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the barrel of the aimed weapon, is called the elevation line.

The vertical plane passing through the elevation line is called the shooting plane.

The angle between the elevation line and the horizon of the weapon is called the elevation angle. If this angle is negative, then it is called the declination (decrease) angle.

The straight line, which is a continuation of the axis of the barrel bore at the moment the bullet leaves, is called the throwing line.

The angle between the throwing line and the horizon of the weapon is called the throwing angle.

The angle between the elevation line and the throwing line is called the launch angle.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the weapon's horizon is called the point of impact.

The angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the horizon of the weapon is called the angle of incidence.

The distance from the point of departure to the point of impact is called the total horizontal range.

The speed of the bullet (grenade) at the point of impact is called the final speed.

The time of movement of a bullet (grenade) from the point of departure to the point of impact is called the total flight time.

The highest point of the trajectory is called the trajectory vertex.

The shortest distance from the top of the trajectory to the horizon of the weapon is called the trajectory height.

The part of the trajectory from the departure point to the top is called the ascending branch; the part of the trajectory from the top to the falling point is called the descending branch of the trajectory.

The point on or off the target at which the weapon is aimed is called the aiming point.

A straight line running from the shooter's eye through the middle of the sight slot (level with its edges) and the top of the front sight to the aiming point is called the aiming line.

The angle between the elevation line and the aiming line is called the aiming angle.

The angle between the aiming line and the horizon of the weapon is called the target elevation angle. The target's elevation angle is considered positive (+) when the target is above the weapon's horizon, and negative (-) when the target is below the weapon's horizon. The elevation angle of the target can be determined using instruments or using the thousandths formula.

The distance from the departure point to the intersection of the trajectory with the aiming line is called the aiming range.

The shortest distance from any point on the trajectory to the aiming line is called the excess of the trajectory above the aiming line.

The straight line connecting the departure point to the target is called the target line. The distance from the departure point to the target along the target line is called slant range. When firing direct fire, the target line practically coincides with the aiming line, and the slant range coincides with the aiming range.

The point of intersection of the trajectory with the surface of the target (ground, obstacle) is called the meeting point.

The angle between the tangent to the trajectory and the tangent to the surface of the target (ground, obstacle) at the meeting point is called the meeting angle. The meeting angle is taken to be the smaller of the adjacent angles, measured from 0 to 90°.

The trajectory of a bullet in the air has the following properties:

The descending branch is shorter and steeper than the ascending one;

The angle of incidence is greater than the angle of throwing;

The final speed of the bullet is less than the initial speed;

The lowest flight speed of a bullet when shooting at large throwing angles is on the downward branch of the trajectory, and when shooting at small throwing angles - at the point of impact;

The time it takes a bullet to travel along the ascending branch of the trajectory is less than along the descending branch;

The trajectory of a rotating bullet due to the lowering of the bullet under the influence of gravity and derivation is a line of double curvature.

Grenade trajectory (side view)

The trajectory of a grenade in the air can be divided into two sections: active - the flight of the grenade under the influence of reactive force (from the point of departure to the point where the action of the reactive force stops) and passive - the flight of the grenade by inertia. The shape of a grenade's trajectory is approximately the same as that of a bullet.

Path shape

The shape of the trajectory depends on the elevation angle. With increasing elevation angle, the height of the trajectory and the full horizontal flight range of the bullet (grenade) increase, but this happens before known limit. Beyond this limit, the trajectory altitude continues to increase, and the total horizontal range begins to decrease.

Corner longest range, flat, mounted and conjugate trajectories

The elevation angle at which the total horizontal flight range of a bullet (grenade) becomes greatest is called the angle of greatest range. The value of the angle of greatest range for bullets various types weapons is about 35°.

Trajectories obtained at elevation angles less than the angle of greatest range are called flat. Trajectories obtained at elevation angles greater than the angle of greatest range are called hinged.

When firing from the same weapon (at the same initial speeds), you can get two trajectories with the same horizontal range: flat and mounted. Trajectories that have the same horizontal range at different elevation angles are called conjugate.

When firing from small arms and grenade launchers, only flat trajectories are used. The flatter the trajectory, the greater the area over which the target can be hit with one sight setting (the less impact errors in determining the sight setting have on the shooting results); This is the practical significance of the flat trajectory.

Excess of the bullet's flight path above the aiming point

The flatness of the trajectory is characterized by its greatest elevation above the line of sight. At a given range, the trajectory is flatter the less it rises above the aiming line. In addition, the flatness of the trajectory can be judged by the magnitude of the angle of incidence: the smaller the angle of incidence, the more flat the trajectory.